?, Ed. Transactions of the 13th Caribbean Geological Conference, Pinar del Rio, Cuba , August 10-14, 1992.
	
? (1985). Mapa Geologico de Cuba (Geologic Map of Cuba). La Habana, Cuba, Ministerio de la Industria Basica.
	
? (1989). New National Atlas of Cuba (Nuevo Atlas Nacional de Cuba), Academia de Ciencias de Cuba, Instituto de Geografia.
	
?, Ed. (2002). 16th Caribbean Geological Conference, June 16th-21st, 2002, Barbados, West Indies - Abstracts. Barbados, West Indies, Government Printing Department.
	
Aalto, K. R. and R. F. Dill (1996). "Late Pleistocene stratigraphy of a carbonate platform margin, Exumas, Bahamas." Sedimentary Geology 103(1-2): 129-143.
	
Abbott, R. N., Jr. and G. Draper (2002). Retrograded eclogite in the Cuaba amphibolite of the Rio San Juan Complex, Northern Hispaniola. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 97-106.
	
Abbott, R. N., et al. (1997). "Metamorphic conditions in the Westphalia Schists of the Blue Mountain Inlier, Jamaica: Tectonic implications." International Geology Reviews 38: 1143-1154.
	
Abbott, R. N., et al. (1999). "The serpentinization of peridotite from Cedar Valley,  Jamaica." International Geology Reviews 41: 836-844.
	
Ablewhite, K. and G. E. Higgins (1968). A review of Trinidad, West Indies, oil development and the accumulations at the Soldado, Brighton Marine, Grand Ravine, Barrackpore-Penal and Guayaguayre. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad & Tobago. J. B. Saunders. Arima, Caribbean Printers: 41-74.
	
Abouin, J. and J. Azema (1980). "A propos de'l origne de la plaque Caribe, la face Pacifique de L'Amerique Central (A theory of the origin of the Caribbean plate, the Pacific side of Central America)." Comptes Rendu de l'Academie de Sciences 291(2): 33-37.
	
Abrams, L. J. and M. Hu (2000). Depth to volcanic basement at Site 999, Kogi Rise, Colombian Basin. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Caribbean Ocean history and the  Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary event; covering Leg 165 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Miami, Florida, to San Juan Puerto Rico, sites 998-1002, 19 December 1995-17 February 1996,. R. M. Leckie, H. Sigurdsson, G. D. Acton et al. College Station, TX, Texas A & M University, Ocean Drilling Program. 165: 219-224.
	
Abratis, M. and G. Worner (2001). "Ridge collision, slab-window formation, and the flux of Pacific asthenosphere into the Caribbean realm." Geology 29(2): 127-130.
	
Acosta, F. and E. Obando (1984). Desarrollo estructural del extremo sur del Valle Medio del Magdalena (Structural development of the extreme south of the Middle Valley of Magdalena). Reconocimiento Geologico. F. E. Acosta. Bogota, Colombia, Asociacion Colombiana de Geologos y Geofisicos del Petroleo. XXIII: 1-25.
	
Acton, G. D., et al. (2000). Late Quaternary stratigraphy and sedimentation at Site 1002, Cariaco Basin (Venezuela). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Caribbean Ocean history and the  Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary event; covering Leg 165 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Miami, Florida, to San Juan Puerto Rico, sites 998-1002, 19 December 1995-17 February 1996,. R. M. Leckie, H. Sigurdsson, G. D. Acton et al. College Station, TX, Texas A & M University, Ocean Drilling Program. 165: 149-173.
	
Acton, G. D., et al. (2000). Paleolatitude of the Caribbean Plate since the Late Cretaceous. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. P. e. Garman. 165: 149-173.
	We used paleomagnetic results from Sites 998, 999, 1000, and 1001 to estimate the paleolatitude of the Caribbean region over the past 80 m.y. The data include remanence measurements of split-core sections (typically 1.5 m long) and discrete samples (6-12 cm (super 3) in volume) from volcanic and sedimentary rocks. From these, we computed 15 new paleolatitude estimates for Sites 999 and 1001 on the Caribbean plate and three new paleolatitude estimates for Site 998 on the Cayman Rise, currently on the southern North American plate. One estimate from Site 1001 is based on 230 measurements made along split-core sections of basalt after demagnetization of 20-25 mT. The other 17 estimates are based on principal component analysis of demagnetization data from 438 discrete paleomagnetic samples from sedimentary units. Where necessary, the 18 new paleolatitude estimates are corrected for a polarity ambiguity bias that occurs when averaging paleomagnetic data from drill cores that have shallow inclinations and are not azimuthally oriented. We also investigated the contribution of additional biases that may arise from a compaction-related inclination error, which could affect the sedimentary units, though not the basalt units. Several lines of evidence, including the lack of a correlation between porosity (or water content) and inclination, indicate that the inclination error is small, if present at all. The results from Sites 999 and 1001 indicate that the Caribbean plate was 5 degrees -15 degrees south of its current position at approximately 80 Ma, possibly placing it directly over the equator in the Late Cretaceous. Although the data do not preclude changes in the rate of northward motion over the past 80 m.y., they are consistent with a constant northward progression at a rate of 18 km/m.y. Given the uncertainties in the data, rates of northward motion could be as low as 8 km/m.y. or as high as 22 km/m.y. These results are compatible with several existing models for the evolution of the Caribbean plate, including those that have the Caribbean plate originating in the Pacific Ocean west of subduction zones active in the Central American region during the Cretaceous, and those that have the Caribbean plate originating within the Central American region, though more than 1000 km west of its current position relative to North and South America.

Adamek, S., et al. (1988). "Seismicity of the Caribbean-Nazca microplate boundary: Constraints on microplate tectonics of the Panama region." Journal of Geophysical Research 93(B3): 2053-2075.
	
Adamek, S. and F. Tajima (1987). "Seismic rupture associated with subduction of the Cocos Ridge." Tectonics 6(6): 757-774.
	
Adamek, S. H. (1986). Earthquake studies in the Panama-Costa Rica Region. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 211.
	
Adamovich, A. and Chejovich (1963). Levantamiento geologico de la Sierra de Nipe - Cristal (Geologic uplif of La Sierra de Nipe - Cristal). Habana, Cuba, Archivo Geologico Nacional.
	
Adamovich, A. F. and V. Chejovich (1964). "Principal characteristics of the geology and the useful minerals of the northeast region of Oriente Province." Revista Tecnológica 2(1): 14-20.
	
Adatte, T., et al. (1996). "Paleoceanographic changes at the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary in the Western Tethys, northeastern Mexico." Cretaceous Research 17(6): 671-689.
	
Adey, W., et al. (1977). Field guidebook to the reefs and reef communities of St. Croix, Virgin Islands. Miami, Atlantic Reef Committee, University of Miami.
	
Adey, W. H. (1975). "Algal ridges and coral reefs of St. Croix:  Their structure and Holocene development." Atoll Research Bulletin 187: 1-67.
	
Adey, W. H. (1977). Shallow water Holocene bioherms of the Caribbean Sea and West Indies. Proceedings, International Coral Reef Symposium, 3rd. Miami, Florida. 2: 21-24.
	
Aero Service Division Western Geophysical Company of America (?). Final Report Aeromagnetic Survey for Anschutz de Honduras, S. A. de C. V.: 33.
	
Agbu, P. A., et al. (1990). "Mineralogy and weathering of a Trinidad ultisol developed in porcellanite." Soil Science 149(5): 272-279.
	
Aggarwal, Y. (1983). "Seismic slip rates and earthquake rupture zones in the southern Caribbean:  Implications for plate motions and earthquake hazards in this region." Abstracts Caribbean Geological Conference, 10th:  Cartagena, Colombia, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Mineras: 16.
	
Aggarwal, Y. P. (1986). Evolution of the Southern Caribbean since Early Miocene. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 261-264.
	
Aggarwal, Y. P., et al. (1983). Contemporary tectonics of the Venezuelan Andes and northern Colombia. 10th Caribbean Geologic Conference, Cartagena, Colombia: 16-17.
	
Agostini, S., et al. (2006). "Tectonic and magmatic evolution of the active volcanic front in El Salvador; insight into the Berlin and Ahuachapan geothermal areas." Geothermics 35(4): 368-408.
	In El Salvador, Central America, active deformation takes the form of a major dextral strike-slip fault system, the El Salvador Fault Zone, resulting from the oblique subduction of the Cocos Plate. The fault system is laterally discontinuous, being subdivided into different major en-echelon segments that partially overlap to form pull-apart structures. Volcanic activity is spatially confined to the fault segments and absent in the intervening pull-apart basins; no significant temporal gap exists in the erupted products, at least during the Plio-Quaternary. Detailed analyses within the geothermal fields of Berlin and Ahuachapan have revealed important volcano-structural and petrologic differences between the two areas. In the Berlin area active deformation is controlled by the regional transcurrent stress field, resulting in the development of systems of right-lateral E-W-trending strike-slip faults. Conversely, the structural setting of the Ahuachapan area is more complex, reflecting an interaction among different stress fields. Berlin products exhibit a marked geochemical and isotopic homogeneity indicating the presence of a single magmatic system. At Ahuachapan, on the other hand, the rocks display significant variations in both Sr isotopes and the LILE/HFSE ratios: this area is characterized by multiple volcanic centres, fed by different magma batches that reach the surface without reciprocal interactions in shallow reservoirs. Thus, the characteristics of the volcanic products at Berlin and Ahuachapan reflect their different tectonic settings, with important implications for geothermal investigations.

Aguilar, A. and J. Fernández (1989). "Technical note: Convention of technical assistance of RECOPE-PCIAC." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 10.
	
Aguilar, T. (1987). "Comparison between the malacologic fauna of the prinicipal formations of the marine Pliocene of Costa Rica, Central America." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 6.
	
Aguilar, T. and G. Soto (1989). "Annual report for the Costa Rican committee for the International Geological Correlation Project (IGCP)." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 10.
	
Aguilar, T. and G. Soto (1990). "Annual report of the Costa Rican committee for the International Geological Correlaton Project (IGCP)." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 11.
	
Aguilar, T. and G. Soto (1991). "Technical note, 1990 annual report of the Costa Rican committee of the International Geologic Correlation Project (IGCP)." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 12.
	
Aguilar, T. and G. Soto (1992). "Technical note, 1991 annual report of the Costa Rica committee for the International Geologic Correlation Program (IGCP)." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 14.
	
Aguilar-Alvarez, A. T. (1978). Fauna From a Section of the Térraba Formation. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 84.
	
Aguilar-Díaz, A. (1984). Seismicity From September 3-9, 1980 and Its Relationship with the Geology of the Headwaters of Río Navarro, Cartago. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 168.
	
Ahmad, N. and R. L. Jones (1969). "Occurrence of aluminous lateritic soils (bauxites) in the Bahamas and Cayman Islands." Economic Geology 64: 804-808.
	
Ahmad, R. (1991). Structural styles in Trinidad. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 244-265.
	
Ahmad, R. (1991). Structural Styles In Trinidad - Field Trip Guide. Transactions of the 2nd Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad. K. A. Gillezeau: 244-265?
	
Ahmad, R. (1997). Hazard and Environmental Geology of Kingston and St.Andrew, Jamaica: Field Guide. Natural Hazards and Hazard Management in the Greater Caribbean and Latin America (Proceedings of the Second Caribbean Conference on Natural Hazards and Disasters. Kingston, Jamaica, 9-12 October 1996). R. Ahmad. Kingston 7, Jamaica, Unit for Diasater Studies, The University of the West Indies, Mona. 3: ?
	
Ahmad, R. (1998). "Physical environment and geohazards in Kingston, St. Andrew and St. Thomas, Jamaica." Contributions to Geology, UWI, Mona (15th Caribbean Geological Conference, 29 June- 2 July 1998, Kingston, Jamaica) 3: pp. 22-28.
	
Ahmad, R., et al. (1986). The development of successive structures in the Mount Dillon Formation of Tobago, West Indies. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 40-52.
	
Ahmad, R., et al. (1998). Landslide Hazard Mitigation and Loss-reduction for the Kingston Jamaica Metropolitan Area: Field Guide, 27 January 1999. Kingston 7, Jamaica, Unit for Diasater Studies, The University of the West Indies, Mona.
	
Ahmad, R. and T. A. Jackson (1986). Field Guide: Western margin of Wagwater Fault and geology of Stileman 's River quadrangle.
	
Ahmad, R., et al. (1993). "Morphology and sedimentation in Caribbean montane streams:  Examples from Jamaica and Puerto Rico." Sedimentary Geology 85(1-4): 157-169.
	
Aitken, B. G. and L. M. Echeverria (1984). "Petrology and geochemistry of komatiites from Gorgona Island Colombia." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 86: 94-105.
	
Aitken, T. (2005). Cenozoic Stratigraphic and Tectonic History of the Grenada and Tobago Basins as Determined From Marine Seismic Data, Wells, and Onland Geology. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 89.
	
Alan, M. A. and R. Fischer (1982). "Primer hallazgo de branquiopodos en Costa Rica (Liothrella Inexpectata n. sp.; Oligoceno) (First discovery of branchiopods in Costa Rica (Liothrella Inexpectata n. sp.; Oligocene))." Brenesia 19/20: 333-351.
	
Alaniz-Alvarez, S. A. and A. F. Nieto-Samaniego (2007). The Taxco-San Miguel de Allende fault system and the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt; two tectonic boundaries in central Mexico active during the Cenozoic. Geology of Mexico; celebrating the centenary of the Geological Society of Mexico. S. A. Alaniz-Alvarez and A. F. Nieto-Samaniego. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 422: 301-316.
	The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt has been recognized as a major volcanic arc, which crosses Mexico from the Pacific Coast to the Gulf of Mexico, that has displayed normal faulting and volcanism since the Miocene. In this work we present the deformation events that have been recorded N and S of the belt in order to establish when the crustal discontinuity originated and also to determine the deformation field precursor of the volcanic arc emplacement. In Mesa Central, the post-Laramide deformation occurred in three extensional events during the Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene-Recent. The three events produced extension in two horizontal directions and shortening in a vertical direction. The direction of the principal extension in the Eocene is not well known. A 20% extension in an approximately ENE-WSW direction is recorded for the Oligocene event. The most recent event, active since the middle Miocene, has developed in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and along its northern boundary. In the Sierra Madre Oriental, Cenozoic deformation has been minimal. In the Taxco region, there were two post-Laramide deformation events, mainly a result of NW-SE and N-S lateral faults. The first one occurred in the late Eocene with a NNW-SSE horizontal extension direction. The second event was early Oligocene with a maximum extension to the NE-SW. It is concluded that since the Eocene, the deformation style has been different in Mesa Central and in the Sierra Madre del Sur, which implies the presence of a detachment zone between these provinces.

Alanizalvarez, S. A., et al. (1996). "Radiometric and kinematic evidence for Middle Jurassic strike-slip faulting in southern Mexico related to the opening of the Gulf of Mexico." Geology 24(5): 443-446.
	
Alán-Mora, M. A. (1983). Geology of Laterites in the Extreme Northeast of the Valle de El General, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 166.
	
Albear, J. F., et al. (1978). Contribución a la geología de las provincias de La Habana y Ciudad de la Habana (Contribution to the Geology of the Provinces of La Habana and the City of La Habana). La Habana, Cuba, Editorial Científico-Técnica: 1-155.
	
Albear, J. F. d. (1947). "Stratigraphic paleontology of Camaguey District, Cuba." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 31: 71-91.
	
Albear, J. F. d. and M. A. Iturralde-Vinent (1978). Structural stages in the territory of the Habana provinces. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincias de la Habana y Ciudad de la Habana (Contributions to the Geology of Habana and Habana City Provinces). Anonymous. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 77-86.
	
Albear, J. F. d. and M. A. Iturralde-Vinent (1978). Structural-facies zonation of the Habana provinces. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincias de la Habana y Ciudad de la Habana (Contributions to the Geology of Habana and Habana City Provinces). Anonymous. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 68-76.
	
Albear, J. F. d. and M. A. Iturralde-Vinent (1978). Tectonic position of the gabbro-peridotite complex in the Habana provinces. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincias de la Habana y Ciudad de la Habana (Contributions to the Geology of Habana and Habana City Provinces). Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 87-92.
	
Albear, J. F. d. and M. A. Iturralde-Vinent (1985). Stratigraphy of the Habana provinces. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincias de la Habana y Ciudad de la Habana (Contributions to the Geology of Habana and Habana City Provinces). Anonymous. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 12-54.
	
Albear, J. F. d., et al. (1978). Rosario Formation: redescription and micropaleontological study. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincias de la Habana y Ciudad de la Habana (Contributions to the Geology of Habana and Habana City Provinces). Anonymous. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 59-67.
	
Albear, J. F. d. and R. Myczynski (1984). "Ammonites in the Rio Piedras conglomerate, Cuba." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(9): 117-123.
	
Albear, J. F. d. and J. Piotrowski (1984). "The San Adrian gypsum enclave: Observations on its geologic-tectonic evolution." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(9): 17-30.
	
Albear-Fránquiz, J. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (1985). Estratigrafia de las provincias de La Habana (Stratigraphy of the provinces of La Habana). Contribucion a la Geologia de las provincias de La Habana y Ciudad de La Habana. Instituto de Geologia Paleontologia. La Habana, Editorial Científico-Técnica: 12-54.
	
Alberdi, M., et al. (1994). Geochemical characterization of the stratgraphic column in the western Venezuelan Basin. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 411-412.
	
Alcalá, L. (1992). Mene Grande Field - Venezuela, Maracaibo Basin, western Venezuela. Stratigraphic Traps III. N. H. Foster and E. A. Beaumont. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. III: 189-205.
	
Alcorn, S. R. (1981). Mineralogy, Petrology, And Evolution Of A Calc-Alkaline Igneous Sequence, Cerros De Tilaran, Puntarenas, Costa Rica. Dept. of Geology, University of Georgia.
	
Aldrich, M. J., Jr., et al. (1991). "Structural geology and stress history of the Platanares geothermal site, Honduras:  Implications on the tectonics of the northwestern Caribbean plate boundary." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 45: 59-69.
	
Alegret, L., et al. (2005). "Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary deposits at Loma Capiro, central Cuba: Evidence for the Chicxulub impact." Geology Boulder 33(9): 721-724.
	A newly discovered Upper Cretaceous to lower Paleogene section at Loma Capiro (central Cuba) has provided new evidence for a Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary age for the Chicxulub impact. The studied sediments at Loma Capiro consist of a foraminifera-rich marl and sandstone hemipelagic sequence, and a 9.6-m-thick intercalated clastic complex. Planktic foraminifera indicate an upper Maastrichtian age for the sediments below the clastic complex and a lowermost Danian age for those just above this complex. Small benthic foraminifera from below and above the clastic complex indicate deposition at middle to lower bathyal depths. The fining-upward clastic complex consists of a basal breccia that is overlain by microconglomerates and coarse- to fine-grained sandstones. The clastic complex contains reworked foraminifera from different ages and different paleoenvironments and, toward the top, impact material such as altered microtektites, shocked quartz, terrestrial chondrules, and accretionary lapilli. These microfacies suggest deposition from gravity flows that eroded sediments from upper-slope and shelf settings and redeposited them in deeper bathyal environments. We suggest that the origin of the clastic complex may be linked to the collapse of the Cuban platform, triggered by the Cretaceous-Paleogene impact at Chicxulub.

Algar, S. (1993). Structure, Stratigraphy, and Thermo-chronologic Evolution of Trinidad. Department of Earth Sciences. Hanover, New Hampshire, Dartmouth College: 430.
	
Algar, S. (1998). Tectonostratigraphic development of the Trinidad region. Paleogeographic Evolution and Non-glacial Eustacy: North America. J. L. Pindell and C. Drake. Tulsa OK, Society for Sedimentary Geology. 58: 87-109.
	
Algar, S., et al. (1998). Fission-track dating in Trinidad: Implications for provenance, depositional timing and tectonic uplift. Paleogeographic Evolution and Non-glacial Eustacy: North America. J. L. Pindell and C. Drake. Tulsa OK, Society for Sedimentary Geology. 58: 111-128.
	
Algar, S. T. (1993). Controls on Jurassic through Early Tertiary sedimentary in Trinidad. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region:  A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration. J. L. Pindell and R. F. Perkins, Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation: 221-235.
	
Algar, S. T. and J. L. Pindell (1991). Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Toco region of the Northern Range of Trinidad. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, April 3-8, 1990. K. A. Gillezeau: 59-69.
	
Algar, S. T. and J. L. Pindell (1991). Structural development of the Northern Range of Trinidad, and implications for the tectonic evolution of the southeastern Caribbean. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 6-22.
	
Algar, S. T. and J. L. Pindell (1993). "Structure and deformation history of the northern range of Trinidad and adjacent areas." Tectonics 12(4): 814-829.
	
Alguilar, T. (1984). "Presence of sponges (Porifera) in the Oligocene of Costa Rica (Valle Central)." Geological Magazine of Central America 1.
	
Alguilar, T. (1990). "Evolution of mollusc communities and their relation with the geologic development of southern Central America." Geological Magazine of Central America 11.
	
Ali, W., et al., Eds. (1998). Transactions of the 14th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, July 16-21, 1995, Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago.
	
Alioshin, V. and et al. (1975). Mapa geológico escala 1:50 000 de la parte central de la Sierra Maestra (cordillera norte) (Geologic Map Scale 1:50000 of the Central Part of the Sierra Maestra (north cordillera)). La Habana, Cuba, Centro Nacional del Fondo Geológico, Minbas.
	
Alison, G. B. and P. F. Farfan (1989). Case history of the gas-condensate Cassia Field, offshore Trinidad. Proceedings of the 21st Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, TX, May 1-4, 1989. J. Key. 21 (Vol. 1): 141-146.
	
Allan, J. F. and I. S. E. Carmichael (1984). "Lamprophyric lavas in the Colima graben, SW Mexico." Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 88: 203-216.
	
Allan, J. F., et al. (1991). Pliocene-Holocene rifting and associated volcanism in Southwest Mexico: An exotic terrane in the making. The Gulf and Peninsular Province of the Californias. J. P. Dauphin and B. R. T. Simoneit. College Station, TX, Texas A&M University, Ocean Drilling Program. 47: 425-445.
	
Allison, K. R. and R. E. Church (2000). "Caribbean's Saba Bank area might hold pre-Eocene potential." Oil and Gas Journal 98(40): 46, 48, 50, 52.
	
Allison, R. and R. E. Church (2000). "Petroleum potential of the NE Caribbean (Saba Bank)." Oil and Gas Journal October 2, 2000: 46-52.
	
Almeida, F. F. N. (1978). Explanatory note to Tectonic Map of South America, 1:5,000,000. Brasilia, DNPM-CGMW-UNESCO.
	
Alminas, H. V. and E. L. Mosier (1972). A Geochemical Study of the Rio Pantanos Area, Department of Antioquia, Colombia, U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
	
Almy, C., Jr. (1969). "Sedimentation and tectonism in the Upper Cretaceous Puerto Rican portion of the Caribbean island arc." Transactions of the Gulf Coast Association of Geological Sciences 19: 269-279.
	
Almy, C. and C. Carrion-Torres (1963). "Shallow water stony corals of Puerto Rico." Caribbean Journal of Science 3: 133-162.
	
Almy, C. C. (1965). Parguera Limestone, Upper Cretaceous Mayagüez Grou, Southwest Puerto Rico. Department of Geology and Geophysics. Houston, Texas, Rice University: ?
	
Alonso, R. M., et al. (1987). Post-early Pliocene age of the Puerto Rico Trench. Transactions of the Tenth Caribbean Geological Conference, August 14-20, 1983. H. Duque-Caro. Cartagena, Columbia: 82-103.
	
Alpha, T. R. (1972). Physiographic Diagrams for Ventura-Oxnard Offshore, Astoria Canyon and Fan, Newport, Northern Bering Sea, the Aleutian-Kamchatka Convergence, Caribbean Arc-Hispaniola to Guadaloupe, Bahia de Campeche, British Honduras, and Venezuelan Borderland. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey: ?
	
Alsina de la Nuez, P., et al. (1968). "Geologic considerations about possibilities of commercial hydrocarbon production in the area of Cauto." Revista Tecnológica 6(1, 2): ???-???
	
Alva Valdivia, L. M., et al. (2000). "Paleomagnetic data from the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt: implications for tectonics and volcanic stratigraphy." Earth Planets and Space 52(7): 467-478.
	
Alvarado, G. (1986). "Evidence for large mammal fossils in Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 4.
	
Alvarado, G. E. (1988). "Centroamérica y las Antillas: Puente, barrera y filtro biológico entre norte y Sudamérica (Cretácico al Presente) (Central America and the Antilles: Point, barrior, and biologic filter between north and south America (Cretaceous to the Present))." GEOISTMO II(1): 9-25.
	
Alvarado, G. E., et al. (1986). Relacion entre la neotectonica y el vulcanismo en Costa Rica (Relation between the neotectonism and volcanism in Costa Rica). Simposia Internacional sobre Neotectonica y Riesgos volcanicos: ??
	
Alvarado, G. E., et al. (1988). "Sintesis geovulcanologica del arenal (Costa Rica): 20 años de continua actividad eruptiva (1968-1988) (Geovolcanologic synthesis of the desert (Costa Rica): 20 years of continuous eruptive activity)." Boletin del Observatorio Vulcanological del Arenal 1(1): 1-49.
	
Alvarado, G. E., et al. (1988). "Aspectos sismologicos y morfotectonicos en el extremo occidental de la cordillera volcanica central de Costa Rica (Seismologic and morphotectonic aspects of the western extreme of the central volcanic cordillera of Costa Rica)." Revista Geologica de America Central 9: 75-98.
	
Alvarado, G. E., et al. (1980). Mapa del Vulcanismo Plio - pleistoceno (Map of Plio-Pleistocene Volcanism). Costa Rica, Universidad de Costa Rica.
	
Alvarado, M. E. (1991). "Modern fan deltas in Golfito Bay, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 12.
	
Alvarado, R. (1979). Estudio Geologico de los Rios Cañablancal, Retinto y Alrededores, Canton de Osa, Palmar, Provincia Puntarenas, Costa Rica (Geologic Study of the Cañablancal, Retinto y Alrededores Rivers, Canton de Osa, Palmar, Provincia Puntarenas, Costa Rica). University of Costa Rica School of Geology: 41.
	
Alvarado, R. and G. Dengo (1986). Informe preliminar de la zona de fallas de Polochic en el area del desarrollo hidorelectrico Pueblo Viejo-Quixal (Preliminary report of the Polochic fault zone in the area of the Pueblo Viejo-Quixal hydroelectro development), Instituto Nacional de Electrificación planta hidroelectrica Pueblo Viejo-Quixal: 49.
	
Alvarado, R. B. (1972). Photogeomorphic Analysis of Northern Basin, Trinidad. Department of Geosciences. University Park, PA, Pennsylvania State University: unknown p.
	
Alvarado-Campos, M. E. (1982). Sedimentological Studies of the Pacacua Formation (Miocene), Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 185.
	
Alvarado-Induni, G. E. (1984). Petrologic-geologic Aspects of the Volcanoes and Lava Units of the Upper Cenozoic of Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 183.
	
Alvarado-Induni, G. E. (1985). "Consideraciones petrologicas de los estratovolcanes de Costa Rica (Petrologic considerations of the stratovolcanos of Costa Rica)." Revista Geologica de America Central 3: 103-128.
	
Alvarado-Omana, M. A. (1986). Gravity and Crustal Structure of the South-central Gulf of Mexico, the Yucatan Peninsula, and Adjacent Areas, From 17°30'N to 26°N and From 84°W to 93°W. Department of Geosciences. Corvallis, Oregon, Oregon State University: 76.
	
Alvarado-Valverde, R. (1983). Geologic Reconnaissance of the Middle Drainage of the Río Usumacinta with Investigation of a Ppossible Dam Site Named "La Línea". Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 85.
	
Alvarado-Villalón, F. (1984). Structural Geology and Tectonics of the Southern Valle Central of Costa Rica (Tarbaca). Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 108.
	
Alvarez Sánchez, H. (1989). "La secuencia de las formaciones Pons, Ancón y Manacas en la parte central de la Sierra de los organos, Cuba (Inédito) (The sequence of the Pons, Ancon and Manacas formations in the central part of the Sierra de los Organos, Cuba)."
	
Alvarez Sánchez, H. (1989). "Secuencia estratigráfica olistostromas y estructura de la depresión de San Diego. Implicaciones en la tectónica de la Sierra de los Organos (inédito) (Olistrome sequence stratigraphy and structure of the San Diego depression: Implications on the tectonics of the Sierra de los Organos)."
	
Alvarez, W. (2001). "Eastbound sublithospheric mantle flow through the Caribbean gap and its relevance to the continental undertow hypothesis." Terra Nova 13: 333-337.
	
Alvarez, W., et al. (1995). "Emplacement of cretaceous-tertiary boundary shocked quartz from Chicxulub crater." Science 269(5226): 930-935.
	
Alvarez-A., J. A. (1983). "Geologia de la Cordillera Central y el occidente colombiano y petroquimica de los intrusivos granitoides Mesocenozoicos (Geology of the Central Cordillera and western Colombia and petrochemisty of the Meso-Cenozoic granitoid intrusives)." Boletin Geologico, INGEOMINAS, Bogota (Colombia) 26(2): 175-?
	
Alvarez-Echeverría, F. (1982). Geology of Bustamante and Surrounding Areas, Province of San José, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 53.
	
Alvaro, D., et al. (1985). "Technical note: Computerized data base for tectonics and structural geology of Central America and the Caribbean (Tectobase)." Geological Magazine of Central America 3: ??
	
Alverza, J. A. (1983). "Geologia de la Cordillera Central y el occidente Colombiano y petroquimica de las intrusivas granitoides MesoCenozoicas (Geology of the Central Cordillera and the western Colombia and petrochemistry of the granitoid MesoCenozoic intrusives)." Colombain Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Gologico-Mineras, Boletin de Geologia 26(2): 1-175.
	
Alves, S., et al. (1999). "Rhenium-osmium isotopic investigation of Java subduction zone lavas." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 168(1-2): 65-77.
	
Amalberto, S., et al. (1987). "Technical note: Research on gold mining in Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 7: ??
	
Ambeh, W. B. (1994). "Natural hazards in the Caribbean region." Episodes 17(3): 60.
	
Ambeh, W. B. and L. L. Lynch (1993). "Coda Q in the eastern Caribbean, West Indies." Geophysical Journal International 112(3): 507-516.
	
Ambeh, W. B. and L. L. Lynch (1995). "The earthquake sequence of June 1992 near Saba, West Indies." Tectonophysics 246(4): 225-243.
	
Ambraseys, N. N. (1995). "Magnitudes of Central American earthquakes." Geophysical Journal International 121: 545-556.
	
Ambraseys, N. N. and R. D. Adams (1996). "Large-magnitude central American earthquakes, 1898-1994." Geophysical Journal International 127(3): 665-692.
	
Ambraseys, N. N. and R. D. Adams (2001). The Seismicity of Central America: A Descriptive Catalogue 1898-1995. London, Imperial College Press.
	
Ames, R. L. and L. M. Ross (1986). Petoleum geochemistry applied to oilfield development, offshore Trinidad. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 227-236.
	
Amilcar, H. (1997). Geologic Study of the Ouest Massif of La hotte (Haiti, Greater Antilles) with Land and Marine cadre. Geodynamic Implications (Etude géologique de l'Ouest du Massif de La Hotte (Haïti, Grandes Antilles) dans son cadre terrestre et marin. Implications géodynamiques). Toulouse, France, Université Paul-Sabatier (Toulouse-III): 295.
	
Amilcar-Cenatus, H. (1997). Sedimentary and Tectonic Study of the Plio-Quaternary Marine Terraces and the Eocene-Miocene Substratum of the la Presqu'ile du Nord-Ouest of the Island of  La Tortue, Haiti, Greater Antilles (Etude sédimentaire et tectonique des terrasses marines plio-quaternaires et de leur substratum éocène a miocene dans la Presqu'ile du Nord-Ouest de l'ile de La Tortue, Haiti, Grandes Antilles). Paris, France, Universite de Paris Sud (Orsay): 301.
	
Andel, T. H. v., et al. (1971). "Tectonics of the Panama Basin, eastern equatorial Pacific." GSA Bulletin 82: 1489-1508.
	
Ander, M. E., et al. (1991). "Regional gravity investigation of Honduras, Central America." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 45: 11-27.
	
Anderson, D. M. (1985). Geology of the Lepaterique Quadrangle, Honduras, Central America, Instituto Geográfico Nacional, Tegucigalpa, Honduras: 85.
	
Anderson, D. M. (1987). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, Lepaterique sheet, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Anderson, F. M. (1926). "Original source of oil in Colombia." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 10: 382-404.
	
Anderson, J. L. (1945). "Petroleum geology of Colombia, South America." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 29(8): 1065-1142.
	
Anderson, T. (1980). "The volcanoes of Guatemala." Geographic Journal 31: 482.
	
Anderson, T. H. (1969). Geology of the San Sebastian Huehuetenango Quadrangle, Guatemala, Central America. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 217.
	
Anderson, T. H., et al. (1973). "Geology of the western Altos Cuchumatanes, northwestern Guatemala." Geological Society of America Bulletin 84: 305-826.
	
Anderson, T. H., et al. (1985). "Late-Cretaceous allochthons and post-Cretaceous strike-slip displacement along the Cuilco-Chixoy-Polochic Fault, Guatemala." Tectonics 4: 453-475.
	
Anderson, T. H., et al. (1991). "A northwest trending, Jurassic fold nappe, northernmost Zacatecas, Mexico." Tectonics 10: 383-401.
	
Anderson, T. H., et al., Eds. (2005). The Mojave-Sonora Megashear Hypothesis: Development, Assessment, and Alternatives. Geological Society of America Special Paper. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Anderson, T. H. and V. A. Schmidt (1983). "A model of the evolution of Middle America and the Gulf of Mexico-Caribbean Sea region during Mesozoic time." Geological Society of America Bulletin 94: 941-966.
	
Anderson, T. H. and L. T. Silver (1979). The role of the Mojave-Sonora megashear in the tectonic evolution of northern Sonora (Field Trip 27). Geology of northern Sonora: Geological Society of America Annual Meeting, San Diego, California, Guidebook. T. H. Anderson and J. Roldán-Quintana, Geological Society of America Annual Meeting: 59–68.
	
Anderson, T. H. and L. T. Silver (1981). "An overview of Precambrian rocks in Sonora." Revista del Instituto de Geologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma Mexico 5: 131-139.
	
Anderson, W. A. (1990). Pre-Mesozoic paleogeologic map of Appalachian-Ouachita Orogen beneath Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains. The Appalachian-Ouachita Orogen in the United States. R. D. Hatcher, Jr., W. A. Thomas and G. W. Viele. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. F-2: Plate 6.
	
Andó, J., M. Kozak, Jakus, P., Y. Ríos (1988). "Desarrollo estructural del arco insular volcánico cretácico en la región de Holguín (Structural development of the Cretaceous volcanic insular arc in the region of Holguin)." Reviews de Minería y Geología 6(1): 33-55.
	
Ando, J., et al. (1996). Petrologia de la asociacion ofiolitica de Holguin (Petrology of the ophiolitic association of Holguin). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 154-176.
	
Andó, J. and M. Kozak (1987). "La serie ofiolítica de Holguín (Cuba) y su papel en el desarrollo estructural del Cretácico-Paleógeno (The ophiolitic series of Holguin (Cuba) and its role in the structural development of the Cretaceous-Paleogene)." Acta Fac. Ciencias de la Tierra(2): 271-274.
	
Andó, J., et al. (1989). "Nuevas formaciones metamórficas en la parte NO de Oriente (Cuba) (New metamorphic formations in the northern part of Oriente (Cuba))." Resúmenes y Programa, Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 111.
	
Andó, J., et al. (1989). "Caracterización general de la asociación ofiolítica de la zona  Holguín-Moa  y  el  papel de las ofiolitas en el desarrollo estructural de Cuba (General characterization of the ophiolitic association onf the Holguin-Moa zone and the role of ophiolites in the structural development of Cuba)." Reviews de Minería y Geología 7(1): 35-44.
	
Andrade, C. A., et al. (2003). "Evidence for an eastward flow along the Central and South American Caribbean Coast." Journal of Geophysical Research C: Oceans 108(6): 16-11 - 16-11.
	Hydrographic transects suggest an eastward flow with a subsurface core along the entire southern boundary of the Caribbean Sea. The transport of the coastal limb of the Panama-Colombia Gyre (PCG), known as the Panama-Colombia Countercurrent, decreases toward the east (from < similar-to >6 Sv off Panama), as water is lost into the recirculation of the PCG. Off Panama, the flow is strongest at the surface, but, off Colombia, it is strongest at around 100 m. A portion of the counterflow (< similar-to >1 Sv) continues eastward along the Colombian coast as far as the Guajira region (12< degrees >N, 72< degrees >W), where it submerges to become an undercurrent beneath the coastal upwelling center there. The eastward flow also occurs in the Venezuela Basin, beneath the coastal upwelling region off Cariaco Basin and exits the Caribbean through the Grenada Channel at around 200 m depth. Numerical simulations suggest that this flow, counter to the Caribbean Current, is a semi-continuous feature along the entire southern boundary of the Caribbean, and that it is associated with offshore cyclonic eddies. It probably constitutes part of the Sverdrup circulation of the Tropical North Atlantic cyclonic cell.

Andreani, L., et al. (2008). "The southern Mexico block: main boundaries and new estimation for its Quaternary motion " Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 179: 209-223.
	Numerous studies, mainly based on structural and paleomagnetic data, consider southern Mexico as a crustal block (southern Mexico block, SMB) uncoupled from the North American plate with a southeast motion with respect to North America, accommodated by extension through the central Trans-Mexican volcanic belt (TMVB). On the other hand, the accommodation of this motion on the southeastward boundary, especially at the Cocos–Caribbean–North American triple junction, is still debated. The boundary between the SMB and the North American plate is constituted by three connected zones of deformation: (1) left-lateral transtension across the central TMVB, (2) left-lateral strike-slip faulting along the eastern TMVB and Veracruz area and (3) reverse and left-lateral strike-slip faulting in the Chiapas area. We show that these three active deformation zones accommodate a counterclockwise rotation of the SMB with respect to the North American plate. We specially discuss the Quaternary motion of the SMB with respect to the surrounding plates near the Cocos–Caribbean–North American triple junction. The model we propose predicts a Quaternary counterclockwise rotation of 0.45°/Ma with a pole located at 24.2°N and 91.8°W. Finally we discuss the geodynamic implications of this counterclockwise rotation. The southern Mexico block motion is generally assumed to be the result of slip partitioning at the trench. However the obliquity of the subduction is too small to explain slip partitioning. The motion could be facilitated by the high thermal gradient and gravitational collapse that affects central Mexico and/or by partial coupling with the eastward motion of the Caribbean plate.

Andreani, L., et al. (2008). "The Neogene Veracruz fault: evidences for left-lateral slip along the southern Mexico block." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 179: 195-208.
	Structural data combined with analysis of satellite images and seismic profiles show that a major left-lateral strike-slip fault affects the Veracruz basin and post-5 Ma volcanic rocks of the Los Tuxtlas volcanic field (LTVF). The main volcanic alignment of the LTVF is located along this fault. Additional structural data collected in the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt (areas of Xalapa, Teziutlán and Huauchinango) show that the shear zone affects Pliocene Trans-Mexican volcanic rocks. Low seismicity associated to faulted Quaternary markers such as alluvial fans, alluvial terraces and volcanoes argue for active faulting in this area. Plio-Quaternary strike-slip faulting in the Veracruz basin and in the eastern Trans-Mexican volcanic belt is important because it connects two important structural provinces: the left-lateral strike-slip faults province to the south and the left-lateral transtensive faulting that affects the central part of the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt. These three active deformation zones constitute the boundary between the southern Mexico block and the North American plate. It is generally assumed that strike-slip faulting along the Trans-Mexican and Central America volcanic arcs is the result of oblique subduction of the Cocos plate under the North American and Caribbean plates. However slip vectors along the Middle America trench are almost perpendicular to the trench. This Neogene sinistral strike-slip motion could be partially driven by the eastward motion of the Caribbean plate rather than by strain partitioning along the oblique Middle America trench subduction zone.

Andreieff, P. (1985). "Stratigraphic age of Caribbean larger fominifera from Oligocene to Pliocene: State of knowledge in 1985." Editions Technip: 99-100.
	
Andresen, N., et al. (2003). "Timing and distribution of calciturbidites around a deeply submerged carbonate platform in a seismically active setting (Pedro Bank, Northern Nicaragua Rise, Caribbean Sea)." International Journal of Earth Sciences 92(4): 573-592.
	
Andrew, E. M. (1969). Gravity surveys in Jamaica: Great Britian Institute of Geological Sciences Geophysical Report no. GP/0/40. Unknown, Great Britian Institute of Geological Sciences: 32.
	
Andrew, E. M., et al. (1970). Gravity Anomalies in the Lesser Antilles:  Great Britian Institute of Geological Sciences Geophysical Paper No. 5. Unknown, Great Britian Institute of Geological Sciences: 21.
	
Andrews, W. (1985). Seismic Velocity and Seismic Stratigraphic Analysis of Multichannel Seismic Data From Exuma Sound, Bahamas, University of Delaware.
	
Angstadt, D. M. (1983). Seismic Stratigraphy and Geologic History of the Southeastern Gulf of MexicO/Southwestern Straits of Florida. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, Texas, The University of Texas at Austin: 206.
	
Angstadt, D. M., et al. (1983). "Deep-sea erosional unconformity in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico." Geology 11: 215-218.
	
Angstadt, D. M., et al. (1985). "Early Late Cretaceous to Holocene seismic stratigraphy and geologic history of southeastern Gulf of Mexico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 69(6): 977-995.
	
Angstadt, D. M., et al. (1985). "Seismic stratigraphy and geologic history of the southeastern Gulf of Mexico - southwestern Straits of Florida." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 69: 977-995.
	
Anonymous (19??). Final Report Aeromagnetic Survey for Anschutz de Honduras, S. A. de C. V., Aero Service Division, Western Geophysical Company of America: 33.
	
Anonymous (1941). Pinar del Rio Area, Cuba: Residual Gravity. New York, Gulf Research and Development Co.
	
Anonymous (1945). Gravity Meter Survey, Pinar del Rio Province. La Habana, Standard Oil Company of Cuba.
	
Anonymous (1948). Preliminary Map, Observed Aeromagnetic Intensity [Eastern concession area, Cuba]. New York, Gulf Research and Development Co.
	
Anonymous (1948). Preliminary Map, Observed Aeromagnetic Intensity [Western Concession Area, Cuba]. New York, Gulf Research and Development Co.
	
Anonymous, Ed. (1958). Transactions of the1st Caribbean Geological Conference, Antigua, December 5-8, 1955. Unknown, Unknown.
	
Anonymous, Ed. (1958). Transactions of the 1st Caribbean Geological Conference, Antigua, 5-8 Dec. 1955.
	
Anonymous (1969). Results of Detailed Investigations in the Azuero Area, Panama, United Nations Development Program: 1-89.
	
Anonymous (1970). Guidebook to the Geology of the Santa Elena Peninsula, Ecuadorian Geological and Geophysical Society.
	
Anonymous (1971). Reconnaissance, Geochemical Survey of Bocas del Toro, Maje, San Bals-Darien, Panama, United Nations Development Program: 1-102.
	
Anonymous (1972). Preliminary Investigation of Copper, Gold and Related Mineralization of Other Selected Areas in Panama, Republic of Panama, Mineral Survey (Phase II): 153.
	
Anonymous (1972). Reconocimiento de las Mineralizaciones deCobre y oro en la Region del Rio Pito, Comarca de San Blas (Recognizing the Mineralizations of Copper and Gold in the Region of the Pito River, Comarca de San Blas), Proyecto Minero (fase II), Panama: 91.
	
Anonymous (1975). Caribbean and North Pacific,  Navoceano Contour Sheet 0802-0803(NAR-9).
	
Anonymous (1975). Caribbean and North Pacific,  Navoceano Contour Sheet 0804(NAR-9).
	
Anonymous (1975). Caribbean and North Pacific,  Navoceano Contour Sheet 0904(NAR-9).
	
Anonymous (1977). "El Mochito: A good mine taxed to the hilt." Engineering and Mining Journal 178(11): 167-183.
	
Anonymous (1977). Field trip of general nature to Aruba. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdam - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 88-91.
	
Anonymous (1977). Field trip of general nature to Bonaire. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdam - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 69-75.
	
Anonymous (1977). Field trip of general nature to northwest Curaçao. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdam - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 109-115.
	
Anonymous (1977). Field trip of general nature to southeast Curaçao. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdam - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 102-108.
	
Anonymous (1977). Field trip to Washikemba Formation of Bonaire (L). Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdam - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 116-120.
	
Anonymous (1977). Negotiated Maritime Boundary and Hypothetical Equidistant Lines in the Eastern Caribbean Sea.
	
Anonymous (1977). Sula-Yojoa Air Photographs (PCN HOND 14 No. 1052-1060). Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Labrotorio de Fotografia Areal, Instituto Geografico Nacional.
	
Anonymous (1977). Sula-Yojoa Air Photographs (PCN HOND 16 No. 1292-1299). Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Labrotorio de Fotografia Areal, Instituto Geografico Nacional.
	
Anonymous (1977). Sula-Yojoa Air Photographs (PCN HOND 18 No. 1434-1439). Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Labrotorio de Fotografia Areal, Instituto Geografico Nacional.
	
Anonymous (1977). Sula-Yojoa Air Photographs (PCN HOND 19 No.1535-1539). Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Labrotorio de Fotografia Areal, Instituto Geografico Nacional.
	
Anonymous (1978). Sula-Yojoa Air Photographs. Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Labrotorio de Fotografia Areal, Instituto Geografico Nacional.
	
Anonymous (1979). Summary of resource investigations in the Caribbean Sea. ???, U.S. Geological Survey: 6.
	
Anonymous (1981). Puerto Rico, Virgin Island Platform; 17N-19N, 64W-68W.
	
Anonymous (1984). "Technical note: Petroleum exploration in Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 1: ?
	
Anonymous (1987). Informe Final, Geologia y Occurancias de Minerales en Tres Sectors de Panama (Final Report, Geology and Mineral Occurrences in Three Sectors of Panama), Swedish Geological International: ?
	
Anonymous (1988). "Technical note: Annual report of the Costa Rican committee of the International Geological Correlation Project (ICGP)." Geological Magazine of Central America 8: ??
	
Anonymous (1988). "Technical note: RECOPE is concerned about conserving the environment." Geological Magazine of Central America 9: ?
	
Anonymous (1988). "Technical note: RECOPE, 1988, year of its 25th anniversary." Geological Magazine of Central America 8: ??
	
Anonymous (1989). Microplacas de la region mexicano-caribena (Microplates of the Mexico-Caribbean region),  p. III.3.4. Nuevo Atlas Nacional de Cuba (New National Atlas of Cuba) p. III.3.4, ?
	
Anonymous (1989). Potencial Energetico y Mineral de la Region de America Central y el Caribe; Guia Giras de Campo (Energy and Mineral Potential of the Central American - Caribbean Region:  Field Trip Guide Book). Costa Rica-Rica, Minist. Recur. Nat. Energia y Minas.  Refinadora Costarricense Pet.
	
Anonymous (1991). "Caribbean petroleum potential." Journal of Petroleum Geology 14(3): 233-360.
	
Anonymous (1993). "Special section on studies of photochemistry in eastern Caribbean waters." Journal of Geophysical Research:  Oceans 98(2): 2223-2392.
	
Anonymous (1998). Aquifers and Groundwater   - Field Guide. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Dept. of Geology, University of Puerto Rico: 11.
	
Anonymous (???). SIRa image 24c, Nicaragua, Bara de Rio Grande 13N,83.5W swath, ???
	
Anschutz Overseas Corporation (???). Aeromagnetic Survey Northern Coast of Honduras, Anschutz Overseas Corporation.
	
Antoine, E. M. and J. I. Ewing (1963). "Seismic refraction measurements on the margins of the Gulf of Mexico." Journal of Geophysical Research 68(1975-1996).
	
Antoine, J. W. (1959). "Seismic studies in the western Caribbean." Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 40: 73-75.
	
Antonini, G. A. (1968). Processes and patterns of landscape change in the Linea Nordeste, Dominican Republic. New York, New York, Columbia University: 196.
	
Antonini, G. A. (1979). Physical geography of the northwest Dominican Republic. Hispaniola: Tectonic Focal Point of the Caribbean:  Three Geologic Studies in the Dominican Republic. B. Lidz and F. Nagle. Miami, FL, Maimi Geological Society: 96-?
	
Apotria, T. and M. S. Wilkerson (2002). "Seismic expression and kinematics of a fault-related fold termination: Rosario structure, Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela." Journal of Structural Geology 24(4): 671-687.
	
Apple, B. (2005). Petrologic characterization of the Paleogene arc, Costa Rica, Central America, 9Michigan State University9: 99.
	Lava clasts in Late Cretaceous to Eocence debris flows are manifestations of the earliest Costa Rican volcanic arc. This study characterizes the petrography and geochemistry of volcaniclasts from four sample locations (Punta Samara, Isla Paloma, Quebrada Buenaventura, and Playa Soley) to determine the subduction parameters for the primitive arc. Geochemical compositions of the primitive arc lavas are compared to samples from the volcanic front from the modern arc, concentrating on the Costa Rican and Nicaraguan segments. Selected trace element ratios of these clasts are used to infer subduction parameters including mantle source (Zr/Nb), degree of mantle melting (La/Yb), slab input (Ba/La), and sediment addition (Ba/Th, U/Th). The majority of primitive arc lava clasts originated from a depleted, mantle source (MORB-like), and have higher Zr/Nb ratios than those from modern central Costa Rica (CCR). However, two lava clasts have Zr/Nb ratios similar to CCR volcanics, indicating a contribution from a more enriched mantle source. The degree of mantle melting increases (low La/Yb) with an increase in slab signal (high Ba/La) in the primitive arc lava clasts, and these values are more similar to what is observed in modern western Nicaragua than in modern Costa Rica. This may be a reflection of a steeper angle of subduction offshore Costa Rica during the Late Cretaceous to the Eocene, possibly because the Farallon Plate was older, colder, and denser than the modern day Cocos Plate. The primitive arc lava clasts have high Ba/Th and low U/Th ratios indicating that the sediment subducted in the primitive arc likely had a carbonate component (high Ba/Th), but lacked the hemipelagic sediment component (high U/Th) that is subducted in the modern arc.

Applegate, A. V., et al. (1981). Subdivision and regional stratigraphy of the pre-Punta Gorda rocks (lowermost Cretaceous-Jurassic?) in south Florida. Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Supplement to Transactions. 31: 447-453.
	
Aquino, R. (1994). Sedimentary architecture in fluvial environmens of the Betijoque Formation. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 210-212.
	
Arai, K., et al. (2000). Magnetic properties and their implications at Site 1007. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. G. Lowe. 166: 35-43.
	A detailed rock magnetic study was conducted on the top six cores (above 57.5 meters below seafloor) at Site 1007. The calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy assigns the studied intervals to an age ranging from early Pleistocene to Holocene. We found two significant conversion points in the Pleistocene based on isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM) acquisition and on alternating field demagnetization of anhysteretic remanent magnetization and IRM. These conversion points correlate strongly with changes in sedimentation rate and lithology. We conclude that the paleomagnetic signals reflect changes of rate of sediment supply and of paleoenvironment on the western edge of the Great Bahama Bank.

Aranda Gomez, J. J., et al. (2003). "Synextensional Pliocene-Pleistocene eruptive activity in the Camargo volcanic field, Chihuahua, Mexico." Geological Society of America Bulletin 115(3): 298-313.
	
Arango, C. J. L. and M. A. Ponce (1982). Mapa geologicico generalizado del Departamento de Narino (Generalized Geologic Map of Department of Narino). Bogota, Colombia, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Mineras.
	
Arango-Calad, J. L., et al. (1976). Mapa Geologico de Colombia (Geologic Map of Colombia). Bogota, Colombia, Colombia Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Mineras.
	
Arce, M. and D. H. McLaughlin (1969). Mapa Geologico del Cuadrangulo K-11, Zipaquira (1:100,000), Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Mineras.
	
Arculus, R. J. (1976). "Geology and geochemistry of the alkali basalt-andesite of Grenada, Lesser-Antilles island arc." Geological Society of America Bulletin 87: 612-624.
	
Arculus, R. J., et al. (1999). "A geochemical window into subduction-accretion processes: The Raspas Metamorphic Complex, Ecuador." Geology 27: 547-550.
	
Arculus, R. J. and K. J. A. Wills (1980). "The petrology of plutonic blocks and inclusions from the Lesser-Antilles island arc." Journal of Petrology 21: 743-799.
	
Arden, D. D., Jr. (1969). Geologic history of the Nicaraguan Rise. 19: 295-309.
	
Arden, D. D., Jr. (1975). Geology of Jamaica and the Nicaraguan Rise. The Ocean Basins and Margins. A. E. M. Nairn and F. H. Stehli. New York, Plenum. 3: 617-661.
	
Areces-Mallea, A. (1990). "Piazopteris branneri (White) Lorch, helecho del Jurásico Inferior-Medio de Cuba (Piazopteris branneri (White) Lorch, fern from the Lower-Middle Jurassic of Cuba)." Reviews de la Societe Mexico Paleontología 3(1): 25-40.
	
Areces-Mallea, A. E. (1988). "Discovery of a Cretaceous palinflora in inclusions of the San Adrian diapiric complex, La Habana province." Revista Tecnológica 18(4): 41-54.
	
Argus, D. F., et al. (1989). "Closure of the Africa-Eurasia-North America plate motion circuit and tectonics of the Gloria Fault." Journal of Geophysical Research 94(B5): 5585-5602.
	
Arias, O. (2000). Geology and Magmatic Petrology of the Herradura Block (Upper Cretaceous-Eocene, Costa Rica (Geología y petrología magmática del Bloque Herradura (Cretácico Superior-Eoceno, Costa Rica)). Lausanne, Switzerland, L'Université de Lausanne: 186.
	
Arias, O. and P. Denyer (1991). "Neotectonic and geologic aspects of Puriscal and surroundings, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 12: ?
	
Arias, O. and P. Denyer (1991). "Structural geology of the region including the topographic sheets, Abra, Caraigres, Candelaria." Geological Magazine of Central America 12: ?
	
Arias-Molina, O. (1992). Computerized Methods of Structural Analysis and Their Application to Structural Geology in Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica; 5 diskettes: 171.
	
Arias-Tauta, A. and R. Vargas-Higuera (1974). "Geologia de las Planchas 86 Abrego y 97 Cachira (Geology of the 86 Abrego and 97 Cachira Plates)." Ingeominas, Boletin Geologico (Bogota, Colombia) 23(2): 7-60.
	
Armour-Brown, A. (1966). Buff Bay Quadrangle, Geological Survey Department of Jamaica: 9-10.
	
Arndt, N. T., et al. (1997). "Differentiation in plume heads: The formation of Gorgona komatiites and basalts." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 146: 289-301.
	
Arnold, B. W. and H. L. Clark (1927). Jamaican fossil echini. Harvard, Mass. 50: 1-75.
	
Arnold, B. W. and H. L. Clark (1934). Some additional echini from Jamaica. Harvard, Mass. 54: 139-156.
	
Arogunmati, A. T. (2006). Three-dimensional seismic structure of the Leeward Antilles arc from seismic refraction and refraction and reflection tomography. Houston, TX, Rice University: 59.
	We have developed new velocity and Moho interface models for the Dutch Antilles region of the Leeward Antilles arc from independent and simultaneous 3-D inversion of first arrival and PmP traveltimes. The first arrival and PmP traveltimes were picked from wide-angle offshore-onshore seismic data acquired in the Leeward Antilles arc region using 70 offshore and onshore instruments as part of the Broadband Onshore-Offshore Lithosphere Investigation of Venezuela and the Antilles are region (BOLIVAR) experiment. The resulting velocity models show evidence for fault bounded basins and features associated with the under-thrusting of the Caribbean plate beneath South America. Velocities beneath the arc are higher than velocities elsewhere in the study region at all depths and they suggest that the arc may be made of intermediate granulites. Moho interface models vary in depth from 19 km to 37 km in the study area. Beneath the arc, shallow basement topography lies above deep Moho topography and vice versa. In other words, the Moho structure mirrors the basement topography. This observation indicates the possibility of displacement partitioning during the formation of the arc. We compare an average 1-D velocity model from the Leeward Antilles arc to models from other island and continental arcs and find that the Leeward Antilles profile has velocities lower than mafic oceanic island arcs such as the Aleutians, Tonga and the Bonin arc, but has higher velocities than continental arcs such as the Sierra Nevada. Its velocities are however, similar to those of the Honshu island arc. The range of velocities in the Leeward Antilles arc profile is similar to that in the average continental crustal profile.

Arts, A. E. (2000). Sedimentology and stratigraphy of the Pedro Castle Formation southwest Grand Cayman, British West Indies. Alberta, Canada, University of Alberta: 107.
	
Aruti, A. (1955). Estudio de las Posibilidades Economicas del Aluvion auriferos de El Recodo de Bulla en el Rio Mao (Study of the Economic Possibilities of the Gold-Bearing Alluvium of El Recodo de Bulla in the Mao River). Ciudad Trujillo, Servicio de Mineria.
	
Arzate-Flores, J. A. (1994). "Magnetotelluric interpretation of the subduction Cocos Plate in Oaxaca's continental margin."?
	
Aslan, A., Warne, A. G., White, W. A., Guevara, E. H., Smyth, R. C., Raney, J. A. and Gibeaut, J. C. (2001). "Mud volcanoes of the Orinoco delta, eastern Venezuela." Geomorphology 41: 323-336.
	
Aspden, J. A. (1984). The Geology of the Western Cordillera and Pacific Coastal Plain in the Department of Valle del Cauca, INGEOMINAS - Cail (Columbia): 60.
	
Aspden, J. A. and W. J. McCourt (1986). "A Mesozoic oceanic terrane in the central Andes of Colombia." Geology 14: 415-418.
	
Aspden, J. A., et al. (1987). "Geometrical control of subduction-related magmatism: The Mesozoic and Cenozoic plutonic history of western Colombia." Journal of the Geological Society, London 144: 893-905.
	
Aspinall, W. P., et al. (1998). "The Soufriere Hills eruption, Montserrat, British West Indies: Introduction to special section, part 1." Geophysical Research Letters 25(18): 3387-3387.
	
Aspinall, W. P., et al. (1998). "Soufriere Hills eruption, Montserrat, 1995-1997: Volcanic earthquake locations and fault plane solutions." Geophysical Research Letters 25(18): 3397-3400.
	
Astacio Theoret, V. A. (1998). Mineralogy, Lithogeochemistry, and Oxygen Isotope Study of the Cerro de Maimon Massive Sulfide Deposit, Dominican Republic. Department of Geology. Charleston, SC, University of Charleston: 100.
	
Astacio, V. A., et al. (2002). Oxygen isotope and alteration geochemistry of the Cerro de Maimón Massive sulphide deposit, Dominican Republic. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 195-208.
	
Astiz, L. and H. Kanamori (1984). "An earthquake doublet in Ometepec, Guerrero, Mexico." Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interior 34: 24-45.
	
Astorga, A. (1988). "Geodinamica de las cuencas del cretacico superior - paleogeno de la region 'forearc' del sur de Nicaragua y norte de Costa Rica (Geodynamics of the Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene basins of the 'forearc' region of southern Nicaragua and northern Costa Rica)." Revista Geologica de America Central 9: 1-40.
	
Astorga, A. (1988). "Geodynamics of the Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene basins in the forearc region of southern Nicaragua and northern Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 9: ?
	
Astorga, A. (1992). "Technical note, discovery of Mesozoic oceanic crust in northern Costa Rica and southern Nicaragua." Geological Magazine of Central America 14: ?
	
Astorga, A. and et al. (???). Cuencas sedimentarias de Costa Rica: Evolucion cretacico super - cenozoica y potencial de hidrocarburos (Sedimentary basins of Costa Rica:  Upper Cretaceous-Cenozoic evolution and hydrocarbon potential), RECOPE S.A.
	
Astorga, A., et al. (1991). "Sedimentary basins of Costa Rica: Geodymanic evolution and hydrocarbon potential." Geological Magazine of Central America 13: ?
	
Astorga-Gättgens, A. (1987). The Upper Cretaceous and Paleogene of the Pacific Slope of Southern Nicaragua and Northern Costa Rica: Origin, Evolution, and Dynamics of Deep Basins in Relation to the Convergent Margin of Central America. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 250.
	
Attanasi, E. D. and D. H. Root (1993). Statistics of Petroleum Exploration in the Caribbean, Latin America, Western Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Non-communist Asia, and the Southwestern Pacific, U.S. Geological Survey. 129: 11.
	
Atwood, D. K., et al. (1987). "Petroleum pollution in the Caribbean." Oceanus 30(4): 25-32.
	
Atwood, G., et al. (1976). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, Minas de Oro sheet (Geologic Map of Honduras, Minas de Oro sheet), Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Atwood, M. G. (1972). Geology of the Minas de Oro Quadrangle, Honduras, Central America. Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences. Middletown, Connecticut, Wesleyan University: 87.
	
Atwood, W. W. (1933). "Lake Atitlan." Geological Society of America Bulletin 44: 661-668.
	
Aubouin, J., et al. (1982). The Middle America Trench in the geological framework of Central America. J. Aubouin, R. von Huene and et al. Washington, D. C., U.S. Government Printing Office. 67: 747-755.
	
Aubouin, J., et al. (1985). Tethys and Caribbean. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference. 4: 803-880.
	
Aubouin, J., et al. (1984). "A new type of margin: The convergent-extensional margin, as exemplified by the Middle America Trench off Guatemala." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 67: 211-218.
	
Aubouin, J., et al. (1982). "The Central American Trench as an example of a subduction zone." Tectonophysics 86(1-3): 113-132.
	
Aubouin, J., et al. (1982). "Subduction without accretion: Middle America Trench of Guatemala." Nature 297(5866): 458-460.
	
Aubouin, J., et al. (1981). Summary of Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 67: Shipboard results from the Mid-America trench transect off Guatemala. Colloquiam on the Geology of Continental Margins, Proceedings, 26th International Geological Congress, Paris, July 7-17, 1980, Oceana Acta. 4 (Supplement): 225-232.
	
Aubrey, D. G., et al. (1988). "Changing coastal levels of South America and the Caribbean region from tide-gauge records." Tectonophysics 154: 269-284.
	
Aubry, M. P. and A. Sanfilippo (1999). "Late Paleocene-Early Eocene sedimentary history in western Cuba: Implications for the LPTM and for regional tectonic history." Micropaleontology 45: 5-18.
	
Aubry, M.-P. and E. R. Robinson (1993). Calcareous nannofossil stratigraphy of the Neogene formations of eastern Jamaica. Biostratigraphy of Jamaica. R. M. Wright, Geological Society of America. 182: 131-178.
	
Audemard, F. (1985). "Neotectonics of the Tuy Basin (Neotectónica de la Cuenca del Tuy)." VI Cong. Geol. Venezolano, Caracas 4: 2339-2377.
	
Audemard, F. (1985). "Tacata Fault:  Geomorphologic evidence of Quaternary activity (Falla de Tácata: evidencias geomorfológicas de actividad cuaternaria). VI Cong. Geol. Venezolano, Caracas."  44: 2330-2338.
	
Audemard, F. (1991). Tectonics of western Venezuela. Houston, Texas, Rice University: 250.
	
Audemard, F. (1992). Tectonics of western Venezuela. Houston, Texas, Rice University: 250.
	The Mesozoic-Cenozoic tectonic evolution of western Venezuela occurred in five major stages; (1) Jurassic extension was superposed on peneplaned Late Paleozoic folded-belts. NNE-trending half-grabens developed in a back-arc setting and were filled with continental red-beds and volcanics. (2) A thin, southwardly onlapping, Cretaceous passive margin sequence was related to the opening of the Atlantic. Carbonates dominate the lower portion of the section but the upper Cretaceous is mainly clastic. (3) A Late Cretaceous ? - Tertiary foredeep evolved from an A-Type subduction which advanced from the west and from the north across northern Venezuela, and was the result of interactions between the subducted Pacific-Caribbean Plates and the overriding South American Plate. The peak of deformation occurred at the end of the Middle Eocene, at which time the Sierra de Perija, its southwestern extension and the Internal Caribbean folded-belts, emerged as positive structures. During this compressional event, the Jurassic half-grabens were partially inverted and doubly-vergent basement-involved thrusts branched from a major decollement underlying the Andean active margin (Santa Marta block). (4) Eastward progression of the Sierra de Perija persisted during the Oligocene - Middle Miocene, at which time the Santander Massif was uplifted. North of the Oca Fault and farther east, a series of half-grabens were formed from a right-stepping relay system of right-lateral strike-slip faults superimposed on the Internal Caribbean Folded-belt (Falcon area). (5) The NW-vergent Venezuelan Andes emerged as the main structure during the Late Miocene - Pliocene and were probably associated with a deeper decollement than the one related to the Perijas. The Andes succeeded the Perijas as the main sediment source and separated the foredeep into distinct sub-basins; The Maracaibo Basin to the north and the Barinas-Apure Basin to the south. Coeval with the Andean deformation are two inversion phases affecting the transtensional Falcon structures that are responsible for the present configuration of the Falcon Anticlinorium.

Audemard, F. (1993). "Late Quaternary marine deposits of the Falcon Basin -State of Falcon, Northwestern  Venezuela-. Report 1993: Earth Processes in Global Change -Climate of The Past." Publication occasionnelle CIFEG 1993 25: 14-15.
	
Audemard, F. (1994). Earthquake-induced effects in Venezuela: landslides and liquefaction. 18th Training Course on  Science and Technology for Disaster Prevention, NIED, Tsukuba, Japan.
	
Audemard, F. (1995). "The Tertiary basin of Falcon, northwestern Venezuela: Stratigraphic synthesis, genesis and tectonic inversion (La Cuenca Terciaria de Falcón, Venezuela Noroccidental: Síntesis Estratigráfica, Génesis e Inversión Tectónica)." IX Congreso Latinoamericano de Geología.
	
Audemard, F. (1996). "Contribution of Dr. Carlos Schubert Paetow (1938-94) to the knowledge of the neotectonics of the Caribbean:  Critical vision of a neotectonic colleague (Contribución del Dr. Carlos Schubert Paetow (1938-94) al conocimiento de la Neotectónica del Caribe: visión crítica de un colega neotectonista)." Bol. Sociedad Venezolana de Geólogos 21(2): 23-37.
	
Audemard, F. (1996). Field-trip Guidebook to "The Late Quaternary Marine Deposits of the Paraguaná peninsula and Coro surroundings". 5th Annual CLIP Meeting, Cardón, Venezuela, 01-08 /07/96.
	
Audemard, F. (1996). "Late Quaternary Marine Deposits of the Paraguana Peninsula, State of Falcon, Northwestern Venezuela: Preliminary Geological Observations and Neotectonic Implications. ." Quaternary International 31: 5-11.
	
Audemard, F. (1996). "Paleoseismicity studies on the Oca-Ancon fault system, northwestern Venezuela. ." Tectonophysics 259: 67-80.
	
Audemard, F. (1997). Active tectonics of the northern region of the inverted basin of Falcon, western Venezuela (Tectónica activa de la región septentrional de la cuenca invertida de Falcón, Venezuela occidental) 8º Congreso Geológico Venezolano, Porlamar, Venezuela.
	
Audemard, F. (1997). "Holocene and Historical Earthquakes on the Boconó Fault System, Southern Venezuelan Andes: Trench Confirmation." Journal of Geodynamics 24
155-167(1-4).
	
Audemard, F. (1997). "Preliminary geological report on the Cariaco Earthquake July 9, 1997, Venezuela."  INCEDE Newsletter
6(2): 7.
	
Audemard, F. (1998). "Geodynamic evolution of the northern South American facade: New contributions to the geologic history of the Falcon Basin, Venezuela (Evolution Géodynamique de la Façade Nord Sud-américaine: Nouveaux apports de l'Histoire Géologique du Bassin de Falcón, Vénézuéla) "  XIV Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad, 1995.
	
Audemard, F. (1998). Map of the Active Faults of Venezuela (Mapa de fallas activas de Venezuela), Proyecto Internacional ILP II-2: Major active Faults of the World.
	
Audemard, F., et al. (1990). Liquefaction on the Eastern Coastlands of Falcon State (Northwestern Venezuela ) induced by moderate shallow earthquakes. II Bull. INQUA  Neotectonics Commission.
	
Audemard, F. and S. Calassou (1996). The Guadalupe-Mina de Coro-Chuchure Thrust Fault System, Falcón Basin, Northwestern Venezuela: natural example and analog modelling of a transfer zone %J Bol. Sociedad Venezolana de Geólogos, 3rd. International Symposium on Andean Geodynamics. Saint-Malo, France.
	
Audemard, F. and F. De Santis (1991). Prospect-pit survey of liquefaction structures induced by recent moderate earthquakes. Bull. INQUA Neotectonics Commission.
	
Audemard, F. and F. De Santis (1991). Survey of liquefaction structures induced by recent moderate earthquakes. II Bull. IAEG/AIGI.
	
Audemard, F., et al. (1988). "The torrential avalanche of 06-09-87 of the El Limon River, to the north of Maracay, Edo (El alud torrencial del 06-09-87 del rio El Limón, al Norte de Maracay, Edo). Aragua. Jornadas 50 Aniversario de la Escuela de Geología, Minas y Geofísica, U.C.V.; Caracas."  41: 250-260.
	
Audemard, F., et al. (1989). "Geomorphologic evidence of a recent tectonic activity along the rio Guarico Fault (Evidencias geomorfológicas de una actividad tectónica reciente a lo largo de la Falla de Río Guárico). VII Cong. Geol. Venezolano, Barquisimeto."  43: 987-998.
	
Audemard, F., et al. (1995). The fault system of La Victoria, northcentral Venezuela: Active signs, structural complexities, cinematic and associated seismicity (El Sistema de Fallas de La Victoria, Venezuela Norcentral: Trazas Activas, Complejidades Estructurales, Cinemática y Sismicidad Asociada. IX Congreso Latinoamericano de Geología.
	
Audemard, F. and C. Giraldo (1997). "Dextral displacements along the meridional frontier of the Caribbean plate, northern Venezuela (Desplazamientos dextrales a lo largo de la frontera meridional de la placa Caribe, Venezuela septentrional) " 8º Congreso Geológico Venezolano, Porlamar, Venezuela 1: 101-108.
	
Audemard, F. and J. Lugo (1997). Petroleum geology of Venezuela: Short Course Notes, Dallas, Texas, April 5-6, 1997, American Association of Petroleum Geologists.
	
Audemard, F., et al. (1999). "Trench investigation along the Merida section of the Bocono fault (Central Venezuelan Andes), Venezuela." Tectonophysics 308(1-2): 1-21.
	
Audemard, F., et al. (1999). Seismicity, neotectonics and stress field of Northern Venezuela (Sismicidad, neotectonica y campo de esfuerzos del Norte de Venezuela), FUNVISIS.
	
Audemard, F. and K. Robertson (1996). "Quaternary Tectonic Activity of the Llanos Foothills Thrust System, Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Geomorphological and Geological evidences from La Florida Anticline, Between the Upía and Cusiana Rivers." Bol. Sociedad Venezolana de Geólogos 21(2): 23-37
137-140.
	
Audemard, F., et al. (1997). Holocene tectonic uplift of La Vela anticline related to the activity of the Guadalupe Thrust, northern Falcón State (Venezuela). Proceedings IV CLIP Meeting -1995-. J. Meco  and N. Petit-Maire, Servicio de Publicaciones Univ. de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria: 13-27.
	
Audemard, F. and G. Romero (1993). The Churuguara area  - seismic evidence of contemporary activity of the Oca-Ancon system. Caribbean Conf. on Volcanology, Seismology, and Earthquake  Engineering; Trinidad.
	
Audemard, F. and A. Singer (1994). Seismotectonic parameters for the final evaluation of the seismic hazard in northwestern Venezuela (Parámetros sismotectónicos para fines de evaluación de la amenaza sísmica en el noroccidente de Venezuela). VII Cong.Venezolano Geof.
	
Audemard, F. and A. Singer (1996). "Active Fault Recognition in Northwestern Venezuela and its Seismogenic Characterization: Neotectonic and Paleoseismic approach." Geofísica Internacional; México 35(3): 245-255.
	
Audemard, F. and A. Singer (1997). The engineering of active faults in Venezuela: History and state of the art (La Ingeniería de Fallas Activas en Venezuela: historia y estado del arte). Seminario Internacional de Ingeniería Sísmica: Aniversario del Terremoto de Caracas de 1967, Caracas, Univ, Católica Andrés Bello.
	
Audemard, F. and A. Singer (1999). The torrential avalanche of 06 September 1987 in the basin of the El Limon to the north of Maracay, northern Venezuela (El alud torrencial del 06 de septiembre de 1987 en la cuenca de el río El Limón al norte de Maracay, Venezuela septentrional. Desastres en América Latina (Disasters in Latin America). J. Lugo.
	
Audemard, F., et al. (1994). Definition of the active sign of the fault system of Oca-Ancon, northwestern Venezuela (Definición de la traza activa del sistema de fallas de Oca-Ancón, Noroccidente de Venezuela). VII Cong. Venezolano Geof.
	
Audemard, F. A. (1996). "Paleoseismicity studies on the Oca-Ancon fault system, northwestern Venezuela." Tectonophysics 259(1-3): 67-80.
	
Audemard, F. A., Bousquet, J. and Rodríquez, J. A. (1999). "Neotectonic and paleoseismicity studies on the Urumaco fault, northern Falcón basin, northwestern Venezuela." Tectonophysics 308: 23-35.
	
Audemard, F. A. (2001). "Quaternary tectonics and present stress tensor of the inverted northern Falcon Basin, northwestern Venezuela." Journal of Structural Geology 23(2-3): 431-453.
	
Audemard, F. A. (2003). "Geomorphic and geologic evidence of ongoing uplift and deformation in the Merida Andes, Venezuela." Quaternary International 101: 43-65.
	
Audemard, F. A., et al. (1999). "Neotectonic and paleoseismicity studies on the Urumaco Fault, northern Falcon Basin, northwestern Venezuela." Tectonophysics 308(1-2): 23-35.
	
Audemard, F. A., et al. (2000). Map and Database of Quaternary Faults in Venezuela and its Offshore Regions, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey: 78.
	
Audemard, F. A., et al. (2005). "Quaternary fault kinematics and stress tensors along the southern Caribbean from fault-slip data and focal mechanism solutions." Earth Science Reviews 69(3-4): 181-233.
	Deformation along the southern Caribbean coast, as confirmed by the compilation of stress tensors derived from fault-plane kinematic indicators (microtectonics) and further supported by focal mechanism solutions herein presented, results from a compressive strike-slip (transpressional senso lato) regime characterized by a NNW-SSE maximum horizontal stress (< sigma ><inf>H</inf>=< sigma ><inf>1</inf>) and/or an ENE-WSW minimum (< sigma ><inf>h</inf>=< sigma ><inf>3</inf> or < sigma ><inf>2</inf>) horizontal stress, which is responsible for present activity and kinematics of six sets of brittle features: East-west right-lateral faults, NW-SE right-lateral faults -Synthetic Riedel shears, ENE-WSW to east-west dextral faults - P shears, NNW-SSE normal faults, almost north-south left-lateral faults - Antithetic Riedel shears, and ENE-WSW reverse faults -Sub-parallel to fold axes and mostly in the subsurface; the latter ones being associated to ENE-WSW-trending folding. In this particular region, the brittle deformation obeys the simple shear model, although not all the deformation can be accounted for it since partitioning is also taking place (regional folding and thrusting is essentially due to the normal-to-structure component of the partitioned maximum horizontal stress). Conversely, the maximum horizontal stress on the Maracaibo block and south of the Oca-Ancon fault progressively turns counter-clockwise to become more east-west-oriented, allowing left- and right-lateral slip along the north-south-striking and NE-SW-striking faults, respectively. The orientation and space variation of this regional stress field in western Venezuela results from the superposition of the two major neighboring interplate maximum horizontal stress orientations (< sigma ><inf>H</inf>): Roughly east-west-trending stress across the Nazca-South America type-B subduction along the pacific coast of Colombia and NNW-SSE-oriented one across the southern Caribbean boundary zone.

Audemard, F. B., J-C. &  Rodriguez, J. A. (1995). Paleoseismicity Studies on a Natural Outcrop: the Urumaco Fault Case, Falcón Basin, Northwestern Venezuela. Bull. INQUA Neotectonics Commission.
	
Audemard, F. E. and F. A. Audemard (2002). "Structure of the Merida Andes, Venezuela; relations with the South America-Caribbean geodynamic interaction." Tectonophysics 345(1-4): 299-327.
	 For over 50 years, several models based on diverse geologic concepts and variable quality of data have been proposed to explain the major structure and history of the Merida Andes (MA), in western Venezuela. Lately, this chain growth and associated flexural basins deepening have been related to incipient type-A subductions of either polarity, accounting for the across-chain asymmetry. However, these recent models have not well integrated the present tectonically active setting driven by neighboring major plate interactions. At present, this chain exhibits ongoing strain partitioning where cumulative right-lateral slip along chain axis is as much as half of, or about the same, as the transverse shortening since late Miocene, thus implying that the NNE-directed Maracaibo block extrusion with respect to the South America (SA) plate is not a secondary feature. Consequently, this paper discusses some limitations exhibited by the SE-directed continental subduction models--Maracaibo crust underthrusting the Merida Andes--in the light of available geological and geophysical data. Besides, it is herein proposed that the Merida Andes structuration is related to a NW-directed, gently dipping, incipient type-A subduction, where chain growth and evolution are similar to those of a sedimentary accretionary wedge (i.e., Barbados), but at crustal scale and with ongoing strain partitioning. This continental subduction is the SE portion of a major orogenic float that also comprises the Perija range and the Santa Marta block.

Audemard M., F. A. (2002). Soil liquefaction during the Caracas 1967 and the Boca de Tocuyto 1989 eqrthquakes, Venezuela: Its significance for human settlements on active alluvial and coastal areas. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 229-234.
	
Aurell, M., et al. (1995). "Pleistocene shallowing-upward sequences in New Providence, Bahamas: Signature of high-frequency sea-level fluctuations in shallow carbonate platforms." Journal of Sedimentary Research Section B - Stratigraphy and Global Studies 65(1): 170-182.
	
Austin, J. A., Jr. (1983). OBC 5-A: Overthrusting in a deep-water carbonate terrane. Seismic Expression of Structural Styles: A Picture and Work Atlas. A. W. Bally, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 15: 3.4.2.167-172.
	
Austin, J. A. (1983). Overthrusting in a deep-water carbonate terrane. Seismic Expression of Structural Styles. A. W. Bally, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 15: 3.4.2-167-163.164.162-172.
	
Auzende, A.-L., et al. (2002). "Serpentinites from central Cuba: Petrology and HRTEM study." European Journal of Mineralogy 14(5): 905-914.
	
Avé Lallemant, H. (1997). "Transpression, displacement partitioning, and exhumation in the Caribbean/South American plate boundary zone." Tectonics 16: 272-289.
	
Ave Lallemant, H. G. (2005). Prologue. Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 1-5.
	
Avé Lallemant, H. G. (1990). The Caribbean-South American plate boundary, Araya Peninsula, eastern Venezuela. Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 461-471.
	
Avé Lallemant, H. G. (1997). "Transpression, displacement partitioning, and exhumation in the eastern Caribbean/South American plate boundary zone." Tectonics 16: 272-289.
	
Avé Lallemant, H. G. and M. B. Gordon (1999). Deformation history of Roatan Island: Implications for the origin of the Tela Basin (Honduras). Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 197-218.
	
Avé Lallemant, H. G. and L. R. Guth (1991). "Role of extensional tectonics in exhumation of ecologites and blueschists in an oblique subduction setting, northeastern Venezuela." Geology 18: 950 953.
	
Avé Lallemant, H. G. and J. S. Oldow (1988). "Early Mesozoic southward migration of Cordilleran transpressional terranes." Tectonics 7: 1057-1075.
	
Ave Lallemant, H. G. and V. B. Sisson, Eds. (2005). Caribbean-South American Plate Interactions, Venezuela. Special Paper - Geological Society of America. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Ave Lallemant, H. G. and V. B. Sisson (2005). Epilogue. Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 329-331.
	
Ave Lallemant, H. G. and V. B. Sisson (2005). Exhumation of eclogites and blueschists in northern Venezuela; constraints from kinematic analysis of deformation structures. Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 193-206.
	
Avé Lallemant, H. G. and V. B. Sisson (1992). "Uplift history of blueschists and eclogites in the Cordillera de la Costa Belt, Venezuela, part 2: Deformational features." Abstracts 13th Caribbean Geological Conference, Pinar del Río, Cuba, August 1992: 62.
	
Avé Lallemant, H. G. and V. B. Sisson (1993). Caribbean-South American plate interactions: Constraints from the Cordillera de La Costa Belt, Venezuela. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region:  A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration. J. L. Pindell and R. F. Perkins, Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation: 211-219.
	
Aves, H. S. (???). Regional geology and tectonics of Honduras, ???: 31.
	
Avila-Ballar, M. (1984). Geology and Microseismicity of San Ignacio de Acosta and the Surrounding Area (Southwestern Valle Central of Costa Rica). Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 44.
	
Avila-Romero, G. A. (1989). Program to Analyze Seismologic Data From Costa Rica (ANASIS Program, v. 1.0, User's Manual). Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 105.
	
Axen, G. (1995). "Extensional segmentation of the Main Gulf Escarpment, Mexico and United States." Geology 23(6): 515-518.
	
Ayala-Castanares, A. (1962). "Morfologia y estructura de algunos foraminiferos planctonicos del Cenomaniano de Cuba (Morphology and structure of some planktonic foraminifera of the Cenomanian of Cuba)." Biologica. Soc. Geologia Mexicana 25: 1.
	
Ayala-Castanares, A. and G. Furrazola-Bermudez (1962). "Nummoloculina heimi Bonet en el Cretacico de Cuba (Nummoloculina heimi Bonet in the Cretaceous of Cuba)." Paleontology Mexicana 12: ?
	
Aymard, R., et al. (1990). Geological integration and evaluation of Northern Monagas, Eastern Venezuela basin
Classic Petroleum Provinces. J. Brooks. London, Geological Society of London. 50: 37-53.
	
Aymard, R., et al. (1990). Geological integration and evaluation of northern Monagas, Eastern Venezuelan Basin. Classic Petroleum Provinces. J. Brooks. Bath, England, Geological Society of London. 50: 37-53.
	
Azéma, J., et al. (1985). Le Honduras (Amerique Centrale Nucleaire) et le bloc d'Oaxaca (Sud du Mexique): Deux ensembles comparables du continent Nord-Americain separés par le jeu decrochant senestre des failles du systeme  Polochic-Motagua (Honduras (nuclear Central America) and the Oaxaca (southern Mexico) block:  Two comparable ensembles of the North-American continent separated by a young left-lateral strike-slip fault of the Polochic-Motagua fault system). Géodynamique des Caraibes. A. Mascle. Paris, Editions Technip. 27: 427-438.
	
Azéma, J., et al. (1985). A tectonic cross-section of the Costa Rican Pacific littoral as a key to the structure of the landward slope of the Middle America Trench of Guatemala. R. von Huene, J. Aubouin and et al. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. 84: 831-850.
	
Azéma, J., et al. (1985). "L'Orogene pré-sénonien supérieur de la marge pacifique du Costa Rica (Amérique Centrale) (The pre-Upper Senonian orogeny of the Pacific margin of Costa Rica (Central America))." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 8(t. I, 2): 173-179.
	
Azéma, J., et al. (1981). "Nouvelles donnees sur le Paleocene a foraminiferes planctoniques de la bordure Pacifique du Costa Rica (Amerique Centrale) (New data concerning the Paleocene planktonic foraminifera at the Pacific border of Costa Rica (Central America))." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 3: 85-88.
	
Azéma, J., et al. (???). "Nuevos aportes sobre el paleoceno con foraminiferos planctonicos del margen Pacifico de Costa Rica (New contributions on the Paleocene with planktonic foraminifera from the Pacific margin of Costa Rica)."??? ???: 57-69.
	
Azema, J., et al. (1979). "Precisiones acerca del Paleoceno de Puerto Quepos y sus alrededores, provincia de Puntarenas, Costa Rica:  San Jose, Costa Rica (Precisions near the Paleocene of Puerto Quepos and its surroundings, Puntarenas province, Costa Rica)." Instituto Geografico Nacional, Informe semestral: 77-88.
	
Azema, J., et al. (1982). "Nouvelles donnees sur la presence Cretace Moyen au sein des formations volcano-sedimentaires de l'autochtone relatif de la Peninsule de Santa Elena (Costa Rica, Amerique Centrale) (New data on the Cretaceous 'Moyen' presence within the volcano-sedimentary formatins of the 'relatif' autochthon of the Peninsula of Santa Elena (Costa Rica, Central America))." Reunion annuelle des scineces de la terre, Society Geologique du France 9: ?
	
Azema, J., et al. (1979). "Decouverte d'Albien superieur a ammonitea dans le material volcano-sedimentairre du "complexe de Nicoya" (province de Guanacaste, Costa Rica) (Discovery of upper Albian ammonites within the volcano-sedimentary material from the "Nicoya complex" (Guanacaste province, Costa Rica))." C.R. somm. Soc. Geol. France 3: 129-131.
	
Azema, J. and J. Tournon (1979). "La peninsule de Santa Elena, Costa Rica: Un massif ultrabasique charrie en marge pacifique de l'Amerique Centrale (The peninsula of Santa Elena, Costa Rica: An ultrabasic massif on the Pacific margin of Central America)." Mskr, Paris 7S: ?
	
Azema, J. and J. Tournon (1979). "Remarques sur la geologie des "massifa anciena" de la marge pacifique du Costa Rica (Remarks on the geology of the "ancient massif" of the Pacific margin of Costa Rica)." Mskr, Paris 1S: ?
	
Azema, J. and J. Tournon (1982). The Guatemalan margin, the Nicoya complex and the origin of the Caribbean Plate. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. A. J. Huene and et al. Washington, D.C., U.S. Govt. Printing Office. LXIV: 739-745.
	
Azéma, J. and J. Tournon (1978). "Notas sobre la geologia de los "macizos antiguos' de la margen Pacifico de Costa Rica (Notes on the geology of the 'old massifs' of the Pacific margin of Costa Rica)." Informe Semestral 2: 67-69.
	
Azpiritxaga, I. (1991). Carbonate Depositional Styles Controlled by Siliciclastic Influx and Relative Sea-level Changes, Lower Cretaceous, Central Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, Texas, University of Texas at Austin: 145.
	
Baadsgaard, P. H. (1958). Collazo #1 and Vicinity. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 13.
	
Babb, S. (1997). Tectonics and Sedimentation of the Gulf of Paria and Northern Basin, Trinidad, University of Texas at Austin: 200.
	
Babb, S. and P. Mann (1999). Structural and sedimentary development of a Neogene transpressional plate boundary between the Caribbean and South America plates in Trinidad and the Gulf of Paria. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 495-557.
	
Babb, S. a. M., P. (1999). Structural and sedimentary development of a Neogene transpressional plate boundary between the Caribbean and South America plates in Trinidad and the Gulf of Paria. Caribbean Basins. Sedimentary Basins of the World, 4. P. Mann. Amsterdam, Elsevier: 495-557.
	
Babcock, L. C. (1970). Micropaleontologic Correlation of a Group of Cores from a Submarine Plain Southeast of Puerto Rico, Naval Underwater Systems Center.
	
Babushkin, V. (1990). Informe de los trabajos de levantamiento geológico a escala 1:50 000 y búsquedas acompañantes en el municipio especial Isla de la Juventud (Report on the geologic uplift at scale 1:50000 and accompanying searches in the special Isla de la Juventud municipality). La Habana, Fondo Geológico Nacional.
	
Bachew, S. and N. Lewis (1986). "The impact of beach sand mining at Goldsborough Bay, Tobago." Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 78-84.
	
Back, J. A. (1991). "The effects of lithified calcium carbonate on tropical coastal processes." Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 50-55.
	
Back, W., et al. (1982). Geology and hydrogeology of carbonate rocks of the northeastern Yucatan Peninsula. Geology and Hydrogeology of the Yucatan and Quaternary Geology of Northeastern Yucatan Peninsula. W. C. Ward, A. E. Weidie and W. Back. New Orleans, LA, New Orleans Geological Society: 160.
	
Backe, G., et al. (2006). "Spatial and temporal relationships between compression, strike-slip and extension in the central Venezuelan Andes; clues for Plio-Quaternary tectonic escape." Tectonophysics 425(1-4): 25-53.
	The geometry of tectonic structures, attributed to the Neogene-Quaternary time interval, is described in the active setting of the Venezuelan Andes. Our methodology is based on the analysis of radar satellite and Digital Elevation Model imagery, complemented by structural fieldwork and the compilation of seismotectonic data to make a structural analysis on a regional scale. Radar images provide first class data for morphostructural analysis in areas of dense vegetation and frequent cloud covering, like the Venezuelan Andes. We focused our analysis in the Burbusay-Rio Momboy and Bocono Faults corner located in the central part of the belt. We have described three stages of deformation during the Neogene-Quaternary. The first one, Mio-Pliocene in age, is a NW-SE compression responsible for the uplift of the Venezuelan Andes. The second tectonic stage corresponds to a strike-slip regime of deformation marked by shearing along the Bocono, Burbusay and Valera Faults, which separates two triangular wedges in the larger Trujillo Block. This strike-slip faulting-dominated compressional-extensional tectonic regime allowed the Trujillo crustal block to move towards the NE. Wrenching has therefore started at some point between the Pliocene and the Quaternary. These two tectonic events are consistent with ongoing strain partitioning in the Venezuelan Andes. The third stage corresponds to extensional deformation limited to the Trujillo Block and is still active today. Extension is associated with the motion of crustal blocks moving relative to each other, probably above the upper-lower crust boundary. Such extensional deformation can be understood considering that the crust extends and stretches at the same time as it moves towards the NE. The combination of both horizontal lateral motion and extension is characteristic of a tectonic escape process. The northeastward escape of the Trujillo Block, which belongs to the larger North Andes Block, occurs as a result of the combination of the NW-SE intracontinental convergence between the South-American Plate and the Maracaibo Block, and the presence to the north of the Caribbean oceanic plate considered as a free boundary. We have showed that the kinematics of the Caribbean Plate offers not only a favorable environment, but may also be considered as the driving force of the tectonic escape of the North Andes Block.

Backé, G., et al. (2006). "Spatial and temporal relationships between compression, strike-slip and extension in the Central Venezuelan Andes: Clues for Plio-Quaternary tectonic escape." Tectonophysics 425(1-4): 25-53.
	
Bader, R. G., Ed. (1970). Leg 4. Washington D.C, US Government Printing Office.
	
Baie, L. F. (1970). "Possible structural link between Yucatan and Cuba." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 54: 2204-2207.
	
Baldock, J. W. (1982). Geology of Ecuador. Explanatory Bulletin of the National Geological Map of the Republic of Ecuador, Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy, Quito Ecuador.
	
Baldwin, B. (1986). Geology of Belize. A Collection of Papers Honoring Brewster Baldwin. L. E. Harding and P. J. Coney. Middlebury, VT, Middlebury College Press: 15-24.
	
Ball Associates (1958). North Portion of Burica Peninsula, Chiriqui Province, Panama, Ball Associates.
	
Ball, M. M., R, et al. (1984). Geophysical measurements on northern edge of Bahama-Cuban collision zone. Oil and Gas Journal: 132-141.
	
Ball, M. M., et al. (1971). Marine geophysical measurements on the southern boundary of the Caribbean Sea. Caribbean Geophysical, Tectonic, and Petrologic Studies. T. W. Donnelly. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America Memoirs. 130: 1-33.
	
Ball, M. M. and C. G. A. Harrison (1969). Origin of the Gulf and Caribbean and implications regarding ocean ridge extension, migration, and shear. Transcripts Gulf Coast Association Geological Society. 19: 287- 294.
	
Ball, M. M. and C. G. A. Harrison (1970). "Crustal plates in the central Atlantic." Science 167: 1128-1129.
	
Ball, M. M., et al. (1985). "Seismic structure and stratigraphy of northern edge of Bahaman-Cuban collision zone." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 69: 1275-1294.
	
Ballard, M. M., et al. (1989). "Paleomagnetic results from Grenvillian-aged rocks from Oaxaca, Mexico: Evidence for a displaced terrane." Precambrian Research 42: 343-352.
	
Bally, A. W. (1999). "Using seismic attributes to predict reservoir properties: Potential risks." Bulletin - Houston Geological Society 41(7): 9-10.
	
Bally, K. (1984). The Herrera Sandstone of the Barrackpore-Wilson Oilfield of Trinidad, The University of Manitoba.
	
Baltuck, M., et al. (1985). Mass movement along the inner wall of the Middle America Trench, Costa Rica. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 84. R. von Huene, J. Aubouin and e. al. Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office. 84: 551-570.
	
Balzer, V. G. (1999). The Late Miocene history of sediment subduction and recycling as recorded in the Nicaraguan Volcanic arc. Lawrence, Kansas, University of Kansas.
	
Bandel, K. and E. Wedler (1987). "Hydroid, amphineuran, and gastropod zonation in the littoral of the Caribbean Sea, Colombia." Senckenbergiana Maritima 19(1-2): 129.
	
Bandy, B., et al. (2002). Mineralogy of the sand-sized sediments in the Rio Minho drainage basin, Jamaica. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 209-219.
	
Bandy, O. (1964). "Foraminiferal biofacies in sediments of the Gulf of Batabano, Cuba, and their geologic significance." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 48: 1666-1679.
	
Bandy, O. L. (1970). "Upper Cretaceous-Cenozoic paleobathymetric cycles, eastern Panama and northern Colombia." Transactions of the Gulf Coast Association Geological Society 20: 181-193.
	
Bandy, O. L. and R. E. Arnal (1957). "Distribution of Recent foraminifera off the west coast of Central America." Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 41(9): 2037-2053.
	
Bandy, O. L. and R. E. Casey (1973). "Reflector horizons and paleobathymetric cycles, eastern Panama." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 84: 3081-3086.
	
Bandy, W., et al. (1995). "The subducted Rivera-Cocos plate boundary: Where is it, what is it, and what is its relationship to the Colima rift?" Geophysical Research Letters 22(22): 3075-3078.
	
Bandy, W. and M. Pardo (1994). "Statistical examination of the existence and relative motion of the Jalisco and southern Mexico blocks." Tectonics 13(4): 755-768.
	
Bandy, W. L. (1992). "Geological and geophysical investigation of the Rivera-Cocos plate boundary; implications for plate fragmentation."??: 255.
	
Bandy, W. L., et al. (1998). "Relative motions of the Pacific, Rivera, North American, and Cocos plates since 0.78 Ma: Discussion and reply." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 103(10): 24225-24256.
	
Bane, S. C. and R. R. Champong (1985). Geology and development of Teak Field, Trinidad and Tobago. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, July 7-15, 1979. 4: 672-683.
	
Bane, S. C. and R. R. Chanpong (1980). Geology and development of the Teak Oil Field, Trinidad, West Indies. Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1968-1978. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 30: 387-398.
	
Bangs, N. L., et al. (2003). "Structure of the Lesser Antilles subduction zone backstop and its role in a large accretionary system." Journal of Geophysical Research 108(B7): 2358.
	The role of a backstop in subduction zones has been the subject of numerous laboratory and numerical modeling studies; however, few field observations exist revealing how backstops control deformation in subduction zones and accretionary wedge construction. A seismic reflection and refraction survey acquired in 1998 with the R/V Maurice Ewing reveals the geometry of the forearc igneous crust, accretionary wedge, and forearc basin structure of the northern Guadeloupe area of the Lesser Antilles forearc. An accreted block of buoyant crust, accreted in the late Miocene, forms the toe of the overriding arc crust and forms the backstop. We imaged the top of this surface, beneath the forearc basin, to its seaward edge where it meets the subducting oceanic crust. The toe of the backstop was thrust upward and forms a steep buttress in contact with the lower half of the accretionary wedge. The steep buttress produces a narrow inner deformation zone with minimal backthrusting of the accretionary complex landward over the backstop, and a narrow <10 km transition between accreted and forearc basin sediment. Seismic reflections from the subducting crust and the decollement appear beneath the entire accretionary wedge and below the backstop toe. Separating the decollement and the subducting crust is an interval, usually between 500 and 750 m, of underthrust sediment carried underneath the accretionary wedge and subducted 15 km landward and beneath the toe of the backstop. We speculate that the upturned geometry of the toe of the backstop and a weak fluid-rich decollement may facilitate sediment subduction beneath the backstop and potentially into the mantle.

Bangs, N. L., et al. (1996). "Elevated fluid pressure and fault zone dilation inferred from seismic models of the northern Barbados Ridge decollement." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 101(B1): 627-642.
	
Bangs, N. L. B. (1991). Seismic velocity variations in the Barbados Ridge Complex and hydrogeologic influences on accretionary wedge tectonics, Columbia University: 185.
	Three wide-aperture seismic reflection profiles acquired across the Barbados Ridge Complex are used to construct maps of seismic velocity to examine the relationship between consolidation and accretionary wedge tectonics. Velocity maps are constructed from semblance analyses of each full-fold CDP gather, which are spaced every 100 m on line 465 and 150 m on lines 480 and 484. An analysis of velocity uncertainties on a 15 km section of line 480 shows velocities in extreme and preferred solutions differ by less than 0.2 km/s and lateral velocity changes due to consolidation are detected. The velocity on each line is characterized by a modest velocity increase in the seawardmost third of the wedge relative to the undeformed sediments seaward of the complex. On line 480, for example, velocity near the base of the wedge increases from 2.4 to only 3.0 km/s with a large increase in overburden thickness form 1.8 to 5.0 km. Landward of its frontal region, velocity in the wedge increases sharply indicating a greater overall wedge strength as inferred by the landward flattening of the surface slope. Velocity continues to increase landward and is highest in the oldest portions of the wedge. Velocities are compared to a reference derived from sediments of similar lithology to produce a map of anomalous velocities that shows relatively underconsolidated regions. Velocities are as much as 0.5 to 1.0 km/s less than the reference beneath the wedge and within the seawardmost third of the wedge. The low-velocity sediments and their high inferred porosity are attributed to fluid overpressuring where tectonic thickening has increased overburden rapidly relative to the rate of fluid expulsion. The pattern of velocity anomalies indicates that fluid expulsion is significantly influenced by flow along faults and stratigraphic horizons. Seismic modeling of the high amplitude decollement reflector on line 465 reveals a high-fluid-pressure channel developed along the base of the wedge. Models that best fit the constraints provided by the velocity analysis, and the seismic character of the decollement reflector require a thin ($/sim$20 m) low-velocity layer in the decollement zone into which velocity decreases from 1.95 to 1.75 km/s. The low-velocity zone is attributed to high pressured fluids that are migrating seward, and the decollement is a major conduit for dewatering of sediment thrust beneath the wedge. 

Bangs, N. L. B., et al. (1999). "Fluid accumulation and channeling along the northern Barbados Ridge decollement thrust." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 104(B9): 20399-20414.
	
Banks, N. G. and M. L. Richards (1969). Structure and bathymetry of western end of Bartlett Trough, Caribbean Sea. Tectonic Relations of Northern Central America and the Western Caribbean—the Bonacca Expedition. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 221-228.
	
Banks, P. O. (1975). Basement rocks bordering the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The Ocean Basins and Margins: 3, The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. A. E. M. Narin and F. G. Stehli. New York, Plenum Press. 3: 181-199.
	
Baptiste, J. (1995). Hydrogeological Study of the Lower Yallahs Basin, St. Thomas, Jamaica, University of the West Indies: ?
	
Barabas, A. H. (1982). "Potassium-argon dating of magmatic events and hydrothermal activity associated with prophyry copper mineralization in west central Puerto Rico." Economic Geology 77: 109-126.
	
Barbeito, J., et al. (1985). "Estudio estratigáfico del Eoceno en el área de Maracaibo, Venezuela occidental, basado en interpretaciones paleontológicas y palinológicas (Stratigraphic study of the Eocene in the Maricaibo area, western Venezuela, based on paleontological and palinological interpretations)." Venezuelan Geological Congress (Caracas, Venezuela): 
109-139.
	
Barberi, F., et al. (1988). "Plio-Quaternary volcanism in Ecuador." Geological Magazine 125: 1-14.
	
Barboza, G., et al. (1997). "Costa Rica: Petroleum geology of the Caribbean margin." The Leading Edge 16: 1787-1798.
	
Barckhausen, U., et al. (2008). "Birth of an intraoceanic spreading center." Geology 36(10): 767-770.
	The Cocos-Nazca spreading center is one of the few examples of the formation of a spreading center by splitting of oceanic lithosphere. It was created when the Farallon plate broke up in the early Miocene following the collision of the Pacifi c-Farallon spreading center with the North American continent. Much of the ancient Farallon plate corresponding to the area of opening is lost to subduction beneath Central America and South America, but new data from the conjugate area on the Pacifi c plate allow the fi rst detailed reconstruction of the break-up process. The opening began after chron 7 (25 Ma) at a location of focused crustal extension caused by overlapping spreading centers that had evolved in response to a slight reorientation of a Pacifi c-Farallon ridge segment. Beginning at chron 6B (22.7 Ma), eastward progressing seafl oor spreading started along an axis that most likely migrated toward the region of weak lithosphere created by the Galapagos hotspot. By chron 6 (19.5 Ma), plate splitting from the spreading center to the trench was complete, allowing the fully detached Cocos and Nazca plates to move independently. This kinematic change resulted in a signifi cant ridge jump of the newly established Pacifi c-Nazca spreading center, a change in plate motion direction of the Nazca plate by 20° clockwise, and a large increase in Pacifi c-Cocos plate velocity in the middle Miocene. 

Barckhausen, U., et al. (2001). "Revised tectonic boundaries in the Cocos Plate off Costa Rica: Implications for the segmentation of the convergent margin and for plate tectonic models." Journal of Geophysical Research   Solid Earth 106(B9): 19207-19220.
	
Barckhausen, U., et al. (1998). "Magnetic signature of upper plate structures and subducting seamounts at the convergent margin off Costa Rica." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 103(4): 7079-7093.
	
Barday, R. J. (1974). Structure of the Panamá Basin from Marine Gravity Data. Corvallis, OR, Oregon State University: 99.
	
Bardintzeff, J. M. and C. Deniel (1992). "Magmatic evolution of Paeaya and Cerro Chiquito volcanological complex,  Guatemala." Bulletin of Volcanology 54: 267-283.
	
Bargar, K. E. (1991). "Fluid inclusions and preliminary studies of hydrothermal alteration in core hole PLTG-1, Platanares geothermal area, Honduras." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 45: 147-160.
	
Barke, R., et al. (2007). "Late Cenozoic bending of the Bolivian Andes: New paleomagnetic and kinematic constraints " Journal of Geophysical Research 112(B01101).
	New paleomagnetic measurements of essentially undeformed Late Cenozoic volcanic rocks in the Bolivian Andes, South America, constrain rigid body rotations about vertical axes during the last ∼13 Myr on both limbs of the Bolivian orocline in the Eastern Cordillera. Thermal and alternating field demagnetization was carried out on samples from 52 sites in three major volcanic complexes: (1) 13–2 Ma Los Frailes ignimbritic volcanics, outcropping at ∼19.5°S; (2) 9–5 Ma Morococala ignimbritic volcanics, outcropping at ∼18°S; and (3) 13–5 Ma shoshonitic to acidic lavas and intrusives, outcropping at ∼17.5°S. Well-defined magnetic components were isolated, which are interpreted to represent the Earth's magnetic field at the time of volcanic activity. The mean magnetic vector for site groupings suggests regional tectonic rotations about vertical axes, with respect to stable South America, of 10° ± 8 clockwise for the 13–2 Ma Los Frailes volcanic complex (8° ± 9° clockwise for only the Miocene (13–5 Ma) Los Frailes volcanics), and 1° ± 18° anticlockwise for the combined 13–5 Ma Morococala and Eucalyptus volcanic complexes. These data are consistent with observed shortening gradients on the eastern margin of the Bolivian Andes, in the sub-Andean zone, suggesting rotation and shortening are synchronous. A joint inversion for both tectonic rotation and the amount of shortening, assuming a linear variation in the amount of rotation along the length of the southern limb of the Bolivian orocline, shows that rotation of the Eastern Cordillera in the last 10–15 Myr, relative to stable South America, varies from zero at the oroclinal hinge, at ∼18°S, to a maximum of ∼13.5° clockwise at ∼22°S, decreasing to zero, south of 23°S, with an average rotation in the range 5° to 10° clockwise. Concomitant with this, shortening in the sub-Andean zone decreases from a maximum of ∼86 km at the oroclinal hinge, to ∼47 km at 22°S, and then ∼33 km at 23°S. The lack of evidence for large-scale internal faulting in the Eastern Cordillera since ∼9 Ma suggests either bending of the Eastern Cordillera was accommodated by more distributed small-scale faulting or that relative rotation here mainly occurred prior to ∼9 Ma. The small average rotation of the Eastern Cordillera, on the southern limb of the orocline, is consistent with only very small rotation (<10°) of the forearc region in northern Chile during the last ∼20 Myr. Rotation of the northern limb is less well constrained, but it is also likely to be small (<5°) and anticlockwise.

Barker, L., Ed. (1988). Transactions of the 11th Caribbean Geological Conference, Barbados, July 20-26, 1986. Barbados, Unknown.
	
Barker, L., Ed. (1988). Transactions of the 11th Caribbean Geological Conference, Dover Beach, Barbados, July 20-26, 1986.
	
Barker, L., et al. (2002). A Bajan Potpourri - Field Trip #3. 16th Caribbean Geological Conference, June 16th-21st, 2002, Barbados, West Indies - Field Guides. Barbados, West Indies, Government Printing Department: 99-116.
	
Barker, M. H. S. and K. H. Roberts (1968). No 6A South Trinidad. Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, 28 March-12 April 1965. J. B. Saunders: 435-?
	
Barlow, C. A. (1973). Radar Geology and Tectonic Implications of the Choco Basin, Colombia, South America. Fayetteville, AK, University of Arkansas: 102.
	
Barnett, J. F. (1941). Report of Semi-detailed Geology of Mosaics, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey: 8.
	
Barnett, R. S. (1975). "Basement structure of Florida and its tectonic implications." Transactions of the Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies 25: 122-142.
	
Barquero-Picado, R. (1990). Seismicity and tectonics of the region northeast of Costa Rica with emphasis on the area of the Miravalles geothermal project. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 117.
	
Barr, K. (1952). "Limestone blocks in the Lower Cretaceous Cuche Formation of the Central Range, Trinidad, B. W. I." Geological Magazine 89: 417-425.
	
Barr, K. G. and G. R. Robson (1963). "Seismic delays in the eastern Caribbean." Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 7(3): 342-349.
	
Barr, K. W. (1962). "The geology of the Toco district, Trinidad and West Indies, part 1." Oversea Geology and Mineral Resources 9: 1-29.
	
Barr, K. W. (1968). No. 2 Eastern Northern Range and Toco District. Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, 28 March-12 April 1965. J. B. Saunders: 430-?
	
Barr, K. W. (1974). "The Caribbean and plate tectonics - Some aspects of the problem."??? ???(???): 45-67.
	
Barr, K. W. (1985). Graded bedding and associated phenomena in the Northern Range of Trinidad. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, July 7-15, 1979. 4: 117-135.
	
Barr, K. W. and G. Escalante (1969). "Contribucion al esclarecimiento de la edad del complejo de Nicoya, Costa Rica (Contribution to the clarification of the age of the Nicoya complex, Costa Rica)." Publicaciones geologicas del Instituto centroamericano de Investigacion y Tecnologia industriales 2: 43-47.
	
Barr, K. W. and J. B. Saunders (1968). An outline of the geology of Trinidad. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad & Tobago. J. B. Saunders. Arima, Caribbean Printers: 1-10.
	
Barr, K. W., et al. (1958). The mode of oil occurrence in the Miocene of southern Trinidad, B.W.I. Habitat of oil: A Symposium of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. W. L. G.???, ???: 533-550.
	
Barrantes, M. (1991). "Petrographic comments on some rocks cropping out in the central region of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 12: ???
	
Barreat, F., et al. (1986). "Preliminary recognition of the Chimanta massif, Edo Bolivar (Venezuela). Chimanta Scientific Group (Reconocimiento preliminar del macizo de Chimantá, Edo Bolívar (Venezuela). Grupo Científico Chimantá)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 37(1): 35-42.
	
Barrero-L., D. (1979). "Geology of the central Western Cordillera, west of Buga and Roldanillo, Colombia." INGEOMINAS, Bogota (Colombia) Publicacion Especial 4: 75.
	
Barrero-L., D. and C. Vesga (1978). Edades K/Ar en rocas igneas y metamorficas de la Cordillera Central de Colombia y su implicacion geologica (K/Ar ages in igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Central Cordillera of Colombia and their geologic implications). Segundo Congreso Colombiano de Geologia, Resumenes, Bogota (Colombia): ?
	
Barrett, W. (1962). "Emerged and submerged shorelines of the Dominican-Republic." Review of Geography 30: 51-77.
	
Barrier, E., et al. (1998). "Neotectonic evolution of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (Southeastern Mexico)." Tectonophysics 287(1-4): 77-96.
	
Barritt, S. and J. P. Berrangé (1987). "Interpretation of a gravity survey of the Osa Peninsula and environs, Southern Costa Rica." Overseas Geology and Mineral Resources(64): 1-18.
	
Barron, T. A. (1985). Late Eocene to Holocene diatom biostratigraphy of the Equatorial Pacific Ocean. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 85. ?? Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office. 85: 181-193.
	
Barros, J. A. (1987). Stratigraphy, Structure and Paleogeography of the Jurassic-Cretaceous Passive Margin in Western and Central Cuba. Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences. Coral Gables, FL, University of Miami: 150.
	
Bartenstein, H. (1987). "Micropaleontological synopsis of the Lower Cretaceous in Trinidad, West Indies:  Remarks on the Aptian/Albian boundary." Newsletters on Stratigraphy 17(3): 143-154.
	
Bartenstein, H., et al. (1957). "Die Foraminiferen der Unterkreide von Trinidad, B.W.I., Erster Teil:  Cuche and Toco Formation." Ecologae Geol. Helv. 50(1): 5-67.
	
Bartenstein, H., et al. (1966). "Die Forminiferen der Unterkreide von Trinidad, B.W.I., Zweiter Teil: Maridale-Formation." Ecologae Geol. Helv. 59(1): ?
	
Bartenstein, H. and H. M. Bolli (1986). "The foraminifera in the Lower Cretaceous of Trinidad, W.I.; V, Maridale Formation, upper part; Hedbergella rohri Zone." Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae 79(3): 945-999.
	
Bartlett, G. W. and P. N. Bruce (1985). A thermal classification model for Trinidad crude oils; a thermal analysis approach. Third International Conference on Heavy Crude and Tar Sands, Long Beach, CA, July 22-31, 1985. A. Khazoom. 3: 641-649.
	
Bartok, P. (1993). "Pre-breakup geology of the Gulf of Mexico-Caribbean: Its relation to Triassic and Jurassic rift systems of the region." Tectonics 12: 441-459.
	
Bartok, P., et al. (1981). "Lower Cretaceous Cogollo Group, Maracaibo basin, Venezuela: Sedimentology, diagenesis, and petrophysics." Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 5: 1110-1134.
	
Bartok, P. E., et al. (1985). "The Siquisique ophiolites, northern Lara State, Venezuela: A discussion on their Middle Jurassic ammonites and tectonic implications." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 96: 1050-1055.
	
Bartolini, C., et al. (2003). The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. Tulsa, OK, AAPG.
	
Bartolini, C., et al. (2003). Geochronology, geochemistry, and tectonic setting of the Mesozoic Nazas Arc in north-central Mexico, and its continuation to northern South America. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, R. T. Buffler and J. F. Blickwede. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 427-461.
	Volcanic, sedimentary, and granitic plutonic rocks that are part of the early Mesozoic Cordilleran continental magmatic arc are exposed in a belt from the southwestern United States to Guatemala. In the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Zacatecas, and San Luis Potosi, these rocks form a discontinuous southeast-trending belt across north-central Mexico. Whole-rock geochemical analyses of volcanic and intrusive rocks in north-central Mexico indicate a calc-alkaline suite formed in this continental volcanic arc along the convergent margin of western North America. Paleomagnetism, field relations, and isotopic ages ( (super 40) Ar/ (super 39) Ar, K-Ar, Rb-Sr, and U-Pb) of 73 volcanic and intrusive rocks document the Late Triassic-Middle Jurassic age of the arc. In the region, isotopic ages commonly are reset, apparently because of thermotectonic events during the "Laramide" orogeny that led to the development of the Sierra Madre Oriental fold and thrust belt and to deep burial of the arc rocks. Available evidence suggests that the arc underwent two main phases of subsidence. One phase of extensional subsidence created intra-arc basins and a peak of volcanism throughout the arc in the Early-Middle Jurassic. A second phase began in the Oxfordian, with subsidence and initial deposition of the Zuloaga and La Gloria Formations. Continued sedimentation during this phase led to accumulation of 5-7 km of strata above the arc, as Cretaceous seas transgressed westward over inland Mexico. The similarities in age, depositional environment, clastic composition, magma types, and geochemical affinity and, more importantly, the tectonic settings that gave rise to the Nazas Formation in Mexico and La Quinta and Giron formations in Venezuela and Colombia suggest that these two volcanic-sedimentary sequences, now hundred of kilometers apart, were once part of the Late Triassic-Jurassic continental magmatic arc. This arc extended from Alaska to South America and evolved during simultaneous subduction along the western margin of Pangea, rifting in the Caribbean-Gulf of Mexico region, and associated large-scale transpressive activity.

Bartolini, C., et al., Eds. (1999). Mesozoic Sedimentary and Tectonic History of North Central Mexico. Special Paper. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Basanin, A. K. (1995). "Tectonophysical prognosis of gold mineralization for Florensia deposit region (Cuba)." Doklady Akademii Nauk 344(3): 356-358.
	
Basentsyan, S. A., et al. (1983). "Tectonics of the junction zone between the Lesser-Antilles island arc and the Atlantic Ocean floor according to seismic data." International Geology Review 25(2): 225-236.
	
Bass, M. N. (1969). Petrography and Ages of Crystalline Basement Rocks of Florida—Some Extrapolations. ??? ??? Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 283-310.
	
Bassin, N. J. (1975). Analysis of Total Suspended Matter in the Caribbean Sea. College Station, TX, Department of Geology. Texas A&M University: 118.
	
Bassinger, B. G., et al. (1971). "Marine geophysical study northeast of Trinidad-Tobago." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 55(10): 1730-1740.
	
Bateson, J. H. (1972). "New interpretation of geology of Maya Mountains, British Honduras." Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 56: 956-963.
	
Bateson, J. H. and I. H. S. Hall (1977). The Geology of the Maya Mountains, Belize. Unknown, Institute of Geological Sciences.
	
Bathurst, R. G. C. (1976). Gulf of Batabano:Carbonate Sediments and Their Diagenesis. New York. 12: 165-178.
	
Batista, J., et al. (2002). "Structure of the ophiolitic massif of Moa (NE of Cuba) following the interpretation of aeromagnetic uplift 1:50,000 (Estructura del macizo ofiolítico de Moa (NE de Cuba) según la interpretación del levantamiento aeromagnético 1: 50 000)." Acta Geologica Hispanica 37: 369-387.
	
Batista-Rodriguez, J. A., et al. (2007). "Geometry of ophiolites in eastern Cuba from 3D inversion of aeromagnetic data, constrained by surface geology." Geophysics 72(3): B81-B91.
	This study combined geophysical, geologic, and topographic information to investigate the Mayari-Baracoa ophiolitic belt in eastern Cuba. A recently developed interpretation technique for 3D inversion of magnetic data was employed to determine the geometry at depth of ophiolitic and other rocks. Based on measured susceptibilities, lithologies were divided into four groups. The geophysical data allowed 3D imaging of ophiolites (serpentinized peridotites and gabbros), as well as sedimentary and volcanic rocks. The study verified that both the Pinares de Mayari Plateau and the Sagua de Tanamo Basin have been strongly influenced by tectonic activity. The modeling showed evidence of more east-west structural deformation of the ophiolite belt than had been previously reported. The depth of the depocenter of the Sagua de Tanamo basin and its rate of subsidence were determined. We identified some areas with potential for economic deposits of chromium, cobalt, and nickel, as well as precious metals; these were related to the thickness of the peridotite layer. The modeling also corroborated the presence of previously mapped faults and revealed other previously unrecognized faults.

Batjes, D. A. (1968). Paleoecology of foraminiferal assemblages in the late Miocene Cruse and Forest Formations of Trinidad, Antilles. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad & Tobago. J. B. Saunders. Arima, Caribbean Printers: 141-156.
	
Bauer, C. and K. P. Stanek (2000). Remote sensing and GIS as means of interpretation of  geoscientific data of the example of Central Cuba (Fernerkundung und GIS als Hilfsmittel zur Interpretation von geowissenschaftlichen Daten am Beispiel aus Zentralkuba). Vorträge - 19. Wissenschaftlich-Technische Jahrestagung der DGPF, 13. - 15. Oktober 1999, Univ. GH Essen: Photogrammetrie und Fernerkundung, neue Sensoren - neue Anwendungen. - Publ. DGPF. J. Albertz. Berlin. 8: 453-459.
	
Baum, F. (1963). Informe sobre las Depositos y Yacimientos de Minerals en la Republica Dominicana (Report on the Deposits and Mineral Deposits in the Dominican Republic). Santo Domingo, Servicio Geologico Federal Aleman.
	
Baum, R. L., et al. (2001). Assessment of Landslide Hazards Resulting from the February 13, 2001, El Salvador Earthquake: A Report to the Government of El Salvador and the U.S. Agency for International Development, U.S. Geological Survey: 22.
	On February 13, 2001, a magnitude 6.5 earthquake occurred about 40 km eastsoutheast of the capital city of San Salvador in central El Salvador and triggered thousands of landslides in the area east of Lago de Ilopango. The landslides are concentrated in a 2,500-km2 area and are particularly abundant in areas underlain by thick deposits of poorly consolidated, late Pleistocene and Holocene Tierra Blanca rhyolitic tephras that were erupted from Ilopango caldera. Drainages in the tephra deposits are deeply incised, and steep valley walls failed during the strong shaking. Many drainages are clogged with landslide debris that locally buries the adjacent valley floor. The fine grain-size of the tephra facilitates its easy mobilization by rainfall runoff. The potential for remobilizing the landslide debris as debris flows and in floods is significant as this sediment is transported through the drainage systems during the upcoming rainy season.
In addition to thousands of shallow failures, two very large landslides occurred that blocked the Río El Desagüe and the Río Jiboa. The Río El Desagüe landslide has an estimated volume of 1.5 million m3, and the Río Jiboa landslide has an estimated volume of 12 million m3. Field studies indicate that catastrophic draining of the Río El Desagüe landslide-dammed lake would pose a minimal flooding hazard, whereas catastrophic draining of the Río Jiboa lake would pose a serious hazard and warrants immediate action. Construction of a spillway across part of the dam could moderate the impact of catastrophic lake draining and the associated flood. 
Two major slope failures on the northern side of Volcán San Vicente occurred in the upper reaches of Quebrada Del Muerto and the Quebrada El Blanco. The landslide debris in the Quebrada Del Muerto consists dominantly of blocks of well-lithified andesite, whereas the debris in the Quebrada El Blanco consists of poorly consolidated pyroclastic sediment. The large blocks of lithified rock in Quebrada Del Muerto are unlikely to be remobilized during the rainy season; whereas, the sandy and silty landslide debris in the channel of Quebrada El Blanco is susceptible to remobilization as debris flows that could extend into populated areas on the lower slopes of the volcano. 
Around the northern and eastern shore of Lago de Ilopango, earthquake-induced liquefaction and lateral-spreading landslides caused local damage to homes and other structures; this damage was most prevalent in the village of San Agustín. San Agustín is also potentially threatened by floods because it is located on the alluvial fan of the Quebrada El Chaguite drainage basin, which contains hundreds of landslides that have choked numerous small channels with volcanic tephra. As the easily eroded tephra is transported down the drainage system and deposited on the alluvial fan, it could clog the currently active channel with sediment, divert the stream into a new channel, and possibly direct flow through San Agustín, causing more damage and destruction.

Baumbach, M., et al. (2004). "Aftershock pattern of the July 9, 1997 Mw=6.9 Cariaco earthquake in Northeastern Venezuela." Tectonophysics 379(1-4): 1-23.
	The Mw=6.9 Cariaco earthquake of July 9, 1997 was the strongest earthquake that occurred on the El Pilar fault between Cumana and the Gulf of Paria in the 20th century. The El Pilar fault is the most prominent strike-slip fault in the transition zone between the Caribbean plate and the South American plate in this region. We installed 18 seismic and 10 strong motion stations for recording aftershocks. We calculated the hypocenters of 1306 aftershocks with magnitudes between -0.5 and 4.1. Most aftershocks concentrated near the documented trace of the El Pilar fault. The spatial distribution of the aftershocks allowed us to separate the aftershock region on the El Pilar fault into six segments with different dip angles. We computed and classified fault-plane solutions of 222 aftershocks. The majority of fault-plane solutions are of strike-slip type. Some segments show differences in the dominating type of focal mechanisms. From the aftershock distribution and spatial variation of b -values we inferred a rupture length of the Cariaco earthquake of 60 km, and thus an average displacement of < similar-to >1.3 m during the main shock is estimated. Two out of four stepovers, which were found on this length, were seismically activated during the monitoring time interval. The b -value distribution on the fault plane appears to define two areas of major stress relaxation: beneath Cariaco and half way between Casanay and El Pilar close to the surface. < copyright > 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Baumgartner, P., et al. (1989). Paleogene accretion and suspect terranes in southern Costa Rica (Osa, Burica, Central America). Transactions of the 12th Caribbean geological Conference. D. Larue and G. Draper. St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands: 529.
	
Baumgartner, P. O. (1987). "Tectonica y sedimentacion del Cretacico superior en la zona pacifica de Costa Rica (America Central) (Tectonics and sedimentation of the Upper Cretaceous in the Pacific zone of Costa Rica)." Actas de la Faculdad de Ciencias de la Tierra de la Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo Leon(2): 251-260.
	
Baumgartner, P. O. and P. Denyer (2006). Evidence for middle Cretaceous accretion at Santa Elena Peninsula (Santa Rosa Accretionary Complex), Costa Rica. Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 179-192.
	
Baumgartner, P. O., et al. (1984). "Sedimentacion y Paleogegrafia del Cretacico y Cenozoico del Litoral Pacifico de Costa Rica (Sedimentation and paleogeography of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic of the litoral Pacific of Costa Rica)." Revista Geologica de America Central 1: 57-136.
	
Baumgartner, P. O., et al. (1984). "Sedimentary and paleogeography of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic of the Pacific margin of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 1.
	
Bawiec, W. e. (2001). Geology, geochemistry, geophysics, mineral occurrences, and mineral resource assessment for the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, US Geological Survey: CD format.
	
Baxter, P. J., et al. (1999). "Cristobalite in volcanic ash of the Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat, British West Indies." Science 283(5405): 1142-1145.
	
Baxter-Gandara, S. (1976). Geologic Study of the Mata Limón and Punta Carballo Formations, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 66.
	
Bazhenova, M. L., et al. (1996). "Reconnaissance paleomagnetic results from western Cuba." Tectonophysics 253(1-2): 65-81.
	A paleomagnetic study of Mesozoic rocks from the Sierra de Los Organos and Sierra del Rosario fold belts of western Cuba revealed postfolding magnetisation in diabases of the Late Jurassic El Sábalo Formation and carbonates of the middle Cretaceous Pons and the Late Cretaceous Carmita and Moreno formations. Steep components with inclinations of about 70° were isolated from all three formations; at the same time, postfolding shallow components were also found in a few samples of the Pons limestones. We rule out a possibility to account for these results by either horizontal movements or non-dipole field anomaly. Neither very appealing is a hypothesis of a post-remagnetization tilt of the entire region. All the components appear to be confined to a plane perpendicular to the main structural trends; we hypothesize that the remanences might have been distorted or re-aligned during deformation; this assumption, however, is far from being proven. In contrast, well-defined characteristic components were isolated from basalts of the Aptian-Albian Encrucijada ( = ,K = 14, a95 = 9.0°) and the Late Cretaceous Orozco ( = , K = 110, a95 = 4.7) formations from the Bahia Honda zone in the north of western Cuba; the remanence in the Encrucijada Formation is shown to predate deformation. Mean inclinations in both formations match those in Cretaceous volcanics from central Cuba, and all the results show lower latitudes than expected from the reference data for the North American plate thus implying that volcanic domains of Cuba were displaced northward by about 1000 km prior to the Middle Eocene. Cretaceous declinations in western and central Cuba differ by about the same amount as the major structural trends of these two areas suggesting oroclinal bending of Cuba. At the same time, both areas are rotated counterclockwise with respect to North America thus implying movements on a broader scale.

Beach, D. K. (1976). Sedimentary on the Western Isla Caja de Muertos Insular Shelf, Puerto Rico. Marine Sciences. Mayagüez, University of Puerto Rico: 100.
	
Beach, D. K. and J. V. A. Trumbull (1981). Marine geologic map of the Puerto Rico insular shelf, Isla Caja de Muertos area, United States Geological Survey.
	
Beall, R. (1943). Geologic map of the eastern portion of the Cibao Basin, Dominican-Republic. Santo Domingo, Dominican Seaboard Oil Co.
	
Beall, R. (1944). The geology of the Eastern Cibao Basin Dominican Republic, Dominican Seabord Oil Co., Rept., New York Office No. 35, Santo Domingo.
	
Beall, R. (1973). "Plate tectonics and the origin of the Gulf Coast basin." Transactions of the Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies 23: 109-114.
	
Beard, J. T. (1985). The general geology of the Guapo Field, Trinidad. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, July 7-15, 1979. 4: 684-689.
	
Beardsley, A. G. (Oblique collision and accretion of the Netherlands Leeward Antilles island arc: A structural analysis of the Caribbean-South American plate boundary zone). 2007. Houston, TX, Rice University: 149.
	The Netherlands Leeward Antilles volcanic island arc is an ideal natural laboratory to study the evolution of the Caribbean-South American plate boundary. The Leeward Antilles islands (Aruba, Curaçao, and Bonaire) are located offshore western Venezuela, within the obliquely convergent diffuse plate boundary zone. Outcrop analysis, microthermometry, and 2D marine seismic reflection data provide evidence of three generations of regional deformation since the Late Cretaceous. Outcrop analysis of structural features, including faults, joints, and veins, characterizes the kinematic history of the islands. Fluid inclusion analysis of quartz and calcite veins coupled with apatite fission-track dating provides the island exhumation history. Finally, marine reflection seismic data processing and interpretation of newly acquired data elucidates offshore structures to integrate with our onshore results. The oldest regional deformation, resulting in both ductile (D 1  ) and brittle (F  1  ) structures, is attributed to displacement partitioning along the arcuate Caribbean plate boundary. Associated crustal thinning initiated island exhumation, at a rate of 0.18 km/my, from a maximum burial depth of 6 km in the Late Cretaceous (∼89 Ma). Coeval with D 1  /F 1 deformation and exhumation, stretching of the island arc resulted in extensive basin rifting that separated the island blocks. At ∼55 Ma, a change in the relative motion of the Caribbean plate altered plate boundary dynamics. Displacement along the right-lateral Caribbean transform fault and Oca - San Sebastian - El Pilar strike-slip fault system created a wrench tectonic regime within the diffuse plate boundary zone. A second generation of brittle structures (F 2 ) developed while the islands were at a maximum burial depth of 2 km during the Paleocene/Eocene. Since ∼45 Ma, continued motion along the strike-slip fault systems and oblique plate convergence resulted in the youngest generation of structural features (F 3  ). Regional tectonics control the ongoing steady-state exhumation of the islands at a rate of 0.04 km/my. Most recently, the northeast escape of the Maracaibo block also drives deformation within the diffuse plate boundary zone. Overall, the Caribbean-South American plate boundary geometry has evolved with diachronous deformation, from west to east, accompanied by 135° of clockwise block rotation during collision and accretion of the Leeward Antilles since the Late Cretaceous.

Beaudry, F. H. (1972). Calcareous Nannofossils Recovered From Some Pleistocene Cores Taken on Leg Fifteen of the Deep Sea Drilling Project (Caribbean Sea). Department of Geology. Urbana, IL, University of Illinois: ?
	
Beccaluva, L., et al. (1995). "The northwestern border of the Caribbean Plate in Guatemala:  New geological and petrological data on the Motagua Ophiolitic Belt." Ofioliti 20(1): 1-15.
	
Beccaluva, L., et al. (1998 (in press)). "The St. Helena-Nicoya Ophiolitic Complex in Costa Rica and its geodynamic implications for the Caribbean Plate evolution." Chemical Geology.
	
Beccaluva, L., et al. (1999). "Petrological and structural significance of the Santa Elena-Nicoya ophiolitic complex in Costa Rica and geodynamic implications." European Journal of Mineralogy 11: 1091-1107.
	
Beccaluva, L., et al. (1995). Ophiolites of the Caribbean Plate Margins (Italian-Latin American Geological Meeting and Field Trip), CNR, MAE, IGCP Project 364: 31.
	
Beccaluva, L., et al. (1996). "Cross sections through the ophiolitic units of the Southern and Northern Margins of the Caribbean Plate, in Venezuela (Northern Cordilleras) and Central Cuba." Ofioliti 21(2): 85-103.
	
Beche, H. T. (1827). Remarks on the geology of Jamaica. Transcripts from the Geological Society of London. 2: 143-194.
	
Beck, C. (1983). "Essay on the geodynamic evolution of the southeastern Caribbean (Essai sur l'evolution geodynamique des Caraibes sudorientales)." Bulletin Societe Geologique Francais 25: 169-183.
	
Beck, C. (1986). "Collision caraibe, derive andine, et evolution geodynamique mesozoique-cenozoique des Caraibes (Caribbean collision, Andean drift, and Mesozoic-Cenozoic geodynamic evolution of the Caribbean islands)." Revue de Geologie Dynamique et de Geographie Physique 27(3-4): 163-182.
	
Beck, C. (1986). Geologie de la chaine caraibe au meridien de Caracas (Venezuela) (Geology of the Caribbean Chain south of Caracas (Venezuela)). Villeneuve d'Ascq, France, Societe Geologique du Nord.
	
Beck, C., et al. (1990). Eocene paleogeography of the southeastern Caribbean: Relations between sedimentary on the Atlantic abyssal plain at Site 672 and evolution of the South American margin. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Project, Scientific Results Leg 110. J. C. Moore, A. Mascle and e. al. College Station, Texas, Ocean Drilling Program. 110: 129-140.
	
Beck, C., et al. (1990). Eocene paleogeography of the southeastern Caribbean: Relations between sedimentation on the Atlantic abyssal plain at Site 672 and evolution of the South American margin. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. A. Mascle, J. C. Moore, E. Taylor et al. College Station, TX. 110: 7-15.
	
Beck, C. M. (1978). "Polyphasic Tertiary tectonics of the interior range in the central part of the western Caribbean chain, Guarico state, northern Venezuela." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 99-104.
	
Beck, C. M. (1985). New data about recent tectonics in the central part of the Caribbean chain:  The Santa Lucia-Ocumarie del Tuy Graben, Miranda State, Venezuela. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American geological conference. 4: 59-68.
	
Beck, C. M., et al. (1985). "The Caribbean chain from the Pacific to the Atlantic." Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference 4: 806-824.
	
Beckmann, J. P. (1974). "The new genera and species of benthonic foraminifera described from Trinidad." Verhandl. Naturf. Ges. Basel 84(1): 234-244.
	
Beckmann, J. P. (1991). "New taxa of foraminifera from the Cretaceous and basal Tertiary of Trinidad, West Indies." Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae 84(3): 819-835.
	
Beckmann, J. P., et al. (1956). Lexique Stratigraphique International, Amerique Latine, 2b, Antilles. paris, CNRS.
	
Beets, D., et al. (1984). Magmatic rock series and high-pressure metamorphic as constraints on the tectonic history of the southern Caribbean. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. Bonini, R. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 95-130.
	
Beets, D. J. (1972). "Lithology and stratigraphy of the Cretaceous and Danian succession of Curaçao." Uitgaven Natuurweternschappelijke Studierkring voor Suriname en Nederlandse Antillen, Utrecht 70: 153.
	
Beets, D. J. (1977). Cretaceous and Early Tertiary of Bonaire. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdam - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 18-28.
	
Beets, D. J. (1977). Cretaceous and Early Tertiary of Curaçao. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdamm - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 7-17.
	
Beets, D. J. (1977). Field trip to Late Senonian Knip Group, Zevenbergen, NW Curaçao. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdam - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 96-99.
	
Beets, D. J. and H. J. MacGillavry (1977). Outline of the Cretaceous and Early Tertiary history of Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire, and Aruba. ? Amsterdam - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 1-6.
	
Beets, D. J., et al. (1996). Geological Map of Aruba, Publications Foundation for Scientific Research in the Caribbean Region (140).
	
Bejarano, C. and O. Zorrilla (1994). Paleoenvironmental significance of the Cretaceous phosphatic facies in the Barinas-Apure Basin:  A contribution to the stratigraphy of the area. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 213-215.
	
Bell, J. S. (1972). Geotectonic evolution of the southern Caribbean area. ?? ?? Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 132: 369-386.
	
Bellizzia, A. (1972). Is the entire Caribbean Mountain belt a northern Venezuela allochthonous? ? ? Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 132: 363-368.
	
Bellizzia, A. (1985). Sistema montanosa del Caribe—una Cordillera aloctona en la parte norte de America del Sur (Mountain system of the Caribbean - an allocthonous cordillera in the north part of South America). Proceedings of the VI Venezuelan Geological Congress,. Caracas, Sociedad Venezolana Geologia Memorias. 10: 6657-6835.
	
Bellizzia, A. and G. Dengo (1990). Caribbean mountain system, northern South America. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and C. J.E. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 167-176.
	
Bellizzia, A. and N. Pimentel (1994). Un Cinturon Aloctono Herciniano en la Cordillera do los Andes de Venezuela (A Hercynian allocthonous belt in the Andes cordillera of Venezuela). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 271-290.
	
Bellon, H., et al. (1983). "K-Ar Radiometric Ages of Lavas From Cocos Island (Eastern Pacific)." Marine Geology 54: M17-M23.
	
Bellon, H. and J. Tournon (1978). "Contribution de la Geochronometrie K-Ar a l'etude du Magmatisme de Costa Rica,  Amerique Centrale." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 7(6): 955-959.
	
Bellon, H., et al. (1985). Chronologie 40K - 40Ar et affinités des manifestations magmatiques au Crétacé et au Paléogéne dans l'ile d'Hispaniola ( K/Ar dates and affinity of Cretaceous and Paleogene magmatic manifestation within Hispaniola). Géodynamique des Caraibes, Symposium Paris 5-8 Fevrier 1985. Paris, Editions Technip: 329-340.
	
Beltran , C., et al. (1992). Occurence of phenomena of liquification in the populated deltaic zones of Falcon Oriental, Venezuela (Ocurrencia de fenómenos de licuefacción en zonas deltáicas pobladas de Falcón Oriental, Venezuela) II II Simposio Latinoamericano sobre Riesgo Geológico Urbano, Pereira, Colombia. .
	
Bemis, B. E. and D. H. Geary (1996). "The usefulness of bivalve stable isotope profiles as environmental indicators: Data from the eastern Pacific Ocean and the southern Caribbean sea." Palaios 11(4): 328-339.
	
Bence, A. E., et al. (1975). "Petrology and Submarine Basalts From the Central Caribbean: DSDP Leg 15." Journal of Geophysical Research 80(35): 4775-4804.
	
Bender, M. L., et al. (1979). "Uranium-series dating of the Pleistocene reef tracts of Barbados, West Indies." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 90: 577-594.
	
Benedetto, G. and R. O. Odreman (1977). "Nuevas evidencias paleontológicas en la Formación La Quinta, su edad y correlación con las unidades aflorantes en la Sierra de Perijá y Cordillera Oriental de Colombia (New paleontological evidence for the La Quinta Formantion, its age and correlation with units cropping out in the Sierra de Perija and the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia)." Transactions of the 5th Venezuelan Geological Congress (Caracas, Venezuela): 87-106.
	
Benes, K. and V. Hanus (1967). "Structural control and history of origin of hydrothermal metallogeny in western Cuba." Mineral. Deposita 2: 318-333.
	
Benhamou, G., et al. (1988). "Oxygen fugacity of gases and rocks from Momotombo Volcano, Nicaragua:  Application to volcanological monitoring." Journal of Geophysical Research 93(B12): 14872-14880.
	
Benkhelil, J., et al. (1995). "The Guinea continental margin: An example of a structurally complex transform margin." Tectonophysics 248(1-2): 117-137.
	
Benoit, J. P. and S. R. McNutt (1997). "New constraints on source processes of volcanic tremor at Arenal Volcano, Costa Rica, using broadband seismic data." Geophysical Research Letters 24(4): 449-452.
	
Bent, A. L. and S. G. Evans (2004). Seismic history of the Middle America subduction zone along El Salvador, Guatemala, and Chiapas, Mexico; 1526-2000. Natural hazards in El Salvador. W. I. Rose, J. J. Bommer, D. L. Lopez, M. J. Carr and J. J. Major, Geological Society of America. 375: 397-404.
	The 13 January 2001 earthquake (M (sub W) 7.6) that occurred off the coast of El Salvador within the subducting slab of the Cocos plate caused nearly 1000 deaths, most of which were due to the hundreds of landslides triggered by the earthquake. The earthquake was well recorded by strong-motion stations within El Salvador and seismograph stations worldwide. Analysis of the strong-motion data is consistent with field observations of damage. Both the recorded accelerations and ground observations provide evidence for topographic amplification of the seismic waves. Magnitude-recurrence curves have been established for El Salvador and adjacent regions. Beta values of 1.96 for Central America and 1.84 for El Salvador (or b values of 0.85 and 0.80) are in the middle range of worldwide averages. The recurrence rate for magnitude 7.0 earthquakes is high-6 yr for Central America and 25 yr for El Salvador. Approximately 50% of large Central American earthquakes originate within the subducting slab.

Bentley, L. R. (1974). Crustal Structure of the Carnegie Ridge, Panama Basin and Cocos Ridge. ???, University of Hawaii: 49.
	
Bentley, S. J. and C. A. Nittrouer (1997). "Environmental influences on the formation of sedimentary fabric in a fine-grained carbonate-shelf environment: Dry Tortugas, Florida Keys." Geo - Marine Letters 17(4): 268-275.
	
Bergeat, A. (1903). "Die produkte der letzten eruption am Vulkan Santa Maria." Zentr. Bl. fuer Min. usw.: 112-117.
	
Bergeat, A. (1903). "Einige weitere Bemerkungen ueber die Produkte des Ausbruchs am Santa Maria." Zentr. Bl. guer, Min. usw.: 290-291.
	
Bergman, K. L. (2005). Seismic analysis of paleocurrent features in the Florida Straits: Insights into the paleo-Florida Current, upstream tectonics, and the Atlantic-Caribbean connection, University of Miami: 238.
	Although numerous studies have constrained the timing of oceanographic change over the past 25 My in the Caribbean and Atlantic through geochemical proxies, there is no complete and direct record of the shallow-water limb of North Atlantic circulation. The purpose of this study is to provide a direct record of the history of the paleo-Florida Current by utilizing the paleo-geomorphic record. Current derived geomorphic features identified in multi-channel seismic data record the temporal evolution of the Florida Current. The age control for these Neogene deep-water sediments comes from the correlation of Ocean Drilling Program Leg 166 dates into the seismic data. Additional Cretaceous-Paleogene ages come from the Great Isaac Well-1, located on the northwest corner of Great Bahama Bank. Currents in the Florida Straits are capable of forming both erosive and constructional sedimentary features including erosive channels, deep-water discontinuities, sediment waves and drift deposits. The geomorphic record indicates that the upper limb of the North Atlantic MOC varied in concert with the deep-water limb of the MOC, and with shoaling of the CAS. Current activity through the seaway decreased around 15 Ma, about the same time as Atlantic deep-water cooling and the slow down of thermohaline overturn. Initial shoaling of the CAS strengthened the paleo-Florida Current around 12.2 Ma, at the same time as the North Atlantic MOC began to increase. A strengthening of flow at 6.4 Ma, &sim;2 My before observed salinity increases in the Caribbean, suggests that enhanced thermohaline overturn in the North Atlantic was not solely related to salinity changes in the western boundary current. Shoaling of the seaway as early as the late Miocene may have been responsible for an invigorated MOC. A decrease in the flow of currents around 3.6 Ma suggests a decrease in the North Atlantic MOC took place that was unrelated to closure of the CAS. In contrast to the Florida Straits, the Santaren Channel has been a deep-water reentrant since before the Middle Cretaceous. Opening of the channel to the Florida Straits was the result of thrust-fault loading that led to progressive drowning of carbonate platforms away from the Cuba-Bahama collision zone. During foreland basin evolution, several platforms drowned and became buried by deep-water sediments. Drowning occurred earliest in the southernmost region in the Late Cretaceous and latest in the northernmost region in the early Miocene. The progressive drowning away from the collision zone indicates that long-lived thrusting and loading in the Cuba-Bahama collision zone, rather than sea-level changes, caused the platforms to drown.

Bergmann, F. A. J. (1958). Descripcion geologica de la Hoha Quetzaltenango (Geologic Description of La Hoha Quetzaltenango), Direccion General de Mineria e Hidrocarburos, Guatemala City.
	
Bergoeing G., J. P., et al. (1978). "Evidencias de Vulcanismo Plio - Cuaternario en la Fila Costena, Terraba, Costa Rica (Evidence of Plio-Quaternary igneous in the Fila Costena, Terraba, Costa Rica)." Informe Semestral 2 (?).
	
Bergoeing G., J. P. and R. J. Rodriguez (???). Uso del suelo sector Quepos - Manuel Antonio.
	
Bermudez, G. A. (1985). Estudio freccuencial de terremotos del noroccidente de Sur America y areas vecinas (Earthquake frequency study of the northwest of South America and neighboring areas). Bogota, Colombia, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Mineras.
	
Bermudez, J. (2003). Sequence Stratigraphy and Depositional History of the upper Cañón del Tule, Las Imágenes, and lower Cerro Grande formations, central Parras Basin, northeastern México. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, University of Texas at Austin: 210.
	
Bermudez, P. J. (1949). Tertiary Smaller Foraminifera of the Dominican-Republic. ???, Cushman Laboratory for Foraminiferal Research.
	
Bermudez, P. J. (1968). Considerations regarding the Middle Miocene to Recent sediments of the coast of Venezuela. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean Printers, Arima, Trinidad and Tobago.
	
Bermudez, P. J. and H. A. Gamez (1966). "Estudio paleontologico de una seccion del Eoceno (Paleontologic study of a section of the Eocene)." Memoria de la Sociedad de Ciencias Naturales La Salle 26(75): 205-259.
	
Bermúdez, P. J. and R. Hoffstetter (1959). "Lexique Stratigraphique International." Amerique Latine., Cuba 5 
	
Bernard, P., et al. (1990). "Assessing regional and local seismic hazard in Guadeloupe and Martinique (Evaluation de l'alea sismique regional et local aux Antilles francaises; Guadeloupe et Martinique)." Reunion Annuelle des Sciences de la Terre (13e reunion des sciences de la terre (Thirteenth meeting on Earth sciences)) 13: 14.
	
Bernard, P. and J. Lambert (1988). "Subduction and seismic hazard in the Northern Lesser Antilles: Revision of historical seismicity." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 78: 1965-1983.
	
Berrangé, J. (1989). "The Osa Group: An auriferous Pliocene sedimentary unit from the Osa Peninsula, southern Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 10: ???
	
Berrangé, J. and S. Mathers (1990). "Technical note: Industrial, non-metallic minerals in Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 11: ???
	
Berrangé, J. P. (1987). "Gas seeps on the margin of the Golfo Dulce pull-apart basin, southern Costa Rica." Revista Geologica de America Central 6: 103-107.
	
Berrangé, J. P. (1987). "Gold in Costa Rica." Mining Magazine: 402-407.
	
Berrangé, J. P. (1992). "Gold from the Golfo Dulce placer province, southern Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 14: ???
	
Berrangé, J. P., et al. (1989). "K/Ar age dating of the opiolitic Nicoya Complex of the  Osa Peninsula, southern Costa Rica." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 2(1): 49-59.
	
Berrangé, J. P. and R. S. Thorpe (1988). "The geology, geochemistry and emplacement of the Cretaceous-Tertiary ophiolitic complex of the Osa Peninsula, southern Costa Rica." Tectonophysics 146: 193-220.
	
Berrnagé, J. P. (1987). "Technical note: Gas seeps on the margins of the Golfo Dulce pull-apart basin, southern Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 6: ???
	
Berryhill, H. L., Jr. (1965). Geology of the Ciales Quadrangle, Puerto Rico.
	
Berryhill, H. L. and L. Glover (???). Geologic Map of the Cayey Quadrangle, Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Berthe, D., et al. (1979). "Orthogneiss, mylonite and non coaxial deformation of granites:  The example of the South Armerican Shear Zone." Journal of Structural Geology 1: 31-42.
	
Bertrand, A. S. E. and W. G. Bertrand (1986). Plate tectonic evolution of the southeast Caribbean. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago. K. Rodrigues. San Juan, General Printers: 242-260.
	
Bertrand, D. (1989). A review of hazard mapping and risk assessment at the Institute of Marine Affairs, Trinidad. Meeting of Experts on Hazard Mapping in the Caribbean: Proceedings. D. Barker. Mona, Jamaica, Department of Geography, University West Indies: 13-22.
	
Bertrand, D., et al. (1991). Coastlines of Trinidad and Tobago; a coastal stability perspective. Coastlines of the Caribbeanan. G. Chambers. New York, NY, American Society of Civil Engineers: 1-16.
	
Bertrand, D., et al. (1986). Landslide and flood distribution in the west coastal area of Trinidad: The role of  Geology. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 129-139.
	
Bertrand, J., et al. (1978). "Ages K-Ar sur diverses ophiolites et roches assocites de la Cordillere centrale du Guatemala (K-Ar ages of diverse ophiolites and rocks associated with the Central Cordillera of Guatemala)." Bull. suisse Mineral. Petrogr. 58: 405-412.
	
Bertrand, J., et al. (1978). "Ages (K-Ar) sur diverses ophiolites et roches associées de la Cordillère centrale du Guatémala (K-Ar ages of diverse ophiolites and associated rocks of the central cordillera of Guatemala)." Bulletin Suisse de Minéralogie et Petrographie 58: 405-412.
	
Bertrand, J. and H. Sarp (1976). "Sur la pesence de vuagnatite dans un gabbro ophiolitique du Guatemala (Concerning the presence of vuagnatite within an ophiolitic gabbro of Guatemala)." Bulletin Suisse de Minéralogie et Petrographie 56: 540-544.
	
Bertrand, J. and M. Vuagnat (1975). "Sur la présence de basaltes en coussins dans la zone ophiolitique meridionale de la Cordillere centrale du Guatemala (Concerning the presence of basalts in coushins within the meridional ophiolitic zone of the Central Cordillera of Guatemala)." Bulletin Suisse de Minéralogie et Petrographie 55: 136-142.
	
Bertrand, J. and M. Vuagnat (1976). "Etude pétrographique de diverses ultrabasites ophiolitiques du Guatemala de de leurs inclusions (Petrographic study of diverse ophiolitic ultrabasics of Guatemala with their inclusions)." Bulletin Suisse de Minéralogie et Petrographie 56: 527-540.
	
Bertrand, J. and M. Vuagnat (1979). Inclusions in the serpentinite melange of the Motagua fault zone, Guatemala. Symposium on Tectonic Inclusions and Associated Rocks in Serpentintites. J. Bertrand and J. Deferne. Geneva, Switzerland: 321-335.
	
Bertrand, J. and M. Vuagnat (1980). "Inclusions in the serpentinite melange of the Motagua fault zone, Guatemala: Tectonic Inclusions and Associated Rocks in Serpentinites." Archives des Sciences, Société de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Genève 33: 321-335.
	
Bertrand, R. (1991). Non-Petroleum Economic Geology of Trinidad: Field guide to selected industrial rock and mineral industries in Trinidad. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago.
	
Bertrand, W. G. (1979). "Geology of the point Formation Field." Transactions of the 4th Latin American Geological Congress, Trinidad: 690-699.
	
Best, D. M. (1977). Spatial and Temporal Relationships of Earthquake Activity in the Circum-Caribbean and Adjacent Regions. Department of Geology. Chapel Hill, Carolina, University of North Carolina: 159.
	
Betzer, P. R. (1971). The Concentration and Distribution of Particulate Iron in Waters of the Northwestern Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea. Department of Geology. Kingston, RI, University of Rhode Island: ?
	
Bexon, R. (1952). A Petroleum Engineering Study of the Upper Miocene Oil Reservoirs, Main Quarry-West Coora Field, Trinidad, B.W.I. Department of Geosciences. Tulsa, OK, University of Tulsa: unknown p.
	
Bezada, M. and C. Schubert (1987). "Quaternary chronology in Venezuela: Some methodologic and pedologic problems (Cronología cuaternaria en Venezuela: algunos problemas metodológicos y pedológicos)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 38: 1-12.
	
Bibikova, E., et al. (1989). "Mabujina complex of Cuba: Its age and geological position." Resúmenes y Programa, Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 98.
	
Bibikova, E., et al. (1988). "First results of the U-Pb dating of metamorphic rocks from the arc of the Greater Antilles: Ages of the Mabujina Complex of Cuba " Dokladi Akad. Nauk SSSR 301(4): 924-928.
	
Bidigare, R. R., et al. (1993). "Influence of the Orinoco River outflow on distributions of algal pigments in the Caribbean Sea." Journal of Geophysical Research:  Oceans 98(2): 2259-2269.
	
Bien Aimé-Momplaisir, R. (1986). Contribution to the Geologic Study of the Eastern Part of the Massif of La Hotte (Presqu'île du Sud d'Haïti). Structural Synthesis of the Margins of the Peninsula From Seismic Data. (Contribution à l'étude géologique de la partie  orientale du massif de la Hotte (Presqu'île du Sud d'Haïti). Synthèse structurale des marges de la presqu'île à partir de données sismiques). Paris, France, Université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie (Paris-VI): 199.
	
Biju-Duval, B., Mascle, A., Rosales, H., and Young, G. (1982). Episutural Oligo-Miocene basins along the north Venezuela margin. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists.
	
Biju-Duval, B., et al. (1983). Active margin processes: field observations in southern Hispaniola. Studies in Continental Margin Geology. J. S. Watkins and C. L. Drake. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists: 325-346.
	
Biju-Duval, B., et al. (1980). Field Trip E, Rio Gurabo: Field Guide for the 9th Caribbean Geological Conference. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.
	
Biju-Duval, B., et al. (1981). "Multi-beam bathymetric survey and high-resolution seismic investigations on the Barbados Ridge complex (Eastern Caribbean): a key to the knowledge and interpretation of an accretionary wedge." Tectonophysics 80: 275-304.
	
Biju-Duval, B., et al. (1978). "Seismic investigations in the Columbia, Venezuela, and Grenada Basins and on the Barbados Ridge for Future IPOD drilling." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 105-116.
	
Binig, C. (1990). Seismic Stratigraphy of the Gulf of Honduras Area Northwest Caribbean. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas: 132.
	
Birch, F. S. (1970). "The Barracuda fault zone in the western North Atlantic." Deep-Sea Research 17: 847-859.
	
Birch, F. S. (1986). "Isostatic, thermal and flexural models of the subsidence of the north Coast of Puerto Rico." Geology 14: 427-429.
	
Bird, D. E., et al. (1993). "Interpretation of magnetic anomalies over the Grenada Basin." Tectonics 12: 1267-1279.
	
Bird, D. E., et al. (1999). Tectonic evolution of the Grenada Basin. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 389-416.
	
Bishop, W. F. (1980). "Petroleum geology of northern Central America." Journal of Petroleum Geology 3: 3-59.
	
Bitter, M. R. (1993). Sedimentary and Provenance of Chicontepec Sandstones with Implications for Uplift of the Sierra Madre Oriental and Teziutlan Massif, East-Center Mexico. GCSSEPM Foundation 13th Annual Research Conference, ???, ???
	
Bizon, G., et al. (1985). Stratigraphie du Tertiaire du sud d'Hispaniola (Grandes Antilles): Influence de la tectonique decrochante sur la paleogeographie et l'histoire sedimentaire (Tertiary stratigraphy of southern Hispaniola: Influence of tectonics on paleogeography and depositional history). Geodynamique des Caraibes. Paris, Editions Technip: 371-380.
	
Black, C. D. G., et al. (1972). Preliminary Investigtion of the Castleton Copper Prospect. Kingston, Jamaica, Jamaica Geological Survey Department: 26.
	
Blacut, G. and R. M. Kleinpell (1969). "A stratigraphic sequence of benthonic smaller foraminifera from the La Boca Formation, Panama Canal Zone." Contributions of the Cushman Foundation for Foraminiferal Research 20: 1-22.
	
Bladier, I. (1977). "Rocas verdes de la region de Carupano, Venezuela (Greenstones in the region of Carupano, Venezuela)." Caracas Boletin Geodinimica, Comite International de Geodinimica, Grupo 2???: 35-49.
	
Blair, T. C. (1986). Paleoenvironments, tectonic and eustatic controls on sedimentary, regional stratigraphic correlation, and plate tectonic significance of the Jurassic - lowermost Cretaceous Todos Santos and San Ricardo Formations, Chiapas, Mexico, University of Colorado: 251.
	
Blair, T. C. (1987). "Mixed siliciclastic-carbonate marine and continental syn-rift sedimentation, Upper Jurassic-lowermost Cretaceous Todos Santos and San Ricardo Formations, western Chiapas, Mexico." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 58: 623-636.
	
Blair, T. C. (1987). "Tectonic and hydrologic control on cyclic alluvial fan, fluvial, and lacustrine rift-basin sedimentation, Jurassic-lowermost Cretaceous Todos Santos Formation, Chiapas, Mexico." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 57: 845-862.
	
Blair, T. C. (1988). "Mixed siliciclastic-carbonate marine and continental syn-rift sedimentary, Upper Jurassic-lowermost Cretaceous Todos Santos and San Ricardo Formations, western Chiapas, Mexico." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 58: 623-636.
	
Blanc, G., et al. (1999). "Fluid flow and complete subduction of the Cocos Plate sediments ('Leg ODP 170')." Comptes Rendus de L Academie Des Sciences Serie II Fascicule A - Sciences de La Terre et Des Planetes 329(2): 117-123.
	
Blanchon, P. and A. Eisenhauer (2001). "Multi-stage reef development on Barbados during the Last Interglaciation." Quaternary Science Reviews 20: 1093-1112.
	By mapping the vertical and lateral distribution of reefal facies on the west and south coast of Barbados we have produced a revised model of reef development for the Last Interglaciation. We find that reef architecture around Barbados has significant complexity including evidence for wave exposure-related variations in reef geometry and at least 3 stages of reef development that were controlled by variations in sea level.

During the main stage of development, an Acropora palmata- dominated reef-crest aggraded ~22 m in response to a minimum sea-level rise of 20 m. During stage 2, a sea cave was cut 3-4 m above the fossil reef-crest, possibly indicating that reef growth was terminated before sea level reached the highstand. Similar sequences elsewhere in the Caribbean indicate that this early reef demise may not be a local phenomenon: several reefs apparently stopped growing between +2 and +4 m and only in sheltered areas did they reach the highstand at +6 m, as recorded by intertidal notches. This pattern of reef demise has previously been related to rapid sea-level rise at the end of the interglacial, but stratigraphic data are equivocal. The final stage of reef development on Barbados occurred when sea level began to fall. This fall was rapid, leaving a thin but widespread veneer of reef-crest deposits over the proximal reef-front, and discontinuous intertidal and shallow subtidal deposits capping the distal reef-front.

Although further dating is required to differentiate these 3 stages, our only reliable U-Th TIMS date indicates that almost 50% of the exposed reef had accreted by 129 ka, giving an estimate of 15 ka for the main aggradational stage. Furthermore, reports of relict reef-crests buried beneath these exposed deposits indicate that our revised model is incomplete and that earlier stages of reef growth occurred during the Last Interglaciation. These earlier stages imply that sea-level was at an ‘interglacial level’ for as long as 20 ka—supporting the Devils Hole record of interglacial duration. Unfortunately, these estimates could not be verified directly because most of our U-Th data show major stratigraphic age reversals attributed to diagenesis. This pattern is also evident in all other well-dated reefal units in the Caribbean and leads us to conclude that only diagenetically-screened, precise, stratigraphically-consistent coral dates can be used to directly estimate the duration of the Last Interglaciation.

Blanchon, P. and B. Jones (1995). "Marine-planation terraces on the shelf around Grand Cayman: A result of stepped Holocene sea-level rise." Journal of Coastal Research 11: 1-33.
	The shelf around Grand Cayman consists of two seaward-sloping terraces separated by a mid-shelf scarp. Except along the exposed-windward margin where coral growth is dominant, the upper terrace (0-10 m bsl) largely consists of a barren rocky pavement traversed by erosional furrows. Exposure-related trends in the morphology and distribution of these erosional features, and the lack of coral growth, demonstrates that the terrace is the result of contemporary erosion during seasonal storms. The upper terrace is terminated by a mid-shelf scarp (10-20 m bsl) that, in most areas, is partially to completely buried by modern carbonate deposits. Along narrow sections of the leeward shelf however, the scarp is commonly exposed and displays an erosional intertidal notch at -18.5 m. The lower terrace (12-40 m bsl) extends from the mid-shelf scarp to the shelf edge. Its surface is a modern reef-and-sediment wedge that thickens toward the shelf edge, reaching up to 40 m in thickness. These deposits are underlain by a seaward-sloping bedrock terrace (20-40 m bsl). This buried terrace and the mid-shelf scarp, which are geomorphic equivalents of the upper terrace and coastal cliff, represent an earlier episode of marine planation when sea-level was stabilized at a lower position.

The contemporary erosional features of the upper-shelf terrace, and the presence of identical terraces around recently uplifted islands, demonstrates that the terraces on Grand Cayman were sculptured by marine erosion during the last deglacial sea-level rise. The lower terrace and the mid-shelf scarp were eroded during a slow-rise episode from 11-7 ka and were subsequently drowned by an extremely rapid, 5 m rise-event at ~7 ka. Following this catastrophic event, which drowned fast-growing Acropora reefs in other areas of the Caribbean, sea-level stabilized and rose slowly to its present position, producing the upper terrace. This pronounced stepped pattern in Holocene sea-level rise remains to be confirmed from outside the Caribbean-Atlantic reef province but is consistent with the stepped nature of pre-Holocene sea-level curves.

The presence of seaward sloping terraces on many shelves around the world suggests that erosional terrace cutting is a common phenomenon during sea-level rise. In contrast, terraces in areas that have undergone relative sea-level fall are constructional in origin, being produced entirely by reef accretion. This suggests that there is a genetic relationship between the sea-level cycle and terrace type, with erosional terraces forming during rise and constructional terraces during fall.

Blanchon, P. and B. Jones (1997). "Hurricane control on shelf-edge-reef architecture around Grand Cayman." Sedimentology 44: 479-506.
	Rimming the outer shelf of Grand Cayman is a submerged, 87-km long shelf-edge reef that rises to within 12 m of mean sea level. It consists of an array of coral-armoured buttresses aligned perpendicular to shore and separated by steep-sided sediment-floored canyons. Individual buttresses have a diverse coral-dominated biota and consist of 3 architectural elements: a shield-like front wall colonized by platy corals, a dome-shaped crown colonized by head corals, and a shoreward-projecting spur covered by varying amounts of branching coral. Buttresses are commonly fronted by coral pinnacles that, in some areas, have amalgamated with buttress walls to produce pinnacle-and-arch structures.

As margin orientation changes, shelf-edge-reef architecture shows systematic variations that are consistent with changes in fetch and height of hurricane waves. Along margins exposed to fully-developed storm waves, shelf-edge-reef buttresses are deep, have large amplitudes, and are dominated by robust head corals. These characteristics are consistent with hurricane-induced pruning of branching corals and the flushing of significant quantities of sand from buttress canyons by return flows. Along margins impacted by fetch-limited storm waves, reef buttresses are shallower, have intermediate-amplitudes, and have a significantly higher proportion of branching corals. These characteristics are consistent with less coral pruning and sand flushing by weaker hurricane waves. Along margins fully protected from storm waves, the buttresses-canyon architecture of the shelf-edge reef breaks down producing a series of shallow, undulating, branching-coral-dominated ridges that merge laterally into an unbroken belt of coral. These characteristics correspond with negligible amounts of pruning and flushing during hurricanes. 

In addition to differences between margins,  local intra-marginal changes in shelf-edge reef architecture are consistent with changes in the angle of hurricane-wave approach. Open sections of the shelf-edge reef, which face directly into storm waves, are pruned of branching corals and the fragments swept back onto the shelf producing extensive spurs. By contrast, on more sheltered, obliquely-oriented sections, storm-waves sweep debris along and off shelf producing little or no spur development. Instead, the debris shed seawards accumulates in front of the buttress walls and initiates the development of coral pinnacles.

Over time, repeated buttress pruning and canyon flushing during hurricanes not only controls reef architecture but may also influence accretion patterns. Vertical accretion is limited by the effective depth of storm-wave fragmentation. Once this hurricane-accretion threshold is reached the reef moves into a shedding phase and accretes laterally via pinnacle growth, amalgamation, and infilling. Consequently, the reef steps out over its own debris in a kind of balancing act between lateral growth and slope failure—a pattern widely recognized in ancient reefs.

Blanchon, P., et al. (2002). "Discovery of a submerged relic reef and shoreline off Grand Cayman: further support for an early Holocene jump in sea level." Sedimentary Geology 147: 253-270.
	Drilling close to the base of a submerged sea cliff on the terraced eastern shelf of Grand Cayman has revealed a relic Acropora palmata reef at a depth of 21m below msl. Ten cores from it's crest are principally composed of cobble-sized clasts of A. palmata set in a matrix of cemented skeletal grainstone. The clasts have a distinctive succession of encrusters which indicate rapid burial: a photophylic association of crustose coralline algae, foraminifera and vermetid gastropods superimposed by a cryptic association of sclerosponges, foraminifera and serpulids. In addition to rapid burial, U-Th thermal ionization mass spectrometer (TIMS) dating of coral clasts within 1m of the relic-reef surface indicates minor temporal mixing with ages between 8.9 to 8.1ka. Such mixing and indication of rapid burial is consistent with a hurricane deposit and is identical to deposits found on the crests of modern reefs. In relation to its age, the preservation of a -18.5m intertidal notch in the submerged sea-cliff on the western shelf of Grand Cayman implies that the crest of the relic reef has been lowered 1.5-2m by marine abrasion/bioersion at a rate of ~0.25mm.yr-1. Reconstructing this eroded section using average Holocene accretion rates indicates that the reef likely ceased accreting at ~7.6ka at a depth of ~19m. Comparing these data with other relic reefs in the Caribbean indicates that the relic reef on Grand Cayman died within 160 years of relic-reefs on Barbados, St. Croix, St. Thomas and north Florida. This narrow interval of reef demise also coincides with the time when modern reefs were establishing themselves some 4-9m higher upslope-a fact that can only be resolved by invoking a rapid 6 m jump in sea level ~7.6ka ago. Such a jump would also account for two unexplained events around this time: the restricted interval of global delta initiation and the catastrophic flooding of the glacially-lowered Black Sea.

Blanchon, P., et al. (1997). "Anatomy of a fringing reef around Grand Cayman: Storm rubble, not coral framework." Journal of Sedimentary Research 67: 1-16.
	Our fair-weather perception of modern reefs has led to the implicit assumption that their development is controlled by processes that govern the siting of in-place coral growth. Yet more ephemeral processes, such as storms and hurricanes, assume much greater importance over longer time scales because few reefs escape their influence. To discover the importance of storms on reef development, we analyze the zonation, anatomy, and architecture of a fringing-reef complex around Grand Cayman. We find that the surface zonation of in-place corals is merely a facade and the reef core is in fact composed of meter-thick layers of coral-cobble rudstone capped by crusts of coralline algae. The large size and abraded condition of the rudstone clasts shows these layers are not the product of fair-weather processes but the result of destruction and deposition during hurricanes. As hurricane waves cross coral-mantled zones of the inner shelf, they destroy live coral stands and deposit the clasts as a rubble layer covering the entire reef complex. Between storms, this rubble foundation is stabilized by coralline-algal crusts and recolonized by rapidly growing corals, leading eventually to full reef regeneration before the next hurricane. This cyclic pattern of destruction and regeneration consequently produces a fringing-reef complex with a core composed of hurricane-generated rubble---not coral framework as previously assumed.

In addition to explaining reef anatomy, hurricane control also explains the variation in reef architecture along shelf, uniform reef location across shelf, and reef absence along certain shelf sections. As hurricane waves cross a mid-shelf scarp, they start to break and destroy coral growth over most of the inner shelf. Coral rubble generated by these waves is deposited 350 (± 50) m from the mid-shelf scarp on margins exposed to the largest waves, but only 250 (± 50) m on semiprotected margins that experience smaller, fetch-limited waves. In areas where the width of the inner shelf is < 250 m, hurricane waves throw rubble ashore and a fringing reef does not develop. During sea-level rise, this influence of shelf width on rubble deposition controls the timing of reef initiation, and that in turn controls reef architecture. Reefs initiate first on low-gradient coasts with wide shelves, and gradually extend around higher-gradient coasts as sea level rises and shelf width increases. Thus, older reefs are located farther offshore, front deeper lagoons, and have thicker and narrower profiles than younger reefs.

Blanchon, P. and J. Shaw (1995). "Reef drowning during the last deglaciation: Evidence for catastrophic sea-level rise and ice-sheet collapse." Geology 23(1): 4-8.
	Elevations and ages of drowned Acropora palmata reefs from the Caribbean-Atlantic region document three catastrophic, metre-scale sea-level-rise events during the last deglaciation. These catastrophic rises were synchronous with (1) collapse of the Laurentide and Antarctic ice sheets, (2) dramatic reorganization of ocean-atmosphere circulation and, (3) releases of huge volumes of sub- and proglacial meltwater. This correlation suggests that release of stored meltwater periodically de-stabilized ice sheets, causing them to collapse and send huge fleets of icebergs into the Atlantic. Massive inputs of ice not only produced catastrophic sea-level rise, drowning reefs and destabilizing other ice sheets, but also rapidly reduced the elevation of the Laurentide ice sheet, flipping atmospheric circulation patterns and forcing warm equatorial waters into the frigid North Atlantic. Such dramatic evidence of catastrophic climate and sea-level change during deglaciation has potentially disastrous implications for the future, especially as the stability of remaining ice sheets—such as west Antarctica—is in question

Blaser, R. and C. White (1984). Source rock and carbonization study, Maracaibo basin, Venezuela. ??? Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists: 229-254.
	
Blein, O., et al. (2003). "Geochemistry of the Mabujina Complex, central Cuba; implications on the Cuban Cretaceous arc rocks." Journal of Geology 111(1): 89-101.
	The margins of the Caribbean plate are marked by Cretaceous island-arc basalts associated with accreted fragments of the Cretaceous Colombian Caribbean oceanic plateau. In Cuba, the Cretaceous volcanic island-arc rocks are in fault contact with the Mabujina complex, interpreted as an oceanic Jurassic to Early Cretaceous arc basement with local island-arc rocks. The Cuban Cretaceous island arc consists of Early to Late Cretaceous volcanic series associated with limestones. While the pre-Albian arc rocks consist of tholeiitic basalts and rhyolites, the post-Albian volcanic series is characterized by calc-alkaline andesites. The Cretaceous lavas have Sr and Nd isotopic compositions similar to the intraoceanic arcs, and the Pb isotopic initial ratios are close to the East Pacific Rise mid-ocean ridge basalt field. According to our data, the Mabujina arc rocks are tholeiites and calc-alkaline basalts, developed in a Jurassic and/or Early Cretaceous intraoceanic island arc. Their Nd, Sr, and Pb isotopic compositions indicate that they derive from a depleted mantle source contaminated by sediments. This subduction magmatism is not related to the classic Early Cretaceous Caribbean tholeiitic series but is similar to the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous Guerrero arc terrane from Mexico and may represent its southernmost extension. Thus, the different tectonic units of central Cuba cannot be easily correlated with those of Hispaniola. Our data also indicate that two different island arcs were tectonically juxtaposed in central Cuba: the classical Lower and Upper Cretaceous suites of the Greater Antilles arc and a Jurassic to Early Cretaceous island-arc suite with a Pacific provenance.

Blesch, P. (1966). Mapa Geologico Preliminar, Republica Dominicana (Reconocimiento y Evaluacion de los Recursos de la Republica Dominicana) (Preliminary Geologic Map, Dominican Republic (Recognition and evaluation of the recourses of the Dominican Republic)), Union Panamericana. 2.
	
Blin, B., et al. (1990). Contribution of paleomagnetism in the relations between the Piemontin and internal nappes of the Venezuelan Caribbean chain: Synthesis and new data. Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Scoiety: 453-460.
	
Blough, N. V., et al. (1993). "Optical absorption spectra of waters from the Orinoco River outflow:  Terrestrial input of colored organic matter to the Caribbean." Journal of Geophysical Research:  Oceans 98(2): 2271-2278.
	
Blount, D. N. and C. H. Moore (1969). "Depositional and nondepositional carbonate breccias, Chiantla quadrangle, Guatemala." Geological Society of America Bulletin 80: 429-442.
	
Blow, W. H. (1959). "Age, Correlation, and Biostratigraphy of the Upper Tocuyo (San Lorenzo) and Pozon Fromation, Eastern Falcon, Venezuela)." Bulletin of American Paleontology 39(178): 193.
	
Boardman, M., and Carney, C. (1996). Pigeon Creek and Tidal Delta: A field trip guide. San Salvador, Bahamas, Bahamian Field Station.
	
Boardman, M. R. and C. Carney (1990). Field Trip Guide to the Ooids of Joulters Cays and North Andros Island. San Salvador, Bahamas, Bahamian Field Station.
	
Boardman, M. R. and C. Carney (1992). The Geology of Columbus Landfall: A Field Guide to the Holocene Geology of San Salvador, Bahamas, Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geological Survey: 49.
	
Boardman, M. R. and C. Carney (1992). Guide to the geology of Pigeon Creek and Snow Bay, San Salvador. Field Trip Guide for Sixth Symposium on the Geology of the Bahamas. G. D. San Salvador, Bahamas, Bahamian Field Station: 26-32.
	
Boardman, M. R. and C. K. Carney (2000). Joulters Cays and North Andros Island, Bahamas: A Field Trip Guide. San Salvador, Bahamas, Bahamian Field Station.
	
Bobenko, V., et al. (1980). "New dates on the deep structure of eastern Cuba." Sovieskaya Geologia 9: 101-109.
	
Bocchio, R., et al. (1990). "The eclogite-bearing series of Isla Margarita, Venezuela: Geochemistry of metabasic lithologies in the La Rinconada and Juan Griego Group." Lithos 25: 55-69.
	
Bocchio, R., et al. (1996). "Equilibration conditions of eclogite lenses from Isla Margarita, Venezuela: Implications for the tectonic evolution of sedimentary Juan Griego Group." Lithos 37: 39-59.
	
Bockmeulen, H., et al. (1983). "Geology and geochemistry of crude oils, Bolivar coastal fields, Venezuela." Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 67: 242-270.
	
Boesi, T. (1978). Resumen sobre el origen de las acumulaciones de hidrocarburos en la Fm. Misoa, area del lago de Maracaibo. Informe privado, Maraven, S.A.
	
Boesi, T., and Goddard, D. (1991). A new geological model related to the distribution of hydrocarbon source rocks in the Falcón basin, northwestern Venezuela. Active margin basins. K. Biddle, The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Memoir 52: 303-319.
	
Boesi, T. and D. Goddard (1989). A new geologic model related to the distribution of hydrocarbon source rocks in the Falcón basin, northwestern Venezuela. Active Margin Basins. K. T. Biddle. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists: 35-49.
	
Böhnel, H. and et al. (1988). "Paleomagnetism and ore petrology of three Cretaceous-Tertiary batholiths of southern Mexico." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte: 97-127.
	
Böhnel, H. and et al. (1989). Paleomagnetic data and the accretion of the Guerrero terrane, southern Mexico continental margin, deep structure and past kinematics of accreted terranes, American Geophysical Union.
	
Böhnel, H., et al. (1990). "Palaeomagnetic results from the southern Sierra Madre Oriental, Mexico: evidence for Early Cretaceous or Laramide remagnetization?" Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 64: 211-223.
	
Bohnenberger, O. (1978). "Plate-tectonic hypothesis as related to Central America." Bol. Inst. Geol. Univ. nac. auton. Mexico ??? ???(101): 33-46.
	
Bohnenberger, O. H. and G. Dengo (1978). Coal resources in Central America. Coal Resources of the Americas, Selected Papers. F. E. Kottlowski, A. T. Cross and A. A. Meyerhoff. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America: 65-72.
	
Bohor, B. and R. Sietz (1990). "Cuban K/T catastrophe." Nature.
	
Bohrmann, G., et al. (2002). "Widespread fluid expulsion along the seafloor of the Costa Rica convergent margin." Terra Nova 14(2): 69–79.
	
Bohrson, W. A. and M. R. Reid (1996). "Petrogenesis of alkaline basalts from Socorro Island, Mexico: Trace element e vidence for contamination of ocean island basalt in the shallow ocean crust (vol  24, pg 555, 1995)." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 101(B4): 8311-8316.
	
Boinet, T. (1983). La frontiere meridionale de la plaque caraibe aux confins colombo-venezueliens (Norte de Santander, Colombie):  donnees geologiques (The Meridional Frontier of the Caribbean Plate within the Columbian-Venezuelan Confines (North of Santander, Columbia): Geologic Data). University of Pierre and Marie Curie. Paris: 204.
	
Boinet, T., et al. (1985). "Le poinçon de Pamplona (Colombie): un jalon de la frontiere meridionale de la plaque caraibe (The poinçon of Pamplona (Columbia): A stake of the meridianal frontier of the Caribbean plate)." Bulletin Societe Geologie France 1: 403-413.
	
Boisseau, M. (1987). The Northeast Flank of the Dominican Central Cordillera (Hispaniola, Greater Antilles): An Edifice of Cretaceous Polyphase Nappes (Le flanc nord-est de la Cordillère Centrale dominicaine (Hispaniola, Grandes Antilles): Un édifice de nappes Crétacé polyphasé). Paris, France, Université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie (Paris-VI): 173.
	
Boisson, D. (1987). Geologic Study of the Massif of Northern Haiti (Hispaniola-Greater Antilles) (Etude géologique du massif du nord d'Haiti (Hispaniola-Grandes Antilles)). Paris, France, Université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie (Paris-VI): 232.
	
Boiteau, A., et al. (1972). "Le complexe ophiolitique du Purial (Oriente, Cuba) et son metamorphisme de haute pression: problemes de datacion et de correlation (The ophiolitic complex of Purial (Oriente, Cuba) and high pressure metamorphic: Problems of dating and correlation)." Comptes Rendus Academie Sciences Paris, Series D 275: 895.
	
Boiteau, A. and M. Campos (?). Data preliminares sobre la geologia de la parte sur de la Sierra del Purial (Preliminary data on the geology of the southern part of La Sierra del Purial), University de Oriente.
	
Boiteau, A. and A. Michard (1974). "Donnes nouvelles sur le socle metamorphique de Cuba. Problemes d'aplication de la tectonique del plaques (New data on the metamorphic cycle of Cuba. Problems of application to plate tectonics)." Memoir VII Caribbean Geological Conference, Guadalupe: ?
	
Boiteau, A. and A. Michard (1974). "Donnes nouvelles sur le socle metamorphique de Cuba: Problemes d'application de la tectonique des plaques (New data on the metamorphic cocle of Cuba: Problems of the application of plate tectonics)." VII Conferencia Geologica del Caribe, Guadelupe?`: ?
	
Boiteau, A., et al. (1972). "Métamorphisme de haute pression dans le complexe ophiolitique du Purial (Oriente, Cuba) (High pressure metamorphic within the ophiolitic complex of Purial (Oriente, Cuba)." CNRS  274: 2137-2140, Paris.
	
Boiteau, A., et al. (1972). "Metamorphisme de haute pression dans le complexe ophiolitique du Purial (Oriente, Cuba) (High pressure metamorphic within the ophiolitic complex of Purial (Oriente, Cuba))." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Paris 274: 2137-2140.
	
Bokelmann, G. H. R. and P. G. Silver (1993). "The Caribbean anomaly:  Short-wavelength lateral heterogeneity in the lower mantle." Geophysical Research Letters 20(12): 1131-1134.
	
Boland, M. P., et al. (2000). Geologic Map of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador Between 0-1N (Mapa geologico de la cordillera occidental del Ecuador entre 0-1N), CODIGEM-Min. Energ. Min.-BGS Publs.
	
Bolanos-Irigaray, K. (1983). Geologic Evaluation of Coal Deposits of the Lower Talamanca for a Pre-feasibility Study. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: ???
	
Bold, W. A. (1975). "Neogene biostatigraphy (Ostracoda) of southern Hispaniola." Bulletin of American Paleontology 66: 599-639.
	
Bold, W. A. v. d. (1975). "Neogene biostratigraphy (Ostracoda) of southern Hispaniola." Bulletin of American Paleontology 66(286): 549-639.
	
Bold, W. A. v. d. (1975). "Remarks on ostracode biostratigraphy of the late and middle Tertiary of southwest Puerto Rico." Caribbean Journal of Science 15(1-2): 31-36.
	
Bold, W. A. v. d. (1981). "Distribution of Ostracoda in the Neogene of Central Haiti." Bulletin of American Paleontology 79(312): 136.
	
Bold, W. A. v. d. (1988). "Neogene paleontology in the northern Dominican-Republic. 7. The Ostracoda." Bulletin of American Paleontology 94(329): 1-105.
	
Bolge, L. L. (2005). Constraining the magmatic sources of Hawaiian and Central American volcanics. New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers: 281.
	The Hawaii Scientific Drilling Project offers the opportunity to study a long stratigraphic record of Mauna Kea Volcano. Previous studies have shown two distinct magma sources for Mauna Kea: the first has isotopic values consistent with the Kea end-member and the second has elevated isotopic values, approaching the enriched Loihi end-member. Isotopes show changes in the source composition but do not constrain their mineralogical differences. Rare earth element inverse modeling enables us to determine the mineralogical differences between these two sources. The Kea source consists of olivine, clinopyroxene and garnet, while the Loihi source has minimal if any garnet. Arenal Volcano, Costa Rica has been producing tephras and lavas for the past 7000 years. Over time, the magma has experienced more crystal liquid fractionation. The tephras and lavas are gradually becoming more crystalline. The increase in fractionation efficiency reaches a threshold at approximately 3000ybp, where silicic tephras begin to be produced consistently in conjunction with mafic tephras. Arenal also has experienced changes deeper in its source region. The amount of flux from the subducting slab and the degree of melting covary throughout Arenal's history. From 7000ybp to around 3000ybp, they increased to a maximum and then begin decreasing. The change in flux results from changes in the amount of hemipelagic sediment. The Nb depletions in the Central America arc positively correlate with subducted slab signals and degree of melting, indicating the mineral(s) controlling the depletions are controlled by slab input. Amphibole is the primary mineral responsible for the depletions in Central America. Zr/Nb is the first geochemical signature to show the tectonic segmentation of the Central American volcanic front. Moving northwest, there are sharp decreases in Zr/Nb between segments which correlate with sharp increases in slab depth at the beginning of each new segment, caused by the large right steps in the volcanic front. Within a segment, the shallower the depth to slab, the higher the Zr/Nb. We explain this relationship between tectonic geometry and HFSE geochemistry with three hypotheses: (1)&nbsp;Disequilibrium processes of the metasomatic fluid transport producing amphibole, (2)&nbsp;Pressure dependence stability of amphibole, (3)&nbsp;Volcano size controlling mixing of the several magmatic sources with different Zr/Nb. 

Bolivar, S., et al. (1987). "Technical note: Mineral resource assessment program for Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 6: ???
	
Bolli, H. M. (1952). "Note on the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in Trinidad, B.W.I." Journal of Paleontology 26(4): 699-675.
	
Bolli, H. M. (1957). "The genera Globigerina and Globorotalia in the Paleocene-Lower Eocene Lizard Springs Formation of Trinidad, B.W.I." U.S. Natural Museum Bulletin 215: 61-81.
	
Bolli, H. M. (1957). "The genera Praeglobotruncana, Rotalipora, Globotruncana and Abathomphalus in the Upper Cretaceous of Trinidad, B.W.I." U.S. Natural Museum Bulletin 215: 51-62.
	
Bolli, H. M. (1957). "Planktonic foraminifera from the Eocene Navet and San Fernando formations of Trinidad, B.W.I." U.S. Natural Museum Bulletin 215: 155-172.
	
Bolli, H. M. (1957). "Planktonic foraminifera from the Oligocene-Miocene Cipero and Lengua fomations of Trinidad." U.S. National Museum Bulletin 215: 97-113.
	
Bolli, H. M. (1959). "Planktonic foraminifera as index fossils in Trinidad, West Indies and their value for worldwide stratigraphic collation." Ecologae Geol. Helv. 52(2): 627-637.
	
Bolli, H. M. (1959). "Planktonic foraminifera from the Cretaceous of Trinidad." Bulletin of American Paleontology 39: 258-177.
	
Bolli, H. M. (1974). "The role of Trinidad in the study of planktonic foraminifera." Verhandl. Naturf. Ges. Basel 84(1): 222-233.
	
Bolli, H. M., et al. (1994). Benthic foraminiferal biostratigraphy of the south Caribbean region. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.
	
Bolotin, Y. A., et al. (1970). "Yacimientos de minerals sulfurosos de la serie metamorfica Escambray en la parte noroeste del macizo montanoso del mismo nombre (Sulfuric mineral deposits of the Escambray metamorphic series in the northwest part of the montain massif of the sam name)." Revista Tecnologica 8(2): 35-48.
	
Bolu, H. M. (1970). The foraminifera of sites 23-31, Leg 4. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 4. ??? Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. 4: 577-643.
	
Bona, J. and E. Nagy (1981). "Nannoplankton of the Upper Cretaceous terrigenious sequences in eastern Cuba." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(3): 31-35.
	
Bonilla, L. F., et al. (1992). "Analisis preliminar de la microsismicidad de la zona de quito-Ecuador periodo 1988-1992 (Preliminary analysis of the microseismicity of the zone of Quito, Ecuador 1988-1992 period)." Jornadas en Ciencias de la Tierra, 16-19 Decembre 1992 2.
	
Bonini, W., et al. (1977). Mapa Anomalías de Bouguer de la Parte Norte de Venezuela y Areas Vecinas (Map of Bouguer Anomalies of Northern Venezuela and Adjacent Areas). Caracas, Venezuela Ministerio de Energia y Minas.
	
Bonini, W. E. (1978). "Anomalous crust in the eastern Venezuela Basin and the Bouguer gravity anomaly field of northern Venezuela and the Caribbean borderland." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57(2): 117-122.
	
Bonini, W. E., et al. (1977). Gravity studies across the western Caribbean Mountains, Venezuela. Memoria, Congreso Latino-americano de Geologia IV, Caracas, 1977:  Boletin de Geologia, Publícación Especial no. 7. Caracas, Venezuela Ministerio de Minas e Hidrocarburos. 4: 2300-2323.
	
Bonini, W. E., et al. (1982). Late Cenozoic uplifts on the Maracaibo-Santa Marta block, slow subduction of the Caribbean Plate, and results from a gravity study. Transactions of the Nineth Caribbean Geological Conference. W. Snow, N. Gil, R. Llinas et al. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. 1: 99-105.
	
Bonini, W. E., et al., Eds. (1984). The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. Geological Society of America Memoirs. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Bonis, S. (1969). "A summary of the geology of Guatemala." Publicaciones Geológicas del ICAITI 2: 76-80.
	
Bonis, S. (1970). Mapa Geológico de la República de Guatemala. Guatemala, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Bonis, S. B. (1965). Geología del Area de Quezaltenango. Guatemala, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Boodoo, W. (1976). A Sand Development Study of the Lower Member of the Late Miocene, Morne l'Enfer Formation, South of the Los Bajos Fault, Trinidad, W. I. Department of Geology and Geophysics. Laramie, WY, University of Wyoming: unknown p.
	
Boomer, I. and S. Ballent (1996). "Early Middle Jurassic ostracod migration between the northern and southern he mispheres: Further evidence for a proto Atlantic Central America connection." Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 121(1-2): 53-64.
	
Bordelon, M. (1994). Igneous geochemistry and tectonic development of the Talamancas, southern Costa Rica. Deptartment of Geology. Tampa, FL, University of South Florida: 121.
	
Borges, R. (1984). Mapa geologico estructural de Venezuela. Caracas, Venezuela, Ministerio de Energia y Minas.
	
Borgia, A., et al. (1988). "Structural, stratigraphic, and petrologic aspects of the Arenal - Chato volcanic system, Costa Rica: Evolution of a young stratovolcanic complex." Bulletin of Volcanology 50: 86-105.
	
Borkowska, M., et al. (1988). Mapa Geológico de Cuba. La Habana, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia.
	
Bornmalm, L. and B. A. Malmgren (1993). "Coiling patterns in four benthic foraminiferal species through the terminal Miocene and Pliocene in the Caribbean Sea." Journal of Foraminiferal Research 23(2): 118-122.
	
Bornmalm, L., et al. (1999). "Changes in circulation and trophic levels in the Pliocene Caribbean Sea: Evidence from benthic foraminifer accumulation rates." Journal of Foraminiferal Research 29(3): 209-221.
	
Bortolotti, V. and G. Principi (2005). "Tethyan ophiolites and Pangea break-up." Island Arc 14(4): 442-470.
	The break-up of Pangea began during the Triassic and was preceded by a generalized Permo-Triassic formation of continental rifts along the future margins between Africa and Europe, between Africa and North America, and between North and South America. During the Middle–Late Triassic, an ocean basin cutting the eastern equatorial portion of the Pangea opened as a prograding branch of the Paleotethys or as a new ocean (the Eastern Tethys); westwards, continental rift basins developed. The Western Tethys and Central Atlantic began to open only during the Middle Jurassic. The timing of the break-up can be hypothesized from data from the oceanic remnants of the peri-Mediterranean and peri-Caribbean regions (the Mesozoic ophiolites) and from the Atlantic ocean crust. In the Eastern Tethys, Middle–Late Triassic mid-oceanic ridge basalt (MORB) ophiolites, Middle–Upper Jurassic MORB, island arc tholeiite (IAT) suprasubduction ophiolites and Middle–Upper Jurassic metamorphic soles occur, suggesting that the ocean drifting was active from the Triassic to the Middle Jurassic. The compressive phases, as early as during the Middle Jurassic, were when the drifting was still active and caused the ocean closure at the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary and, successively, the formation of the orogenic belts. The present scattering of the ophiolites is a consequence of the orogenesis: once the tectonic disturbances are removed, the Eastern Tethys ophiolites constitute a single alignment. In the Western Tethys only Middle–Upper Jurassic MORB ophiolites are present – this was the drifting time. The closure began during the Late Cretaceous and was completed during the Eocene. Along the area linking the Western Tethys to the Central Atlantic, the break-up was realized through left lateral wrench movements. In the Central Atlantic – the link between the Western Tethys and the Caribbean Tethys – the drifting began at the same time and is still continuing. The Caribbean Tethys opened probably during the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous. The general picture rising from the previous data suggest a Pangea break-up rejuvenating from east to west, from the Middle–Late Triassic to the Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous.  

Borukayev, C. B. (1978). "General analysis of the structural patterns of Cuba." Geotectonics???: 199-204.
	
Bosc, E. (1971). Geology of the San Agustín Acasaguastlán Quadrangle and Northeastern Part of El Progreso Quadrangle. Houston, TX, Rice University: 131.
	
Bosch, M. and I. Rodriguez (1992). "North Venezuelan collisional crustal block:  The boundary between the Caribbean and South American plates." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 6(3): 133-143.
	
Boschini, I., et al. (1988). "The Buenavista de Pérez Zeledón earthquake (July 3, 1983): Evidence for a previously unknown, strong intraplate earthquake in Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 8.
	
Boschini, I. M., et al. (1988). "El terremoto de Buenavista de Perez Zeledon (julio 3, 1983): evidencia de una fuente sismogenica intraplaca desconocida en Costa Rica (The Buenavista de Perez Zeledon earthquake (July 3, 1983): Evidence of a strong intraplate seismogenic discontinuity in Coasta Rica)." Revista Geologica de America Central 8: 111-121.
	
Boschini, I. M. and W. Montero (1994). Sismicidad historica e instrumental del Caribe de Costa Rica (Historical and instrumental seismic records in the Caribbean region of Costa Rica). Terremote de Limon, 22 de abril de 1991.  The Limon earthquake of April 22, 1991 (Revista Geologica de America Central). W. P. Montero, P. Denyer and S. Kussmaul. San Jose, Costa Rica, Universidad de Costa Rica, Escuela Centroamericana de Geologia: 65-72.
	
Boschini-López, I. M. (1989). Incidence of Strong Earthquakes in the Caribbean Region of Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 97.
	
Bosence, D. (1989). "Aspects of carbonate deposition in the Caribbean." Proceedings Cumberland Geological Society 5(2): 235-236.
	
Boss, S. K. (1996). "Digital shaded relief image of a carbonate platform (northern Great Bahama Bank): Scenery seen and unseen." Geology(11): 985-988.
	
Bostock, W. H., et al. (1948). "Oil Fields of Royal Dutch-Shell Group in western Venezuela." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 32(4): 517-577.
	
Bot, P. and J. L. Perdomo (1986). Evolución tectonica en la cuenca de Maracaibo (Tectonic evolution of the Maricaibo Basin). Transactions of the 3rd Venezuelan Geophysical Congress, ???, ???
	
Boudon, G. (1993). "Mount Pelee, Martinique: Volcanologic evolution (La Montagne Pelee, Martinique; evolution volcanologique)." Memoires de la Societe Geologique de France, Nouvelle Serie 163: 231-238.
	
Boudreaux, J. E. (1967). Biostratigraphy and Calcareous Nannoplankton of the Submarex Section (Caribbean Sea, Nicaragua Rise). Department of Geological Sciences. Chicago, IL, University of Illinois: ?
	
Boulter, R., et al. (2000). "Deterministic modeling of stratigraphic reservoirs in Carisito and Aguasay fields, eastern Venezuela." AAPG international conference and exhibition 84(9): 1406.
	The accurate modeling of these stratigraphic reservoirs, deposited in nearshore marine to coastal plane environments, required innovative modeling because only 44 wells had suitable logs for petrophysical analysis. The other 123 wells had only an SP or gamma ray log and resistivity logs. A modeling technique was designed that utilized logs from all 167 wells. The primary property extracted from all the wells was a gross sand thickness for each layer to be modeled. These calculated sand thicknesses were then interactively contoured to produce gross sand maps using facies maps to shape the gross sand distribution. The gross sand maps were used in deterministic modeling software to shape and control the mapping of some reservoir properties. The software uses various algorithms, including linear and nonlinear neural network calibration, kriging, cokriging, and conditional simulation to define correlations with a high confidence level. After average reservoir properties were calculated in the wells with petrophysics, it was found that net reservoir sand, net pay thickness and average reservoir porosity often had high correlation coefficients to gross sand thickness. In deeper layers, there was a secondary correlation between porosity and depth. These correlations were used to guide the distribution of reservoir properties. Dynamic engineering data were then integrated into the reservoir property maps to refine the positions of the lateral flow unit boundaries and in some cases the downdip water contacts. This innovative modeling technique demonstrates how accurate reservoir models can be constructed in fields with limited log data.

Bourdon, L. (1985). The Eastern Dominican Cordillera (Hispaniola, Greater Antilles): A Cretaceous Polystructural Insular Arc [La cordillere orientale dominicaine (Hispaniola, Grandes Antilles): Un arc insulaire cretace polystructure]. Paris, Universite pierre-et-Marie-Curie (Paris-VI): 149.
	
Bourdon, L. (1985). The Eastern Dominican Cordillera (Hispaniola, Greater Antilles): A Cretaceous Polystructure Insular Arc (La cordillère orientale dominicaine (Hispaniola, Grandes Antilles): un arc insulaire crétacé polystructuré). Paris, France, Université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie (Paris-VI)): 149.
	
Bourdon, L., et al. (1984). "Interets paleontologique, chronologique et tectonique de la decouverte de Peroniceras (Ammonoidea, Collignoniceratidae) dans le Coniacien inferieur de la Cordillere orientale de Republique Dominicaine (Hispaniola, Grandes Antilles) (Paleontologic, chronologic and tectonic interests of the discovery of Peroniceras (Ammonoidea, Collignoniceratidae) within the lower Coniacian of the western cordillera of the Dominican Republic (Hispanoila, Greater Antilles)." Computes Rendus de Academie des Sciences 298: 287-292.
	
Bourdon, L., et al. (1985). "Geologic study of the Eastern Dominican Cordillera (Hispaniola, Greater Antilles (Etude geologique de la cordillere Orientale Dominicaine (Hispaniola Grandes Antilles))." Caribbean Geodinamics: 317-328.
	
Bourgois, J. (1993). "La fosse d'Amerique centrale; convergence, accretion, erosion tectonique; The Middle America Trench; convergence, accretion, tectonic erosion." La Vie des Sciences 10(4): 285-303.
	
Bourgois, J., et al. (1984). "The geologic history of the Caribbean-Cocos plate boundary with special reference to the Nicoya ophiolite complex (Costa Rica) and DSDP results (Legs 67 and 84 off Guatemala): A synthesis." Tectonophysics 108: 1-32.
	
Bourgois, J., et al. (1982). "Ages et Structures des Complexes Basiques et Ultrabasiques de la Facade Pacifique 3 N et 12 N (Colombie, Panama et Costa Rica)." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 7(3): 545-554.
	
Bourgois, J., et al. (1983). "The northern Caribbean plate boundary in Hispaniola: tectonics and stratigraphy of the Dominican Cordillera Septentrional (Greater Antilles)." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 25(1): 83-89.
	
Bourgois, J., et al. (1982). "The Andean ophiolitic megastructures on the Buga-Buenaventura transverse (Western Cordillera-Valle Colombia)." Tectonophysics 82: 207-299.
	
Bourgois, J., et al. (1979). "Decouverte d'une tectonique tangentialle recente a vergence sud dans la Sierra de Neiba." Comptes Rendus des Academie des Sciences, Paris, Series D 289: 257-260.
	
Bourgois, J., et al. (1979). "L'Éocene á blocs d'Ocoa  (Republique Dominicaine, Grandes Antilles): temoin d'une tectonique tangentielle á vergence sud dans l'ile d'Hispaniola." Bulletin de Société Géologique de France 21: 759-764.
	
Bourgois, J., et al. (1987). "Geological history of the Cretaceous ophiolitic complexes of northwestern South America (Colombian Andes)." Tectonophysics 143: 307-327.
	
Bourgois, J., et al. (1982). Datos geológicos nuevos acerca de la región de Puerto Plata (Republica Dominicana) [New geological data about the Puerto Plata region (Dominican-Republic)]. Caribbean Geological Conference, 9th, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic, Santo Domingo, ???
	
Bouysse, P. (1988). "Opening of the Grenada back-arc basin and evolution of the Caribbean Plate during the Mesozoic and early Paleogene." Tectonophysics 149(1-2): 121-143.
	
Bouysse, P., et al. (1985). Aves Swell and northern Lesser-Antilles Ridge: Rock-dredging results from Arcante 3 cruise. Symposium Geodynamique des Caraibes. A. Mascle. Paris, Editions Technip: 65-76.
	
Bouysse, P., et al. (1983). "La Dèsírade Island (Lesser Antilles) revisited: Lower Cretaceous radiolarian cherts and arguments against an ophiolite origin for the basal complex." Geology 11: 244.
	
Bouysse, P. and H. Sigurdsson (1982). "The "Hodder Phenonmenon" of 1902:  No active volcano off St Lucia (Lesser Antilles)." Marine Geology 50(1-2): 1129-1136.
	
Bovenko, V. G., et al. (1981). "Topography of the Mohorovicic discontinuity beneath eastern Cuba." Transactions of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Earth Science Section 256: 8-12.
	
Bovenko, V. G., et al. (1982). "Novyye geofizicheskiye dannyye o gubinnour stroyennii vostochnoy kuby (New geophysical data on the deep structure of eastern Cuba)." International Geological Review 24(10): 1155-1162.
	
Bower, T. H. (1951). "Mudflow occurrence in Trinidad, B.W.I." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 335(4): 908-912.
	
Bower, T. H. and V. F. Hunter (1968). Geology of Texaco Forest Reserve Field, Trinidad, W.I. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad & Tobago. J. B. Saunders. Arima, Caribbean Printers: 75-86.
	
Bowin, C. (1975). The geology of Hispaniola. The Ocean Basins and Margins, Vol. 3, The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. A. M. E. Nairn and F. G. Stehli. New York, Plenum Publishing Co. 3: 501-552.
	
Bowin, C. (1976). Caribbean Gravity Field and Plate Tectonics. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Bowin, C. and G. Nagle (1980). Igneous and metamorphic rocks of northern Dominican Republic: An uplifted subduction zone complex. Transactions of the Caribbean Geologic Conference, 9. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: 39-50.
	
Bowin, C. O. (1960). Geology of Central Dominican-Republic. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University: 211.
	
Bowin, C. O. (1966). Geology of the central Dominican-Republic (A case history of part of an island arc). Caribbean Geological Investigations. H. H. Hess. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America: 11-84.
	
Bowin, C. O. (1968). "Geophysical study of the Cayman Trough." Journal of Geophysical Research 73: 5159-5173.
	
Bowin, C. O. (1972). The Puerto Rico Trench negative gravity anomaly belt. Studies in Earth and Space Science. R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 132: 339-350.
	
Bowin, C. O. (1986). Gravity and Geoid Anomalies of the Caribbean Region: A Progress Report. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Bowin, C. O., et al. (1972). "VSA gravity meter system: Tests and recent developments." Journal of Geophysical Research 77(11): 2018- 2033.
	
Bowin, C. O. and F. Nagle (1982). Igneous and metamorphic rocks of northern Dominican-Republic: an uplifted subduction zone complex. Caribbean Geological Conference, 9th, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic.
	
Bowland, C. L. (1984). Seismic Stratigraphy and Structure of the Western Colombian Basin, Caribbean Sea. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 248.
	
Bowland, C. L. (1993). "Depositional history of the western Colombian Basin, Caribbean Sea, revealed by seismic stratigraphy." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 105: 1321-1345.
	
Bowland, C. L. and E. Rosencrantz (1988). "Upper crustal structure of the western Colombian basin, Caribbean Sea." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 100: 534-546.
	
Boyanov, I., et al. (1975). "Algunos nuevos datos sobre la geologia de los complejos de anfibolitas y granitoides en la parte sur de Las Villas (Some new data on the geology of the amphibolite and granitoid complexes in the southern part of Las Villas)." Serie Geologia, Academia Ciencias de Cuba 19: ?
	
Boyanov, I., et al. (1975). "Nuevos datos sobre la geología de los complejos de anfibolitas y granitoides en la parte sur de Las Villas (New data on the geology of the amphibolite complexes and granites in the southern part of Las Villas)." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 19: 1-14.
	
Boynton, C. H. (1979). "A seismic refraction investigation of crustal structure beneath the Lesser Antilles island arc." Geophysics Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, London 58(2): 371-393.
	
Bracci, L. Z. and D. del Giudice (1957). "Geologia de la costa del Pacifico de Nicaragua (Geology of the Pacific coast of Nicaragua)." Boletin del Servicio Geologico Nacional de Nicaragua???(1): 25-79.
	
Bracey, D. R. and P. R. Vogt (1970). "Plate tectonics in the Hispaniola area." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 81: 2855-2860.
	
Bradbury, J., et al. (1981). "Late Quaternary Environmental History of Lake Valencia, Venezuela." Science 214: 1299-1305.
	
Bradley, R. A. (1971). "The geology of the Rio Vivi prophyry copper deposits, Puerto Rico." Economic Geology 66: 977.
	
Bralower, T. and M. A. Iturralde-Vinent (1997). "Micropaleontological dating of the collision between the North American Plate and the Greater Antilles Arc in western Cuba." Palaios 12: 133-150.
	
Bralower, T. J., et al. (1998). "The Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary cocktail; Chicxulub impact triggers margin collapse and extensive sediment gravity flows." Geology 26(4): 331-334.
	
Bralower, T. J., et al. (1998). "High-resolution records of the late Paleocene thermal maximum and circum-Caribbean volcanism: Is there a causal link? Reply." Geology 26(7): 671-671.
	
Brami, T. R., et al. (2000). Late Pleistocene Deep-Water Stratigraphy and Depositional Processes, Offshore Trinidad & Tobago. GSTT 2000 SPE Conference. Port of Spain, Trinidad, 10-13 July, 2000, Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago. CDrom1-SG06: 15.
	
Brandes, C., et al. (2007). "Deformation style and basin-fill architecture of the offshore Limón back-arc basin (Costa Rica)." Marine and Petroleum Geology 24(5): 277-287.
	The Limón back-arc basin, located at the eastern coast of Costa Rica, is part of the southern Central American arc-trench system. Basin evolution started in Late Cretaceous times as response to the onset of the subduction of the Farallón Plate below the Caribbeannext term Plate. The Limón Basin can be subdivided into a northern and a southern sub-basin separated by the E–W trending Trans Isthmic Fault System. A regional grid of offshore seismic lines allows the comparative analysis of the basin-fill architecture and the deformation style in both sub-basins. The northern sub-basin shows exclusively normal faults. The basin-fill architecture resembles a passive continental margin setting showing a distinct wedge-shaped geometry and seaward propagating depositional units. The area of the Rio San Juan Delta is characterized by gravity-driven, deltaic deformation exhibiting a series of listric growth faults both on the shelf and in slope areas. In contrast to the northern basin, the southern sub-basin is characterized by the development of thin-skinned fold-and-thrust belt previous termtectonicsnext term best recorded in concentric or asymmetric hangingwall anticlines separated by listric or planar southwestward dipping thrust faults. Due to the pronounced NE-propagating of folding the shelf is broader and the slopes are steeper in the southern sub-basin, compared with the northern sub-basin. Thus both sub-basins show a very different previous termtectonicnext term style. In the North Limón Basin an extensional regime established, whereas in the South Limón Basin compression dominated. However, in both sub-basins the basal detachment is probably controlled by a lithological change from limestone to shale.

Brasier, M. and J. Donahue (1985). "Barbuda: An emerging reef and lagoon complex on the edge of the Lesser Antilles island arc." Journal of the Geological Society, London 142: 1101-1117.
	
Brasier, M. D. (1975). "The ecology and distribution of Recent foraminifera from the reefs and shoals around Barbuda, West Indies." Journal of Foraminiferal Research 5: 193-210.
	
Braspetro (1983). Geochemical Service Report, Southern Basin, Trinidad.
	
Bray, R. and A. Eva (1983). Age, depositional environment, and tectonic significance of the Couva marine evaporite, offshore Trinidad. 10th Caribbean Geological Conference.
	
Breen, N. A. (1989). "Structural effects of Magdalena Fan deposition on the northern Colombia convergent margin." Geology 17: 34-37.
	
Breen, N. A. (1989). "Stuctural effect of Magdalena fan deposits on the northern Colombia convergent margin." Geology 17: 34-37.
	
Breen, N. A., et al. (1988). "Mud-cored Parallel Folds and Possible Melange Development in the North Panama Thrust Belt." Geology 16: 207-210.
	
Brenes, M. J. A. (1989). "Informe de la sismicidad de la fuente sismica Parismina y la costa del Caribe de Costa Rica, setiembre 1988 - marzo 1989 (Information on the seismicity of the Parismina seismic source and the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, September 1988 - March 1989)." Boletin de Vulcanologia 20: 8-10.
	
Brenner, M. (1994). Lakes Salpeten and Quexil Peten, Guatemala, Central America. Global Geologic Record of Lake Basins. E. Gierlowski-Kordesch and K. Kelts, Cambridge University Press. 1: 377-380.
	
Brenner, M. and M. W. Binford (1988). "A sedimentary record of human disturbance from Lake Mirogoane, Haiti." Journal of Paleolimnology 1: 85-97.
	
Brenner, M., et al. (1994). Lake Mirogoane, Haiti (Caribbean). Global Geologic Record of Lake Basins. E. Gierlowski-Kordesch and K. K. Kelts, Cambridge University Press. 1: 401-403.
	
Brenner, M., et al. (2001). Abrupt climate change and pre-Columbian cultural collapse. Interhemispheric Climate Linkages, Academic Press: 87-103.
	
Brenner, M., et al. (1990). "Recent sedimentary historys of shallow lakes in Guatemalan savannas." Journal of Paleolimnology: 239-252.
	
Bresznyánszky, K. and J. Boros (1989). "El melange ofiolítico de Holguín y sus características estructurales (The ophiolitic melange of Holguin and its structural characteristics)." Resúmenes y Programa, Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 91.
	
Bresznyanszky, K., et al. (1981). "New aspects concerning the basal complex in eastern Cuba." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(3): 23-30.
	
Bresznyánszky, K. and A. Iturralde-Vinent (1985). "Paleogeografía del Paleógeno de las provincias de La Habana (Paleogeography of the Paleogene of the provinces of La Habana)." Contribución a la geología de las provincias de La Habana y Ciudad de la Habana: 100-115.
	
Bresznyánszky, K. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (1985). "Paleogeografía del Paleógeno de La Habana (Paleogeography of the Paleogene of La Habana)." Contribución a la geología de las provincias de La Habana: 100-115.
	
Bresznyanszky, K. and M. A. Iturralde-Vinent (1978). "Paleogene paleogeography of eastern Cuba." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 123-133.
	
Bresznyanszky, K. and M. A. Iturralde-Vinent (1978). Paleogeography of the Paleogene of the Habana provinces. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincias de la Habana y Ciudad de la Habana (Contributions to the Geology of Habana and Habana City Provinces). Anonymous. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 100-115.
	
Bresznyanszky, K. and M. A. Iturralde-Vinent (1983). Paleogeography of the Paleocene of eastern Cuba. Contribucion a la Geologia de Cuba Oriental (Contributions on the Geology of Eastern Cuba). Anonymous. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 115-126.
	
Breuner, T. A. (1985). Geology of the Eastern Sierra de Neiba, Dominican-Republic. Washington, D.C., The George Washington University: 128.
	
Briceno, H. and C. Schubert (1990). "Geomorphology of the Gran Sabana, Guayana Shield, southeastern Venezuela." Geomorphology 2: 125-141.
	
Briceno, H. and C. Schubert (1992). Geomorphology (Geomorfología). Caracas, O. Todtmann.
	
BRICEÑO, H. and C. Schubert (1985). "Analysis of the fracturing in 'tepui' zones, Bolivar State, Venezuela (Análisis del fracturamiento en zonas de tepui, Estado Bolívar, Venezuela)." VI Cong. Geol. Venezolano, Caracas 7: 5603-5621.
	
Briceno, H., et al. (1990). "Table mountain geology and surficial geochemistry: Chimantá Massif, Venezuelan Guayana Shield." Journal of  South American Earth Sciences 3: 179-194.
	
Briceño-Guarupe, L. A. (1978). The Crustal Structure and Tectonic Framework of the Gulf of Panama. Corvallis, OR, Oregon State University: 71.
	
Briden, J., et al. (1979). "K-Ar geochronology and paleomagnetism of volcanic rocks in the Lesser-Antilles island arc." Philosophical Transactions Royal Society of London, Series A 291: 485-528.
	
Briggs, R. P. (1971). Geological Map of the Orocovis Quadrangle, Puerto Rico, U.S. Geological Survey. Map I-615.
	
Briggs, R. P. and J. P. Akers (1974). Hydrogeologic Map of Puerto Rico, U.S. Geologcial Survey. HA-197.
	
Briggs, R. P. and M. H. Pease, Jr. (1960). "Compressional graben and horst structures in east-central Puerto Rico." U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 400-B: B365-366.
	
Brito, A. (1980). "Geologia, Mineralogia y Genesis de las Rocas Zeoliticas de la Antigua Provincia de Oriente (Geology, Mineralogy and Genesis of the Zeolite Rocks of the Old Oriente Province)." Informe Científico-Técnico, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 145: 1-34.
	
Brito Rojas, A. (1983). New aspects of the subdivision of the Cobre Formation. Contribucion a la Geologia de Cuba Oriental (Contributions on the Geology of Eastern Cuba). Anonymous. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 86-89.
	
Bronnimann, P. (1952). "Globigerinidae From the Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian-Maestrichtian) of Trinidad, B.W.I." Bulletin of American Paleontology 34(140): 70.
	
Bronnimann, P. (1952). "Micropaleontologic lieterature 1941-1951 on Trinidad, Tobago, and Barbados, B.W.I." The Micropaleontologist 6(1): 23-42.
	
Bronnimann, P. (1952). "Trinidad Paleocene and Lower Eocene Globigerinidae." Bulletin of American Paleontology 34(143): 34.
	
Bronnimann, P. (1953). Laboratory Memorandum PB-14: Progress Biostratigraphic Chart, Northern Las Villas Province, Cuba. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
Bronnimann, P. (1953). Laboratory Memorandum PB-28: Progress biostratigraphic chart, northern Las Villas Province, Cuba. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
Bronnimann, P. (1954). Paleontological Report 456: Annotations to the Correlation Chart and Catalogue of Formations. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 218.
	
Bronnimann, P. (1955). Paleontological Report 754: Annotation to the Correlation Chart of the Fomento-Jatibonico area and Catalogue of Formations. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 74.
	
Bronnimann, P. (1956). Paleontological Report 1148: Annotations to the Correlation Chart of Northern Las Villas Province. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.
	
Bronnimann, P. and D. Rigassi (1963). "Contribution to the geology and paleontology of the area of the City of La Habana, Cuba, and its surroundings." Eclogae Geoligicae Helvetiae 56: 1-480.
	
Brown, A. P. and H. A. Pilsbry (1911). Fauna of the Gatún Formation, Isthmus of Panama. ??? ??? ???, ???: 336-420.
	
Brown, A. P. and H. A. Pilsbry (1913). Fauna of the Gatún Formation, Isthmus of Panama. ??? ??? ???, ???: 500-519.
	
Brown, K. and G. Westbrook (1987). "The tectonic fabric of the Barbados Ridge accretionary complex." Marine and Petroleum Geology 4: 71-81.
	
Brown, K. M. and G. K. Westbrook (1988). "Mud diapirism and subcretion iun the Barbados ridge accretionary complex: The role of fluids in accretionary processes." Tectonophysics 7(3): 613-640.
	
Brown, R. D., Jr., et al. (1973). Geologic and seismologic aspects of the Managua, Nicaragua earthquakes of December 23, 1972, U.S. Geological Survey. 838: 34.
	
Bruce, A. (2000). "Anguilla." Geology Today 16(3): 112-114.
	
Bruce, C. L. (1956). Progress Report of the Reconnaissance of the Puerto Padre Area, Oriente Province. La Habana, Fondo geológico, Ministerio de Industria Básica: ?
	
Brunt, M. A., et al. (1973). "The Pleistocene rocks of the Cayman Islands." Geological magazine 110: 209-221.
	
Bryant, W. R., et al. (1969). "Escarpments, reef trends, and diapiric structures in eastern Gulf of Mexico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 53: 2506-2542.
	
Bucher, W. H. (1947). "Problems of Earth deformation illustrated by the Caribbean sea basin." New york Academy of Sciences , Transactions, series 2 9: 98-116.
	
Bucher, W. H. (1952). Geological Structure and Orogenic History of Venezuela. Geological Society of America Memoir 49. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Bucknam, R. C., et al. (1978). "Fault movement (afterslip) following the Guatemala earthquake of February 4, 1976." Geology 6: 170-173.
	
Budd, A. F. (1989). Biogeography of Neogene Caribbean reef corals and its implications for the ancestry of eastern Pacific reef corals. ?? ??? ???, Association of Australasian Palaeontologists. 8: 219-230.
	
Budd, A. F. (1991). "Neogene paleontology in the northern Dominican-Republic. 11. The family Faviidae (Anthozoa: Scleractinia). Part 1." Bulletins of American Paleontology 101: 5-83.
	
Budd, A. F. (1993). "Variation within and among morphospecies of Montastraea." Courier Forschungs-lnstitut Senckenberg 164: 241-254.
	
Budd, A. F. and A. G. Coates (1992). "Non-progressive evolution in a clade of Cretaceous Montastraea-like corals." Paleobiology 18: 425-446.
	
Budd, A. F., et al. (1989). "Miocene coral assemblages in Anguilla, BWI, and their implications for the interpretation of vertical succession on fossil reefs." Palaios 4: 264-275.
	
Budd, A. F., et al. (1994). Plio-Pleistocene extinctions and the origin of the modem Caribbean reef-coral fauna. Proceedings of the Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: health, hazards, history. R. N. Ginsburg. Miami, FL, University of Miami: 7-13.
	
Budd, A. F., et al. (1998). "Stepwise faunal change during evolutionary turnover; a case study from the Neogene of Curacao, Netherlands Antilles." Palaios 13(2): 170-188.
	
Budd, A. F., et al. (1994). "Stratigraphic distributions of genera and species of Neogene to Recent Caribbean reef corals." Journal of Paleontology 68(5): 951-977.
	
Budd, A. F., et al. (19??). "Eocene reef corals: A unique fauna from the Gatuncillo Formation of Panama." Journal of Paleontology 66: 578-601.
	
Budd, A. F., et al. (1992). "Eocene Caribbean reef corals: a unique fauna from the Gatuncillo Formation of Panama." Journal of Paleontology 66: 578-602.
	
Bueno, R. (1966). Ocurrencia y litologia del Toro Shale (Occurrence and lithology of the Toro Shale), Empresa Colombiana de Petroleos (ECOPETROL, Bogota, Colombia): ?
	
Buffler, P. T., et al. (1985). Costa Rica [cross section]. Middle America Trench off Western Central America, Atlas 7, Ocean Margin Drilling Program Regional Atlas Series. J. W. Ladd and R. T. Buffler. Woods Hole, MA, Marine Science International: sheet 13.
	
Buffler, R. T. (1982). Geologic Structure of the Forearc Region off the West Coast of Costa Rica in the Vicinity of the Nicoya Peninsula: Results of a Multifold Seismic Reflection Survey. Austin, TX, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics Technical Report.
	
Buffler, R. T. (1991). Early evolution of the Gulf of Mexico Basin. An introduction to central Gulf coast Geology. D. Goldthwaite. New Orleans, Louisiana, New Orleans Geological Society: 1-15.
	
Buffler, R. T., et al. (1993). Middle Jurassic Through Early Cretaceous Evolution of the Northeastem Gulf of Mexico Basin. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region:  A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration. J. L. Pindell and R. F. Perkins, Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation: 33-50.
	
Buffler, R. T. and D. S. Sawyer (1985). "Distribution of crust and early history, Gulf of Mexico basin." Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions 35: 333-334.
	
Buffler, R. T., et al., Eds. (1984). Initial reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office.
	
Buffler, R. T., et al. (1981). "A model for the early evolution of the Gulf of Mexico basin." Oceanologica Acta, 26th International Geologic Congress, Geology of Continental Margins Symposium: 129-136.
	
Buffler, R. T. and W. A. Thomas (1994). Crustal structure and evolution of the southeastern margin of North America and the Gulf of Mexico basin. Phanerozoic evolution of North American continent-ocean transitions. R. Speed. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America. CTV-1: 219-263.
	
Buffler, R. T., et al. (1980). Structure and early geologic history of the deep central Gulf of Mexico. Proceedings of a Symposium on the Origin of the Gulf of Mexico and the early Opening of the Central North Atlantic, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, March 1980. R. Pilger: 3-16.
	
Buguelsky, Y., et al. (1985). Metalic Mineral Deposits of Cuba. Moscow, Edit. Nauka,.
	
Buis, O. J. and R. E. Evenson (1977). "Drilling underway on big Guatemala structure." Oil and Gas Journal May 23: 96-97.
	
Buiss, F. (1990). Tektonicheskaya evolyutsiya Karibskogo regiona (Tectonic evolution of the Caribbean region). Geotermal'naya aktivnost' i osadochnyy protsess v Karibsko Meksikanskom regione (Geothermal activity and sedimentary processes of the Caribbean Mexican region). P. P. Timofeyev. Moscow, USSR, Akad. Nauk SSSR, Geol. Inst., USSR. Trudy Geologicheskiy Institut. 448: 8-24.
	
Buitrago, J. (1994). Petroleum systems of the Neiva Area, Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Petroleum System - From Source to Trap. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologist. 60: 483-497.
	
Buitron-Sanchez, B. E. and C. Gomez-Espinosa (2003). Cretaceous (Aptian-Cenomanian) gastropods of Mexico and their biogeographic implications. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, R. T. Buffler and J. F. Blickwede. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 403-418.
	Detailed and extensive studies of Cretaceous (Aptian-Cenomanian) gastropods from 19 localities in Mexico (Baja California, Sonora, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacan, Queretaro, Puebla, Guerrero, and Oaxaca) yielded gastropod species that also have been reported from other regions in the world and, thus, support a paleobiogeographic relation with similar faunas in the United States (New Mexico and Texas), the Caribbean region (Cuba), South America (Peru, Brazil), the Mediterranean region (Spain, France, Italy, Switzerland, Rumania, Syria, Lebanon, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Somalia), and Japan. The widely distributed taxa imply that an ample marine faunistic province existed, which included parts of the southwestern United States, western and southeastern Mexico, and the Caribbean and Mediterranean regions.

Bull, W. B. and P. A. Pearthtree (1988). "Frequency and size of Quaternary surface ruptures of the Pitaycachi Fault, northeastern Sonora, Mexico." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 78(2): 956-978.
	
Bullard, E., et al. (1965). The fit of the continents around the Atlantic. A Symposium on Continental Drift. P. M. S. Blackett, E. Bullard and S. K. Runcorn. London, UK, Royal Society of London. 258: 41-51.
	
Bullard, T. F. (1995). Neotectonics, geomorphology, and late Quaternary geology across a fore-arc region impacted by the subduction of the aseismic Cocos Ridge, Pacific coast of Costa Rica. Albuquerque, New Mexico, University of New Mexico: 775.
	
Bunce, E. T. and D. A. Fahlquist (1962). "Geophysical Investigations of the Puerto Rico Trench and outer ridge." Journal of Geophysical Research 67: 3955-3972.
	
Bunce, E. T. and J. B. Hersey (1966). "Continuous seismic profiles of the outer ridge and Nares Basin north of Puerto Rico." Geological Society of America Bulletin 77: 803-811.
	
Bunce, E. T., et al. (1970). The Lesser-Antilles arc and eastern margin of the Caribbean Sea. The Sea. A. E. Maxwell. New York, Wiley Interscience. 4: 359-385.
	
Burbach, G. V. (1985). Intermediate and Deep Seismicity and Lateral Structure of Subducted Lithosphere in the Circum-pacific Region. University of Texas at Austin, Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, Texas: 115.
	
Burbach, G. V., et al. (1984). "Seismicity and tectonics of the subducted Cocos plate." Journal of Geophysical Research 89: 7719 - 7735.
	
Burgl, H. (1961). "Contribucion a la estratigraphia y litogenesis de la isla de San Andres (Contribution to the stratigraphy and lithogenesis of the island of San Andres)." Boletin Geologico 7(1-3): 5-25.
	
Burgl, H. (1967). "The orogenesis in the Andean System of Colombia." Tectonophysics 4: 429-443.
	
Burkart, B. (1965). Geology of the Esquipulas, Chanmagua and Cerro Montecristo Quadrangles, Southeastern Guatemala. Houston, TX, Rice University: 121.
	
Burkart, B. (1978). "Offset across the Polochic fault of Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico." Geology 6: 328-332.
	
Burkart, B. (1983). "Neogene North America-Caribbean plate boundary across northern Central America:  Offset along the Polochic Fault." Tectonophysics 99: 251-270.
	
Burkart, B. (1985). Geology and tectonic features, southern Mexico and Guatemala. Middle America Trench off Western Central America. J. W. Ladd and R. T. Buffler. ???, Marine Science International. Atlas 7: sheets 14-15.
	
Burkart, B. (1994). Northern Central America. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 265-284.
	
Burkart, B. and R. E. Clemens (1969). Paleogeographic setting of the Todos Santos Formation, northwestern Guatemala. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 121: 42-43.
	
Burkart, B. and R. E. Clemens (1987). Late Paleozoic orogeny in northwestern Guatemala. Proceedings of the Sixth Caribbean Geological Conference, Prolamar, Isla Margarita, Venezuela, July 1971: 210-213.
	
Burkart, B. and R. E. Clemons (1976). Hoja Todos Santos Cuchumatan del mapa geologico de Guatemala (Todos Santos Cuchumatan Sheets of the Geologic Map of Guatemala), Instituto Geografico Nacional.
	
Burkart, B., et al. (1973). "Mesozoic and Cenozoic stratigraphy of southeastern Guatemala." Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 57: 63-73.
	
Burkart, B., et al. (1987). "Tectonic wedges and offset Laramide structures along the Polochic fault of Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico: Reaffirmation of large Neogene displacement." Tectonics 6: 411-422.
	
Burkart, B. and C. Scotese (1990). "The Orizaba fault zone:  Link between the Mexican volcanic belt and strike-slip faults of northern Central America." EOS 71: 1559.
	
Burkart, B. and S. Self (1985). "Extension and rotation of crustal blocks in northern Central America and effect on the volcanic arc." Geology 13: 22-26.
	
Burke, C. D., et al. (1998). "Coral diversity and mode of growth of lateral expansion patch reefs at Mexico Rocks, northern Belize shelf, Central America." Carbonates and Evaporites 13(1): 32-42.
	
Burke, K. (1967). "The Yallahs Basin: a sedimentary basin southeast of Kingston, Jamaica." Marine Geology 5: 45-60.
	
Burke, K. (1976). "Development of grabens associated with the initial ruptures of the Atlantic Ocean." Tectonophysics 36: 93-112.
	
Burke, K. (1988). Tectonic evolution of the Caribbean. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. ??? Palo Alto, CA, Annual Reviews Inc ??? 16: 210-230.
	
Burke, K., et al. (1984). Caribbean tectonics and relative plate motions. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America: 31-63.
	
Burke, K. and P. J. Fox (1977). Caribbean Problems, A Report on a Workshop Held to Help Identify Important Geological Problems Related to the Evolution of the Caribbean. New York, State University of New York at Albany.
	
Burke, K., et al. (1978). "Bouyant ocean floor and the evolution of the Caribbean." Journal of Geophysical Research 83: 3949-3945.
	
Burke, K., et al. (1980). "Neogene structures in Jamaica and the tectonic style of the northern Caribbean plate boundary zone." Journal of Geology 88: 375-386.
	
Burke, K. and E. Robinson (1965). "Sedimentary structures in the Wagwater Belt, eastern Jamaica." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 7: 1-10.
	
Burke, K., et al. (1968). The geology of the Benbow Inlier, Jamaica. ??? 4th Caribbean Geologic Conference. ??? Trinidad, ???: 299-307.
	
Burke, K. and A. M. C. Sengor (1986). Tectonic escape in the evolution of the continental crust. Reflection Seismology. ???, American Geophysical Union. 14: 41-53.
	
Burnett, L. S. (1981). Biostratigraphic Identification of the Pliocene/Pleistocene Boundary at Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 502, Colombian Basin, Caribbean Sea. Department of Geology. Boston, MA, Boston University: 48.
	
Burov, V. and et al. (1986). Informe de los trabajos de levantamiento geológico a escala 1:50 000 realizados en la parte occidental de la provincia de Pinar del Rio (Report of the work of geologic uplift at scale 1:50000 seen in the west part of the province of Pinar del Rio). La Habana, Fondo geológico, Ministerio de Industria Básica.
	
Burton, K. W., et al. (1997). "Closure of the Central American Isthmus and its effect on deep-water formation in the North Atlantic." Nature 386(6623): 382-385.
	
Bush, S. A. and P. A. Bush (1969). "Isostatic gravity map of the eastern Caribbean region." Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions 19: 281-285.
	
Bush, V. A. and L. A. Kondakov (1986). "Preparation of medium-scale tectonic maps on a geodynamic basis: The example of the Cuban island arc." International Geological Review 28: 266-276.
	
Bush, V. A. and I. N. Shcherbakova (1986). "New data on the deep tectonics of Cuba." Geotectonics 20(3): 192-203.
	
Butler, J. W. (1942). "Geology of Honda District." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 26(5): 793-837.
	
Butler, K. and S. Schamel (1988). "Structure along the eastern margin of the Central Cordillera, Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 1: 109-120.
	
Butler, K. R. (1983). Andean Type Foreland Deformtaion: Structural Development of the Neiva Basin, Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia. University of South Carolina: ?
	
Butterlin, J. (1954). "La geologie de la Republique d'Haiti et ses rapports avec celle des regions voisines (The geology of the Republic of Haiti and its connections with those of adjacent regions)." Mem. Inst. Franc. Haiti 1: ?
	
Butterlin, J. (1956). La Constitution Geologique et la Structure Des Antilles (The Geologic Constitution and Structure of the Antilles). Paris, France, Paris Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
	
Butterlin, J. (1960). Geologie General et regionale de la Republiqued'Haiti (General and regional geology of the Republic of Haiti). Paris.
	
Butterlin, J. (1965). Donnees fournies par les Macro-foraminiferes pour l'etablissement des limites de l'Oligocene dans la region des Caraibes (Data for the macro-foraminiferas for the establishment of the limits of the Oligocene within the Caribbean region). Fourth Caribbean Geol  Conference. Port of Spain: ?
	
Butterlin, J. (1977). Geologie Structurale de Region des Caraibes (Structural Geology of the Caribbean Region). New York, Messon.
	
Butterlin, J. (1981). "Claves para la determinacion de macroforaminifera de Mexico y del Caribe, del Cretacio superior al Mioceno medio (Keys for the determination of larger foraminifera of Mexico and the Caribbean, from the Upper Cretaceous to the Middle Miocene)." Instituto Mexicano del Petroleo???: 218 ?
	
Butterlin, J. (1987). "Origine et evolution des Lepidocyclines de la region des Caraibes:  Comparaisons et relations avec les Lepidocyclines des autres regions du monde (Genesis and evolution of lepidocyclines in the Caribbean region:  Comparison with lepidocyclines in other areas)." Revue de Micropaleontologie 29(4): 203-219.
	
Butterlin, J. (1988). Origine et evolution des Lepidocyclines de la region des Caraibes; comparaison et relations avec les Lepidocyclines des autres regions du monde (Origin and evolution of lepidocyclines of the Caribbean region; comparison and relationship to lepidocyclines of other regions of the world). Benthos '86:  Symposium international sur les Foraminiferes benthiques; 3 (Benthos '86; third international symposium on Benthic foraminifera). Geneva, Switzerland, Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve, Suisse. 2: 623-629.
	
Butterlin, J., et al. (1956). "Ile d'Haiti - Hispaniola et iles adjacentes (Island of Haiti - Hispaniola and adjacent islands)." Lex. Strat. Intern 5 Fasc. 2b: ?
	
Butticaz, P. (1946). Geologic Reconnaissance survey, San Diego de los Banos to Rio San Juan y Martinez, Pinar del Rio, Cuba. La Habana, Standard Cuban Oil Co.: 5.
	
Butticaz, P. (1946). Geological Study of the Rio Lena area, Pinar del Rio, Cuba. La Habana, Standard Cuban Oil Co.: 4.
	
Butticaz, P. (1952). Gas Seepages in the Keys East of the Isle of Pines, Cuba. La Habana, Standard Cuban Oil Co.: 3.
	
Butticaz, P. (1952). Topographical and Geologic Description of the Peninsula de Zapata, and Surrounding areas. La Habana, Standard Cuban Oil Co.
	
Byerly, G. R. (1991). Igneous activity. The Geology of North America, H, The Gulf of Mexico Basin. A. Salvador. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. J: 91-108.
	
Byrne, D. B., et al. (1985). "Muertos Trough subduction - microplate tectonics in the northern Caribbean ?" Nature 317: 420-421.
	
Cabral-Cano, E., et al. (2000). "Constraining the Late Mesozoic and early Tertiary tectonic evolution of southern Mexico: Structure and deformation history of the Tierra Caliente region." Journal of Geology 108(4): 427-446.
	
CabralCano, E., et al. (2000). "Stratigraphic assessment of the Arcelia-Teloloapan area, southern Mexico: Implications for southern Mexico's post-Neocomian tectonic evolution." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13(4-5): 443-457.
	
Cabrera, R. (1971). Informe preliminar sobre la manifestacion cuprifera del area de Mal Nombre en la region de Toa, Baracoa, Oriente (Preliminary Report on the copper manifestation of the area of Mal Nombre in the region of Toa, Baracoa, Oriente). Habana, Cuba, Academia de Ciencia, Habana.
	
Cabrera, R., et al. (1984). "Vinculación del magmatismo y los yacimientos meniferos de Cuba con los procesos tectónicos (Relationship of magmatism and ore deposits with tectonics zonation of Cuba)." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(9): ???
	
Cabrera, R. and A. E. Tolkunov (1979). "Tipos y condiciones geológicas de localización de los yacimientos de oro de la zona mineral septentrional de la antigua Provincia de Las Villas (Type and geological conditions of localization of gold occurences in the northern mineral zone of the former Las Villas Province)." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio 1: 51-68.
	
Caceres Avila, F., et al. (1984). "Recent studies of basins are encouraging for future exploration in Honduras." Oil and Gas Journal 82: 139-149.
	
Cáceres Calix, J. D. (2003). Earthquake Sources and Hazard in Northern Central America. Uppsala, Sweden, Uppsala University: 32.
	
Caceres, D. (2003). Earthquake sources and hazard in northern Central America, Uppsala Universitet (Sweden): 29.
	Northern Central America is a tectonically complex zone defined by its borders with Cocos and North America plates. The Middle America subduction zone and the strike-slip motion along the North America-Caribbean plate boundary, in that order, control most of its deformation. The interaction between the different elements of the studied area is evident from the high seismicity in the region, especially along plate boundaries. Also in the interior of the region, seismicity shows that deformation takes place, though in lesser degree. In a time window of 30 years, three earthquakes with moment magnitude larger than 7 struck northern Central America evincing the need to estimate the seismic hazard for the zone. To tackle the problem, we compiled a catalogue of hypocenters commencing in 1964, defined seismogenic sources and described the evolution of earthquake activity through a Poisson model. Probabilistic seismic hazard (PSH) calculations for the next 50 years were performed. The highest estimate of seismic hazard was obtained for the zone adjacent to the subduction zone. Because of the fundamental importance of demarcating seismogenic sources in the PSH analysis, i.e. defining the seismotectonic model, we extended the catalogue to cover 102 years for the whole northern Central America. We have studied the North America-Caribbean plate boundary in order to refine the fault representation. Different techniques were used, like that of body-waveforrn modeling, allowing us to limit the extent of depth of faulting to 20 km. The seismic moment tensor was used to estimate the deformation velocities on known tectonic structures, including those of the Honduras depression and borderland faults. Finally, we made use of the Coulomb stress criterion to determine the relation between earthquake occurrence and static stress changes following major earthquakes. 

Cáceres, D., et al. (1987). "Algunas consideraciones petrológicas sobre la secuencia vulcanógeno-sedimentaria del Cretácico relacionada con el yacimiento Júcaro, provincia Pinar del Río (Some petrologic considerations on the volcanogenic-sedimentary sequence of the Cretaceous related to the Jucaro deposit, Pinar del Rio province)." Revista Minería y Geología , Instituto Superior Minero-Metalúrgico de Moa 5(2): 11-22.
	
Cáceres, D. and O. Kulhánek (2000). "Seismic Hazard of Honduras." Natural Hazards 22(1): 49-69.
	
Caceres, D., et al. (2005). "Crustal deformation in northern Central America." Tectonophysics 404(1-2): 119-131.
	Evaluation of the seismic moment tensor for earthquakes on plate boundary is a standard procedure to determine the relative velocity of plates, which controls the seismic deformation rate predicted from the slip on a single fault. The moment tensor is also decomposed into an isotropic and a deviatoric part to discover the relationship between the average strain rate and the relative velocity between two plates. We utilize this procedure to estimate the rates of deformation in northern Central America where plate boundaries are seismically well defined. Four different tectonic environments are considered for modelling of the plate motions. The deformation rates obtained here compare well with those predicted from the plate motions models and are in good agreement with actual observations. Deformation rates on faults are increasingly being used to estimate earthquake recurrence from information on fault slip rate and more on how we can incorporate our current understanding into seismic hazard analyses

Calais, E. (1990). Cinematic/deformation Relations Along the Plate Boundaries in 'coulissage": Example of the Northern Caribbean Plate Boundaries from Cuba to Puerto Rico (Relations cinématique/déformation le long des limites de plaques en coulissage: l'exemple de la limite de plaques nord caraïbe de Cuba à Porto Rico). Sophia Antipolis, Nice, France, Universite de Nice-Sophia Antipolis: 296.
	
Calais, E., et al. (1992). "From transcurrent faulting to frontal subduction: A seismotectonic study of the northern Caribbean plate boundary from Cuba to Puerto Rico." Tectonics 11: 114-123.
	
Calais, E. and B. M. de Lépinay (1993). "Semi-quantitative modeling of strain and kinematics along the Caribbean/North America strike-slip plate boundary zone." Journal of Geophysical Research 98: 8293-8308.
	
Calais, E. and B. M. de Lépinay (1995). "Strike-slip tectonic processes in the northern Caribbean between Cuba and Hispaniola (Windward Passage)." Marine Geophysical Researches 17: 63-95.
	
Calais, E., et al. (2002). "Strain partitioning and fault slip rates in the northeastern Caribbean from GPS measurements - art. no. 1856." Geophysical Research Letters 29(18): 1856.
	
Calais, E. and B. Mercier de Lepinay (1989). "Données nouvelles sur la Cordillere septentrionale d'Hispaniola: Ses relations avec la limite de plaques décrochante nord-Caraibe (New data on the northern Cordillera of Hispaniola; its relationship to the northern Caribbean transcurrent plate boundary)." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Serie 2 309(4): 409-415.
	
Calais, E. and B. Mercier de Lepinay (1990). "Tectonics and paleogeography of the southern Cuban Oriente coast: New constraints for the geodynamic evolution of the northern Caribbean transcurrent plate boundary from Eocene to Present." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Paris 310(II): 293-299.
	
Calais, E. and B. Mercier de Lepinay (1991). "From transtension to transpression along the northern Caribbean plate boundary off Cuba: Implications for the Recent motion of the Caribbean plate." Tectonophysics 186: 329-350.
	
Calais, E. and B. Mercier de Lepinay (1995). "Strike-slip tectonic processes in the northern Caribbean between Cuba and Hispaniola (Windward Passage)." Marine Geophysical Researches Vol. 175(1): 63-95.
	
Calais, E. and B. Mercier de Lépinay (1990). "A natural model of active transpressional tectonics: The en échelon structures of the Oriente deep along the northern Caribbean transcurrent plate boundary (southern Cuban margin)." Revue de l'Institut Française du Pétrole 45: 147-160.
	
Calais, E. and B. Mercier de Lépinay (1993). "Strike-slip tectonic processes in the northern Caribbean between Cuba and Hispaniola (Windward Passage)." Marine Geophysical Researches.
	
Calais, E., et al. (1989). "Géométrie et régime tectonique le long d'une limite de plaques en coulissage:  La frontiére nord-Caraibe de Cuba a Hispaniola, Grandes Antilles (Geometry and tectonic regime along the limit of plates in "coulissage":  The northern Caribbean frontier of Cuba and Hispaniola, Greater Antilles)." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Paris 308(II): 131-135.
	
Calais, E., et al. (1992). "La limite de plaques décrochante nord caribe en Hispaniola: Evolution paléogéographique et structurale cénozoique (The limit of the north Caribbean strike-slip fault plates in Hispaniola:  Cenozoic paleogeographic and structural evolution)." Bulletin of the Geological Society of France 163: 309-324.
	
Calais, E., et al. (1998). Strike-slip tectonics and seismicity along the northern Caribbean plate boundary from Cuba to Hispaniola. Active Strike-Slip and Collisional Tectonics of the Northern Caribbean Plate Boundary Zone. J. F. Dolan and P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 326: 125-141.
	
Calais, E., et al. (1989). "Paleogeographic and structural evolution of the Caribbean domain from lias to the Present: 14 stages from 3 great periodes (Evolution paleogeographique et structural du domaine caraibe du lias a l'Actuel: 14 etapes poiur 3 grandes periodes." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Paris 309: 1437-1444.
	
Calder, E. S., et al. (1999). "Mobility of pyroclastic flows and surges at the Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat." Geophysical Research Letters 26(5): 537-540.
	
Calle, B. and R. Salinas (1986). Geologia y geoquimicade la plancha 165, Carmen de Atrato (Geology and geochemistry of plate 165, Carmen de Atrato), Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Minera, Bogota.
	
Calmus, T. (1983). Contribution to the Geologic Study of the Macay Massif (southwest Haiti, Greater Antilles): Its Place Within the Evolution of the Northern Caribbean Orogeny [Contribution a l'etude geologique du Massif du Macaya (sud-ouest d'Haiti, Grandes Antilles): Sa place dans l'evolution de l'orogene Nord-Caraibe]. Paris, Universite Pierre-et-Marie-Curie: 163.
	
Calmus, T. (1983). Contribution to the Geologic Study of the Macay Massif (Southwest Haiti, Greater Antilles): 'Sa place" of the evolution of the Northern Caribbean Orogeny (Contribution à l'étude géologique du Massif du Macaya (sud-ouest d'Haiti, Grandes Antilles): Sa place dans l'évolution de l'orogène Nord-Caraïbe). Paris, France, Université Pierre et Marie Curie: 163.
	
Calmus, T. (1984). "Decrochement senestre sud-haitien: Analyses et consequences paleogeographiques dans la region de Camp- Perrin (Massif de Macaya, presqu' ile du Sud d' Haiti) (South Haiti left-lateral strike-slip fault:  Analyses and paleogeographic consequences within the region of Camp-Perrin (Macaya Massif, peninsula of southern Haiti))." Annales de la Société Géologique du Nord, séance spec. Lille 10/06/83 t. CIII: 309-316.
	
Calmus, T. (1987). "Etudes geochimiques des volcanismes cretace et tertiaire du Massif de Macaya (presqu'ile du Sud d'Haiti):  Leur place dans l'evolution tectonique de la region nord-Caraibe (Geochemistry of Cretaceous and Tertiary volcanism of the Massif of Macaya (southern peninsula of Haiti): Their place in the tectonic evolution of the northern Caribbean region)." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Serie 2, Mecanique, Physique, Chimie, Sciences de l'Univers, Sciences de la Terre 304(16): 981-986.
	
Calmus, T., et al. (1996). "Cretaceous rocks of San Sebastian del Oeste area (Jalisco state, Mexico): Arc deposits between Teloloapan and Alisitos magmatic arcs." Comptes Rendus de L Academie Des Sciences Serie II Fascicule A - Sciences de La Terre et Des Planetes 323(9): 795-800.
	
Calmus, T., et al. (1999). "Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic thermotectonic history of the Mexican Pacific margin (18 to 25 degrees N), new insight from apatite and zircon fission-track analysis of coastal and offshore plutonic rocks." Tectonophysics 306(2): 163-182.
	
Calmus, T. and J. M. Vila (1988). "The Massif of Macaya (Haiti):  The evolution of a Laramide structure in the lefthanded-strike-slip boundary between North America and Caribbean Plates." Boletin del Departamento de Geologia Uni Son 5(5): 63-69.
	
Calvache, G. (1957). Final report on Escambray 1 well. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 10.
	
Calvache, G. (1958). Cugoc-Texpet Guayabo 1: Final Report. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 18.
	
Calvache, G. (1958). Final Report on Collazo 1 Well, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 11.
	
Calvo, C. and A. Bolz (1987). "The Venado sequence: A tropical, lagoonal estuary of the Middle Miocene, San Carlos, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 6: ?
	
Calvo, C. and A. Bolz (1991). "Technical note: The Espíritu Santo Formation (Costa Rica): Systems of autochthonous carbonate platforms in the Upper Paleocene-Lower Eocene." Geological Magazine of Central America 13: ?
	
Calvo-Vargas, C. (1987). Neritic Limestone Along the Pacific Margin of Nnorthern Costa Rica and Southern Nicaragua: Epochs and Systems Associated with the Opening and Evolution of the Convergent Margin of Southern Central America. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 165.
	
Camacho, E. (1991). "The Puerto Armuelles earthquake (southwestern Panamá) on July 18, 1934." Geological Magazine of Central America 13: ?
	
Cambray, F. W. and P. Jung (1970). "Provenance of the Richmond Formation from sole marks." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 11: 13-18.
	
Cameron, B. I. (1998). Melt generation and magma evolution in southeastern Guatemala, Northern Illinois University: 400.
	
Campa, M. and P. J. Coney (1983). "A tectonic model for Mexico and its relations with north America, South America and the Caribbean (Un modelo tectonic de Mexico y sus relaciones con America del Norte, America del Sur y el Caribe)." Revista del Instituto Mexicano del Petroleo 15: 6-15.
	
Campa, M. F. and P. J. Coney (1983). "Tectono-stratigraphic terranes and mineral resource distributions in Mexico." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 20: 1040-1051.
	
Campbell, C. J. (1962). A section through the Cordillera Oriental of Colombian between Bota and Villavicencio. 4th Annual Field Conference of the Colombian Society of Petroleum Geologists and Geophysicists: 89-118.
	
Campbell, C. J. (1965). The Santa Marta wrench fault of Colombia and its regional setting. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Trinidad: 247-261.
	
Campbell, C. J. (1968). The Santa Marta wrench fault of Colombia and its regional setting. Transactions of the Caribbean Geology Conference 4. 4: 247-261.
	
Campbell, C. J. and H. Burgl (1965). "Section through the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia." South America Geological Society of America Bulletin 76: 567-590.
	
Campos-Bejarano, L. (1987). Geology of the Fila Asunción and Neighboring Zones, Atlantic Coast, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 83.
	
Canache, M., et al. (1994). Stratigraphic revision of the Cretaceous section of the Maraca River, Sierra de Perija, Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 240-241.
	
Cande, S. C. and W. F. Haxby (1991). "Eocene propagating rifts in the southwest Pacific and their conjugate features on the Nazca Plate." Journal of Geophysical Research 96(B12): 19609-19622.
	
Canontapia, E., et al. (1995). "Magnetic Fabric and Flow Direction in Basaltic Pahoehoe Lava of Xitle Volcano, Mexico." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 65(3-4): 249-263.
	
Carballeira, N. M., et al. (1988). "On the hydrocarbon composition of Caribbean sponges:  A preliminary study." Marine Chemistry 24(2): 193-198.
	
Carballo, M. A. and R. Fischer (???). "La formacion San Miguel (mioceno, Costa Rica) (The San Miguel Formation (Miocene, Costa Rica))."??? ???: 48-113.
	
Carballo-Hernández, M. A. (1978). The San Miguel Formation, Lower Miocene, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 114.
	
Carbon, J. and C. Schubert (1994). "Late Cenozoic History of the Eastern Llanos of Venezuela: Geomorphology and Stratigraphy of the Mesa Formation." Quaternary International 21: 91-100.
	
Carbon, J., et al. (1992). "Characterization and thermoluminescent ages of the sediments of the Mesa Formation, in two localities of the south of Anzoategui, Venezuela (Caracterización y edades termoluminiscentes de los sedimentos de la Formación Mesa, en dos localidades del sur de Anzoátegui, Venezuela)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 43: 387-391.
	
Carby, B. E. (1985). The Geology, Mineralogy, and Geochemistry of the Hope Zinc-lead Deposit. University of the West Indies: 322.
	
Carew, J., et al. (1990). Field Trip Guidebook: The Fifth Symposium on the Geology of the Bahamas. San Salvador, Bahamas, Bahamian Field Station.
	
Carew, J. L. (1984). Estimates of late Pleistocene sea level high stands from San Salvador, Bahamas. Proceedings of the Second Symposium on the Geology of the Bahamas, 17th-22nd June. J. Mylroie: 153-177.
	
Carew, J. L., et al. (1996). Field Guide to Sites of Geological Interest, Western New Providence Island, Bahamas San Salvador, Bahamas, Bahamian Field Station.
	
Carew, J. L. and J. E. Mylroie (1995). "Quaternary tectonic stability of the Bahamian archipelago:  Evidence from fossil coral reefs and flank margin caves." Quaternary Science Reviews 14(2): 145-153.
	
Carew, J. L., et al. (1998). "Geology of South Andros Island Bahamas: A Reconnaissance Report for the 9th Symposium on the Geology of the Bahamas Field Trip." Cave and Karst Science 25(2): 57-66.
	
Carew, J. L., et al. (1998). "The geology of South Andros Island, Bahamas; a reconnaissance report." Cave and Karst Science 25(2): 57-66.
	
Carey, S. N. (1982). Studies on the Generation, Dispersal and Deposition of Tephra in the Marine and Terrestrial Environment, University of Rhode Island: 399.
	 This dissertation presents the results of four integrated studies, in manuscript form, dealing with the deposition and origin of tephra in both the marine and terrestrial environment. The first study focuses on the marine tephra deposits produced by a 30,000 yr. B.P. dacitic eruption on the island of Dominica in the Lesser Antilles. Tephra from this eruption was deposited in the equatorial Atlantic and Caribbean Sea by both fallout from the atmosphere and emplacement by subaqueous pyroclastic debris flows. The latter process was likely triggered by the entrance of subaerial pyroclastic flows into the sea along the west coast of Dominica. Calculations involving the aeolian fractionation of different tephra components indicates that almost 50% of the air-fall material was deposited outside of the observed deposit. In the second study a model of deep-water volcanogenic sedimentation in marginal basins adjacent to oceanic island arcs has been developed based on correlation and sedimentological data from other volcaniclastic units in the Lesser Antilles region and a synthesis of some results from recent DSDP drilling in the western Pacific (leg 59 and 60). A major depositional feature in this environment is the production of a volcaniclastic wedge sequence at the base of the volcanic arc. Depositional processes on the wedge are complex and do not appear to operate in a similar manner to other deep-water depositional systems such as deep-sea fans. The third study examines deposition of tephra in the terrestrial environment. Grain size and component abundance data was collected on the ash-fall deposit produced by the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens volcano. A computer simulation of multicomponent ash fallout was developed and used to evaluate the unusual grain size and thickness characteristics. Premature fallout of fine ash as particle aggregates was found to be a process which resulted in both a second thickening of the MSH deposit and grain size polymodality. The fouth study deals with the petrology of the rhyodacitic magma ejected during the Bronze age eruption of Santorini. Mineral geothermometry and geobarometry indicate that just prior to eruption magma temperature was close to 900(DEGREES)C and total pressure between 2.5 and 5 kb. Trace element modelling, volume constraints, and isotopic evidence all suggest an origin by partial fusion of crustal rocks beneath Santorini.

Carey-Gailhardis, E. and J. L. Mercier (1987). "A numerical model for determining the state of stress using focal mechanisms of earthquake population:  Application to Tibetan teleseism and microseismicity of southern Peru." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 82: 165-177.
	
Carlut, J., et al. (2000). "Paleomagnetic directions and K/Ar dating of O to 1 Ma lava flows from La Guadeloupe Island (French West Indies): Implications for time-averaged field models." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 105(1): 835-850.
	
Carmona, R., et al. (1994). Identificacion de intervalos productores profundos mediante perfiles de imagenes, evaluacion petrofisica y caracterizacion de facies, formacion misoa, eoceno, la ceiba, cerca de Maracaibo, Venezuela (Identification of deep producing intervals by means of imaging profiles, petrophysical evaluation and facies characterization, Misoa Formation, Eocene, La Ceiba, near Maracaibo, Venezuela). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 471-473.
	
Carney, C. and M. Boardman (1996). Guide to the Geology of Andros Island. Dayton, Ohio, Wright State University.
	
Caro, M. (2003). Structural Evolution of the San Jacinto Fold Belt, NW Columbia. Calgary, Canada, University of Calgary: 66.
	The tectonic evolution of the San Jacinto fold belt comprises an extensional and several compressional events that affected the continental margin of northwestern South America during the Cenozoic: extension with rift or graben infill from Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene, a Middle Eocene inversion, Late Eocene uplift, a relatively quiet period during the Oligocene, Middle Miocene deformation and a Pliocene-Pleistocene period of folding and faulting. This evolution is related to the development of the Caribbean plate and its interaction with the Cocos, Nazca and South American plates. Inversion and reactivation were mostly controlled by the orientation of the pre-existing normal fault planes. These deformational episodes are recorded by several unconformities (Lower Eocene, Middle Eocene, Upper Eocene, Lower Oligocene, Middle Miocene and Upper Pliocene). Structurally, the San Jacinto fold belt is composed of a series of northeasterly trending folds, reverse and normal faults. Restoration of two seismic lines corroborates the proposed model.

Carpenter, R. H. (1954). "Geology and ore deposits of the Rosario Mining District and the San Juancito Mountains, Honduras, Central America." Geological Society of America Bulletin 65: 23-38.
	
Carr, M. J. (1976). "Underthrusting and Quaternary faulting in northern Central America." Geological Society of America Bulletin 87: 825-829.
	
Carr, M. J. (1984). "Symmetrical and segmented variation of physical and geochemical characteristics of the Central American volcanic front." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 20: 231-252.
	
Carr, M. J. (2001). MARGINS Volcanoes Field Trip, July 2001, Nicaragua. Nicaragua: 25.
	
Carr, M. J., et al. (1990). "Incompatible element and isotopic evidence for tectonic control of source mixing and melt extraction along the Central American arc." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 105: 369-380.
	
Carr, M. J. and W. I. Rose (1987). "CENTAM—a data base of analyses of Central American volcanic rocks." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 33: 239-240.
	
Carr, M. J., et al. (1979). "Potassium content of lavas and depth to the seismic zone in Central America." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 5: 387-401.
	
Carr, M. J., et al. (1979). Central America. Andesites:  Oregenic andesites and related rocks. R. S. Thorpe. New York, John Wiley and Sons: 149-166.
	
Carr, M. J., et al. (1982). Regional distribution and character of active andesite igneous - Central America. Andesites; Orogenic Andesites and Related Rocks. R. S. Thrope. New York, John Wiley & Sons: 149-166.
	
Carr, M. J. and R. E. Stoiber (1974). "Intermediate deep focus earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in Central America, 1961-1972." Bulletin of Volcanology 37: 326-337.
	
Carr, M. J. and R. E. Stoiber (1990). Volcanism. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 375-392.
	
Carranzaedwards, A. and L. Rosaleshoz (1995). "Grain-size trends and provenance of southwestern Gulf of Mexico beach sands." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 32(12): 2009-2014.
	
Carranzaedwards, A., et al. (1996). "A reconnaissance study of carbonates in Mexican beach sands." Sedimentary Geology 101(3-4): 261-268.
	
Carr-Brown, B. and J. Frampton (1979). An outline of the stratigraphy of Trinidad. Fourth Latin American Geological Conference Field Guide: 7-19.
	
Carrillo, M., et al. (1995). "Aptian to Maastrichtian paleobathymetric reconstruction of the Eastern Venezuelan Basin." Marine Micropaleontology 26(1-4): 405-418.
	
Carrillo-Bravo, J. (1961). "Geologia del anticlinoria Huizachal-Peregrina al NW de Ciudad Victoria, Tamaulipas (Geology of the Huizachal-Peregrina anticlinoria to the NW of Ciudad Victoria, Tamaulipas)." Asociation Mexicana de Geologos Petroleros Boletin 13: 1-98.
	
Carrillo-Bravo, J. (1965). "Estudio geologico de una parte del anticlinorio de Huayacocotla (Geologic study of a part of the anitclinorium of Huayacocotla)." Asociation Mexicana de Geologos Petroleros Boletin 17: 73-96.
	
Carson, J. P. (1874). Geological report on the Darién route and Nercalagua River of San Blas. Reports of explorations and surveys to ascertain the practicability of a ship canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by way of the Isthmus of Panama. T. O. Selfridge. Washington D.C.: ?
	
Carton, J. A. and Y. Chao (1999). "Caribbean Sea eddies inferred from TOPEX/POSEIDON altimetry and a 1/6 degrees Atlantic Ocean model simulation." Journal of Geophysical Research - Oceans 104(C4): 7743-7752.
	
Cartwright Aerial Surveys Inc. (1965). Burica Medial Fault Zone. Panama, Ministerio de Obras Publicas, Direccion de Cartografia.
	
Carvalho Gonçalves da Silva, Z. (1967). Studies on Jadeites and Albitites From Guatemala. Department of Geology and Geophysics. Houston, Texas, Rice University: 21.
	
Casassainz, A. M. (1995). "Geomorphological and sedimentary features along an active right-lateral reverse fault (Yaracuy basin, Venezuela)." Zeitschrift Fur Geomorphologie 39(3): 363-380.
	
Case, J. E. (1974). Major basins along the continental margin of northern South America. The Geology of Continental Margins. C. A. Burk and C. L. Drake. New York, Springer-Verlag: 733-741.
	
Case, J. E. (1974). "Oceanic crust forms basement of eastern Panama." Geological Society of America Bulletin 85: 645-652.
	
Case, J. E. (1980). Crustal setting of mafic and ultramafic rocks and associated ore deposits of the Caribbean region. Reston, VA, U.S. Geological Survey: 94.
	
Case, J. E. (1980). "Oceanic crust forms basement of eastern Panama." Geological Society of America Bulletin 85(4): 645-652.
	
Case, J. E., et al. (1973). "Trans-Andean geophysical profile, southern Colombia." Geological Society of Amercia Bulletin 84(9): 2895-2904.
	
Case, J. E. and G. Dengo (1982). The Caribbean Region. Perspectives in Regional Geological Synthesis:  Planning for The Geology on North America. A. R. Palmer. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 1: 163-170.
	
Case, J. E. and G. Dengo (1982). Planning for the Geology of North America, DNAG Special Publication: The Caribbean region. Perspectives in Regional Geological Synthesis. A. R. Palmer. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 1: 163-170.
	
Case, J. E., et al. (1971). "Tectonic investigations in western Colombia and eastern Panama." Geological Society of America Bulletin 82: 2685-2712.
	
Case, J. E. and T. Holcombe (1975). Preliminary geological-tectonic map of the Caribbean region, United States Geologic Survey: 75-146.
	
Case, J. E. and T. L. Holcombe (1975). Preliminary Geologic-tectonic and Bathymetric Maps of the Caribbean Region, U. S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA: 3.
	
Case, J. E. and T. L. Holcombe (1977). "Generalized tectonic map of the Caribbean." Engineeering and Mining Journal 178: 49-51.
	
Case, J. E. and T. L. Holcombe (1980). Geologic-tectonic map of the Caribbean, U.S. Geological Survey.
	
Case, J. E., et al. (1984). Map of geologic provinces in the Caribbean region. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. Bonini, R. Hargraves and R. Shagan. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 1-30.
	
Case, J. E. and W. D. MacDonald (1990). Crustal structure of the Caribbean region. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, Geological Society of America. H: ?
	
Case, J. E., et al. (1990). Caribbean crustal provinces; seismic and gravity evidence. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 15-36.
	
Case, J. E. and W. R. MacDonald (1973). "Regional gravity anomalies and crustal structure in northern Colombia." Geological Society of America Bulletin 84(9): 2905-2916.
	
Case, J. E., et al. (1990). Geology of the northern Andes; An overview. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 177-200.
	
Case, J. E. and F. Stehli (1975). Geophysical studies in the Caribbean Sea. The Ocean Basins and Margins. A. Nairn. New York, Plenum Press. 3: 107-173.
	
Case, T. J. (1995). "Anolis lizards of the Caribbean. Ecology, evolution, and plate tectonics, by J. Roughgarden." Science 270(5239): 1233-1235.
	
Casey, R. E. (1977). Late Mezozoic and Cenozoic history of Panama, derived from field and laboratory studies of the Los Santos, Verraguas, and Herrera provinces related to other studies in Panama and the surroundings areas including Deep Sea Drilling Project Studies: ?
	
Cassell, D. T. (1986). Neogene Foraminifera of the Limon Basin of Costa Rica. Department of Geology and Geophysics. Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Louisiana State University: 323.
	
Cassell, D. T. and B. K. Sen Gupta (1989). "Foraminiferal stratigraphy and paleoenvironments of the Tertiary Uscari formation, Limón basin, Costa Rica." Journal of Foraminiferal Research 19: 52-71.
	
Cassell, D. T. and B. K. Sen Gupta (1989). "Pliocene foraminifera and environments, Limón basin, Costa Rica." Journal of Paleontology 63: 146-157.
	
Castillo, M. R. (1984). Geologia de Costa Rica, una sinopsis (Geology of Costa Rica, a synopsis), Universidad de Costa Rica: ?
	
Castillo, M. V. (2001). Structural Analysis of Cenozoic Fault Systems Using 3D Seismic Reflection Data in the Southern Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 207.
	The Icotea and VLE1 faults are two of the major faults in the Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela, and are known from seismic and well data to have most active during Paleogene time.  Both faults have linear traces over distances up to 100 km, are deeply buried under largely unfaulted Neogene sedimentary rocks, and are associated with localized continental growth strata of Paleogene age along their traces.  The origin and displacement history of both faults has remained controversial partly because of along-strike complexities in fault structure, use of highly exaggerated 2D seismic lines, and the lack of synoptic views of both fault systems. Previous interpretations range from east dipping basement-involved thrust faults to sub-vertical left-lateral strike-slip faults controlling pull-apart basins. I use regional 2D seismic data crossing both faults, and 3D seismic data covering a 1600 km2 area of the southern Maracaibo Basin to describe structures along the traces of both faults and fault termination structures at their southern ends. These seismic reflection data show that both faults are inverted normal faults that first formed during the late Jurassic-early Cretaceous. The abrupt termination of both faults in the southern part of the basin probably corresponds to the southern ends of two parallel rift structures. This study also uses 3D seismic reflection data to describe a karst horizon in the Aptian-Albian carbonate rocks that may have formed during a worldwide eustatic drop in Albian sea level that also produced the well-known mid-Cretaceous unconformity recognized in the Gulf of Mexico, France, and Middle East. The karst interpretation may allow a better understanding of reservoir characteristics at this level in the carbonate platform, which are generally attributed to fracturing rather than subaerial weathering. The presence of a regionally extensive karst surface at depth beneath other basins along the northern margin of South America may prove to be a useful oil exploration play concept.

1VLE fault: named by the Petróleos de Venezuela filial MARAVEN S.A., to describe a NS striking fault in Block V located in the central area of the Lake Maracaibl.

Castillo, M. V. and P. Mann (2006). Cretaceous to Holocene structural and stratigraphic development in south Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, inferred from well and three-dimensional seismic data. 3-D anatomy of a supergiant; Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. P. Mann and A. Escalona. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 90(4): 529-565.
	The subsurface of the southern part of the Maracaibo Basin has been studied in much less detail than the central and northern basin because hydrocarbon-rich rocks of Cretaceous and Paleogene age are deeply buried to a depth of 4.5 km (2.7 mi) by a thick Neogene clastic section eroded off of surrounding mountain ranges. In this article, we describe the results of the interpretation of 1600-km (super 2) (617-mi (super 2) ) three-dimensional (3-D) seismic reflection data centered on this horizontal to monoclinally southwestward-dipping middle Cretaceous to Holocene section adjacent to a zone of northwestward overthrusting along the mountain front of the Merida Andes. To establish the structural and stratigraphic history of the 3-D seismic study area, a series of time slices were constructed at key horizons through the 3-D seismic volume. The ages of units in these time slices were correlated to stratigraphic formations known from outcrops at the basin edges, well data from the 3-D seismic study area, and subsurface correlation with better studied areas in the northern basin. The type and orientations of structures along each time horizon were mapped to constrain the successive structural and stratigraphic events that affected the different tectonosequences in the southern Maracaibo Basin. The main tectonic events recorded both by structures and unconformity-bound tectonosequences include the following events from youngest to oldest: (1) Pliocene-Holocene shortening produced by the uplift of the Merida Andes and overthrusting at the mountain front has produced an approximately 6-km (3.7-mi)-deep localized foredeep basin; the axial traces of these folds trend northeast-southwest and parallel the strike of a set of normal faults; all structural features are consistent with regional northwest-southeast shortening. A low-angle thrust fault responsible for the formation of the main northeast-southwest fold is inferred to continue downdip as a flat-lying thrust that may be continuous with low-angle thrust faults observed along the northern Merida Andes mountain front. The level of thrust detachment occurs at the Cretaceous Colon shale and accommodates a negligible amount of shortening (<500 m; <1640 ft). (2) Late Miocene-Pliocene shortening caused by uplift of the Sierra de Perija and the Merida Andes produced an inversion of north-south-striking normal faults and folds in a parallel orientation. The axial traces of these folds and the trend of inverted structures coincide with the trends of the most prolific Eocene sandstone reservoirs in the central and northern Lake Maracaibo areas. (3) Late Paleocene-middle Eocene formation of a foreland basin is related to the southward overthrusting at the northeastern margin of the basin; normal faults with an average trend of S37 degrees E record flexure of the basin during this event; faults also include the southern splayed termination of the left-lateral Icotea strike-slip fault. (4) The termination of the Icotea fault in the south lake area is consistent with the small amount of left-lateral strike-slip displacement previously inferred from the geometry of the Eocene Icotea pull-apart basin in central Lake Maracaibo.

Castillo, M. V. and P. Mann (2006). Deeply buried, Early Cretaceous paleokarst terrane, southern Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. 3-D anatomy of a supergiant; Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. P. Mann and A. Escalona. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 90(4): 567-579.
	Cretaceous carbonate rocks formed an extensive passive-margin section along the northern margin of the South American plate and are now found in outcrops in elevated and deformed ranges like the Merida Andes and Sierra de Perija. Regional seismic profiles correlated with well data show that a 300-m (984-ft)-thick Cretaceous carbonate platform underlies all of the Maracaibo Basin of western Venezuela. We examined the Cretaceous carbonate section beneath the southern Maracaibo Basin using a 1600-km (super 2) (617-mi (super 2) ) area of three-dimensional (3-D) seismic reflection data provided by Petroleos de Venezuela, S. A., along with wells to constrain the age and environments of seismic reflectors. Well data allow the identification and correlation of the major lithologic subsurface formations with formations described from outcrop studies around the basin edges. Seismic reflection time slices at a depth range of 3.7-4.5 s (5-7 km; 3.1-4.3 mi) reveal the presence of a prominent, irregular reflection surface across the entire 3-D study area that is characterized by subcircular depressions up to about 600 m (1968 ft) wide and about 100 m (328 ft) deep. We interpret the subcircular features as sinkholes formed when the Lower Cretaceous carbonate platform was subaerially exposed to weathering in a tropical climate. The scale of the observed circular features is consistent with dimensions of limestone sinkholes described from modern karst settings. Correlation of the inferred karst horizon with well logs shows that the paleokarst horizon occurs within the shallow-water carbonate rocks of the Aptian Apon Formation. We infer that the karst formed during an Aptian eustatic sea level fall described from Aptian intervals in other parts of the world, including the Gulf of Mexico. The Aptian paleokarst zone provides a previously unrecognized zone of porosity for hydrocarbons to accumulate beneath the Maracaibo and perhaps other basins formed above the extensive passive margin of northern South America.

Castillo, P., et al. (1988). "Anomalously young volcanoes on old hot-spot traces I:  Geology and Petrology of Cocos Island." Geological Society of America Buletin 100: 1400-1414.
	
Castillo, P. R. (1984). Geology and Geochemistry of Cocos Island:  Implications for the Evolution of the Aseismic Cocos Ridge. Washington University, Dept. of Earth & Planetary Sciences. St. Louis, Missouri: 310.
	
Castillo, R. I., et al. (1991). Mapa Sismotectonico Del Ecuador (Seismotectonic Map of Ecuador), Consejo De Seguridad Nacional, Direccion Nacional de Defensa Civil: 47.
	
Castillo, V. (2001). Structural Analysis of Cenozoic Fault Systems Using 3D Seismic Reflection Data in the Southern Maracaibo Basin. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 189.
	
Castillo-Contoux, R. (1989). no title.
	
Castro, M. and A. Mederos (1985). "Litoestratigraphia de la Cuenca de Carupano (Lithostratigraphy of the Carupano Basin)." Proceedings Vl Congresso Geologica Venezolano: 202-225.
	
Castro-Escamilla, R. R. (1980). Un Modelo de la Corteza Terrestre Para el Sur de México Mediante el Uso de Sismos Profundos (A Model of the Terrestrial Crust for the South of Mexico Through the Use of Deep Seismic). Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México: 74.
	
Castro-Muñoz, J. F. (1985). GeochemicalSurvey of Part of the Montes del Aguacate (Desmonte Area). Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica.
	
Castro-Zuñiga, S. (1993). Petrography and Alteration Mineralogy of Wells in the Tenorio Geothermal Field, Guanacaste (Costa Rica). Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 86.
	
Catlin, T. J., et al. (1994). Stratigraphic framework for the Eocene, south-west of Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 43-61.
	
Caudri, C. M. B. (1944). "The Larger Foraminifera From San Juan de los Murros, State of Guarico, Venezuela." Bulletin of American Paleontology 28(114): 62.
	
Causse, R., Ed. (1976). Transactions of the 7th Caribbean Geological Conference, Guadeloupe, 30 June-12 July 1974.
	
Causse, R., Ed. (1976). Transactions of the 7th Caribbean Geological Conference, Guadeloupe, June 30 - July 12, 1974. Orleans, France, Bureau de Recherches Geologiques et Minieres.
	
CAYTROUGH (1979). Geological and geophysical investigation of the Mid-Cayman Rise spreading center: Initial results and observations. Deep Drilling Results in the Atlantic Ocean: Ocean Crust. M. Talwani, C. G. Harrison and D. E. Hayes. Washington, D. C., American Geophysical Union. 2: 66-93.
	
Cazañas, X., et al. (2003). "Source of ore-forming fluids in El Cobre VHMS deposit (Cuba): Evidence from fluid inclusions and sulfur isotopes." Journal of Geochemical Exploration: 78-79, 85-90.
	
Cazañas, X. and J. C. Melgarejo (1998). "Introducción a la metalogenia del Mn en Cuba (Introduction to the metallogeny of Mn in Cuba)." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 213-237.
	
Cazañas, X., et al. (1998). "Un modelo de depósito vulcanogénico de manganeso del arco volcánico Paleógeno de Cuba: el ejemplo de la región Cristo-Ponupo-Los Chivos (A model of manganese volcanogenic deposit from the paleogene volcanic island arc of Cuba: The case of the Cristo-Ponupo-Los Chivos region)." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 239-276.
	
Cazañas, X., et al. (1998). "El depósito volcanogénico de Cu-Zn-Pb-Au El Cobre, Cuba Oriental: estructura y mineralogía (The Cu-Zn-Pb-Au volcanogenic deposit El Cobre, Western Cuba: structure and mineralogy)." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 277-333.
	
Cazañas, X., et al. (1998). "Rocas volcánicas de las series Inferior y Media del Grupo El Cobre en la Sierra Maestra (Cuba Oriental): Volcanismo generado en un arco de islas tholeítico (Volcanic rocks from the lower and intermediate series of the El Cobre Group, Sierra Maestra, Eastern Cuba: A case of island arc tholeiites)." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 57-74.
	
Cebull, S. E. and D. H. Shurbet (1980). The Ouachita Belt in the evolution of the Gulf of Mexico. Symposium on the origin of the Gulf of Mexico and the early opening of the Central North Atlantic Ocean. R. H. Pilger, Jr. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University: 17-26.
	
Cebulski, D. E. (1969). Foraminiferal populations and raunas in barrier-reef tract and lagoon, British Honduras. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 311-328.
	
Cediel, F. (1968). "El Grupo Giron, una molasa Mesozoica de la Cordillera Oriental (The Giron Group, a Mesozoic molasse of the Eastern Cordillera)." Boletin Geologico, INGEOMAS, Bogota (Colombia) 16: 5-96.
	
Cediel, F., et al. (2003). Tectonic assembly of the northern Andean Block. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, R. T. Buffler and J. F. Blickwede. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 815-848.
	Based primarily on geologic field observations as recorded by numerous geoscientists over the last three decades, backed by more recent geochemical, seismic, gravity, magnetic, tomographic, and satellite-based techniques, an integrated synthesis and interpretation of the tectonic assembly of the entire Northern Andean Block (the Andes of Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela) is presented. Tectonic reconstruction is based on the identification and characterization of more than 30 distinct lithotectonic and morphostructural units (including terranes, terrane assemblages, physiographic domains, etc.) and their bounding suture and fault systems, which, based on geologic, geophysical, and dynamo-tectonic considerations, define four distinct tectonic realms representing the entire Northern Andean region. These include the Guiana Shield Realm (GSR), the Maracaibo subplate Realm (MSP), the Central Continental subplate Realm (CCSP), and the Western Tectonic Realm (WTR). The GSR provided the backstop for the progressive, accretionary continental growth of northwestern South America in the middle-late Proterozoic, in the middle Paleozoic, and finally during the Mesozoic-Cenozoic Northern Andean orogeny. Middle Cretaceous through Miocene time slices illustrate how, beginning in the Aptian, the sequential dextral-oblique accretion of the allochthonous oceanic WTR along the Pacific margin acted simultaneously with the northwest migration of the MSP (a detached segment of the Guiana Shield) into and over the Caribbean plate, exerting enormous transpression upon the CCSP trapped between them. Each tectonic realm contributed distinct tectonic mechanisms during Northern Andean "cause and response" orogenesis, and each realm records a unique internal deformational style, which in large part provides the basis for realm definition. Additionally, based on lithologic, geochemical, and paleomagnetic data and paleogeographic reconstructions, the intimate and complementary Mesozoic-Cenozoic history of the Northern Andean Block and the Caribbean plate are recognized. The migratory path of the Caribbean plate along the western and northern margin of the South American craton, as recorded by the accretionary history of the allochthonous WTR, has been instrumental in the modern-day configuration of the Northern Andean Block. Throughout this paper, the importance and contribution of underlying Proterozoic through middle Mesozoic geostructural elements in the development of Mesozoic-Cenozoic Northern Andean orogeny-phase tectonic configuration (structural style, uplift mechanisms, basin development, magmatism, etc.) are stressed. Additionally, the complex reality of Northern Andean Block assembly is contrasted with "classical" Central Andean "Cordilleran-type" orogenic models, and numerous differences are illustrated that render the application of typical Cordilleran-type models unacceptable. These differences are exemplified by the highly oblique collision/accretion/subduction tectonics of allochthonous oceanic terranes in the WTR, the detachment, migration and plis de fond-style of deformation in the MSP and the unique, transpressive pop-up of the Eastern Cordillera in the CCSP, all of which have no geologic analog in the Central Andes.

Cediel, F., et al. (2003). Tectonic assembly of the Northern Andean Block. The Circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean: Hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, R. T. Buffler and J. Blickwede. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 815-848.
	
Cediel, M. F., et al. (1981). "Las formaciones Luisa, Payande, Saldana, sus columnas estratigraficas caracteristicas (The Luisa, Payande, Saldana formations, their characteristic stratigraphic columns)." Geologica Norandina 3: 12-19.
	
Centeno Garcia, E. and J. D. Keppie (1999). "Latest Paleozoic early Mesozoic structures in the central Oaxaca Terrane of southern Mexico: Deformation near a triple junction." Tectonophysics 301(3-4): 231-242.
	
Centeno-Garcia, E. (2005). Review of upper Paleozoic and lower Mesozoic stratigraphy and depositional environments of central and west Mexico; constraints on terrane analysis and paleogeography. The Mojave-Sonora Megashear hypothesis; development, assessment, and alternatives. Anderson, Thomas H. [editor] (University of Pittsburgh, Department of Geology and Planetary Sciences, Pittsburgh, PA, United States) ; Nourse, Jonathan A. [editor]; McKee, James W. [editor]; Steiner, Maureen B. [editor]. T. H. Anderson, J. A. Nourse, J. W. McKee and M. B. Steiner. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 393: 233-258.
	Reconstructing the geological evolution of central and western Mexico during the end of the Paleozoic and the beginning of the Mesozoic is very difficult because of a lack of exposures. The few outcrops available, and indirect information obtained from geophysical and geochemical data suggests that Central and Western Mexico are made up of a mosaic of pre-Jurassic terranes, and that previously defined terranes are mostly composites of basements of different origins. Most of those terranes are allochthonous with respect to North America, but some developed not far from their present position. It has been suggested that the Coahuila and Sierra Madre terranes (Oaxaquia block), part of Gondwana during Early Paleozoic, collided with North America by Late Paleozoic time. However, their Mississippian faunas of North American affinity suggest that the collision might have occurred earlier. The nature of the basement of the Central terrane is unknown, but it is inferred to be allochthonous because there is an accretionary prism at its NE boundary. The basement of the Parral and Tahue terranes is formed by a deformed volcano-sedimentary complex of Early Paleozoic age, whose origin and paleogeographic evolution remains unknown. The Caborca and Cortes terranes are formed by Proterozoic metamorphic complexes and an accreted eugeoclinal Paleozoic sedimentary wedge. The basement of the Zihuatanejo terrane is made up of Triassic ocean-floor continental-rise assemblages accreted in Early Jurassic time. An overview of new stratigraphic and geochronologic data indicates that a number of tectonic events occurred during Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic time. A continental arc with a paleo-Pacific, east-dipping subduction zone evolved from Carboniferous to Early Permian time in eastern Mexico (Oaxaquia), and it was in part contemporaneous to deformation in the Ouachita belt. This was followed by a period of volcanic quiescence during middle Permian. A more felsic arc, with a different distribution of the volcanic axis, developed along all the paleo-Pacific margin in the Permo-Triassic. Terranes in northwestern Mexico show a completely different geological evolution during the Carboniferous and Permian time. They were characterized by passive margin sedimentation and by folding and thrusting of eugeoclinal rocks in the Mississippian and Late Permian. By Late Triassic, a passive or rifting margin developed along the western margin of Oaxaquia, and thick successions of continent-derived sediments were accumulated on the paleocontinental shelf and slope (Potosi Fan) and in a marginal active oceanic basin (Arteaga Basin). Those rocks were deformed and accreted to nuclear Mexico by Late Triassic-Early Jurassic time, before the development of the Late Jurassic continental arc that was widespread along western and central Mexico.

Centeno-García, E., et al. (2003). Geology and tectonic evolution of the Western Guerrero terrane - A transect from Puerto Vallarta to Zihuatanejo, México. Geologic Transects across Cordilleran México, guidebook for field trips of the 99th GSA Cordilleran Section Meeting, UNAM Instituto de Geologia. 1: 201–228.
	
Centeno-García, E., et al. (1993). Geology of the southern part of the Guerrero terrane, Ciudad Altamirano-Teloloapan Area. Terrane Geology of Southern México, First Circum-Pacific and Circum-Atlantic Terrane Conference, Guidebook of Field Trip B: Guanajuato Mexico. O.-G. F., C. P., C.-G. E. and A. Gómez-Caballero, UNAM, Instituto de Geología: 22–33.
	
Cepek, P. (1975). "Die Kreide-Coccolithen aus de Referenz-Lokalität der Sepur-Folge bei Lanquin in Guatemala." Geologisches Jahrbuch Band 14: 87-109.
	
CEPET (1989). The Venezuelan hydrocarbon industry: Caracas, Venezuela, the center for formation and administration of Venezuelan petroleum (La industria Venezolana de los hidrocarburos: Caracas, Venezuela, El Centro de Formación y Adiestramiento de Petróleos de Venezuela). 1: 754.
	
Cerca, M., et al. (Geological Society Special Publications, 2004, Vol. 227, pp. 117-140). "The role of crustal heterogeneity in controlling vertical coupling during Laramide shortening and the development of the Caribbean-North America transform boundary in southern Mexico; insights from analogue models." Geological Society Special Publications 227: 117-140.
	Analogue models of polyphase deformation involving crustal differences in strength, thickness and density give insights into lateral and vertical strain propagation during Late Cretaceous shortening and Early Tertiary left-lateral shearing related to the early development of the North America-Caribbean plate boundary in southern Mexico. Analogue models reproduce a two-phase deformation characterized by a first stage of compression orthogonal to the plate boundary, simulating deformation induced by the Laramide orogeny, followed by a later stage of left-lateral transpression associated with the transfer of the Chortis block from the North American to the Caribbean plate during the early stage of development of the new plate boundary in Early Tertiary times. Based on detailed structural observations in the Guerrero-Morelos platform and the western part of the Mixteco terrane of southern Mexico, we document that a transpressive regime affected continental red bed sequences of Early Paleocene to Late Eocene, and rotated and refolded Laramide structures during this second phase. Our model ends before the transtensional regime that affected the region, which is marked by a volcanic episode of Late Eocene-Oligocene. This change in the deformation regime records the passage of the NW tip of the Chortis block (North America-Cocos-Caribbean triple junction), when subduction replaced transform faulting along the southern Mexico margin. The models focus on the structures formed around the flanks of a thicker/more rigid crustal block that simulates the rock assemblages of the Palaeozoic orogens of southern Mexico (Mixteco-Oaxaca-Juarez block, MOJB). The comparison of the mechanism of deformation of three different analogue models with the natural prototype explains most of the structures observed around the MOJB. Counterclockwise vertical-axis rotations of pre-existing structures in the western flank of the MOJB observed in the Guerrero-Morelos platform are consistent with the modelled structures. Vertical movements of the modelled MOJB induced by the transpressive regime can explain the Papalutla thrust and the basement upheaval and gravitational sliding of the cover in the Tentzo Ranges observed at the western and northern margins of the MOJB, respectively. The growth and propagation of thrusting controlled by the geometry of the block along the eastern margin also correlates with the Vista Hermosa fault. The propagation of strain to the north increases with higher contrast in strength of the thick block with respect to the adjacent modelled crust. Analogue modelling failed to reproduce all the structural details of southern Mexico and, specifically, the structures observed inside the MOJB. The latter, however, are controlled by pre-existing discontinuities, which are not simulated in the model. As a whole, the result demonstrate that crustal heterogeneity in a developing left-lateral plate boundary zone produces a stronger vertical coupling between ductile and brittle crust and a widening of the deformation zone along the margin of the North America plate in southern Mexico.

Cerdas-Salas, A. (1991). Analysis of Slope Stability Along the Margin of the Río Pacuare, Siquirres Hydroelectric Project, Limón Province, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 120.
	
Cermák, V., et al. (1991). "Terrestrial heat flow in Cuba." Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 65: 207-209.
	
Cermák, V., et al. (1984). "First heat flow density assessments in Cuba." Tectonophysics 103: 283-296.
	
Cervantes-Loaiza, J. F. (1989). Geological Framework for the Geotechnical Analysis of the Siquirres Hydroelectric Project, Limón Province, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 117.
	
Cerveny, P. F. and A. W. Snoke (1993). "Thermochronologic Data from Tobago, West Indies - Constraints on the Cooling and Accretion History of Mesozoic Oceanic-Arc Rocks in the Southern Caribbean." Tectonics 12(2): 433-440.
	
Cerveny, P. F. and A. W. Snoke (1993). "Thermochronologic data from Tobago, West Indies:  Constraints on the cooling and accretion history of Mesozoic oceanic-arc rocks in the southern Caribbean." Tectonics 12(2): 431-440.
	
Chabellard, J. C., et al. (1986). "Déformations et régimes de contraintes actuels et récents dans l'arc des Petites Antilles entre Martinique et Antigue (Deformations and regimes of present-day and recent constraints within the arc of the Lesser-Antilles between Martinique and Antigua)." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Paris 303: 80-86.
	
Chachati, B. and O. Macsotay (1985). Geodynamic and geochemical study of meta-acidic rocks of Paraguaychoa, northeastern Venezuela (Estudio geodinamico y geoquimico de rocas meta-acidas de Paraguaychoa, Venezuela nororiental). Petrology, geochemistry and geochronology (Petrologia, geoquimica y geocronologia). A. Espejo C., J. H. Rios F., N. Pimental de Bellizzia and A. S. de Pardo. Caracas, Venezuela. 6: 1586-1622.
	
Charles, D. G. and P. Cosgrove (1986). A model for oil exploitation in Trintoc's Point Fortin anticlinal area, north of the  Los Bajos Fault. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 168-182.
	
Chatellier, J.-Y., Mendez, M., Hague, P. and Navarro, A. (1998). Shale mobility in western Venezuela, implications for maturity studies and prospectivity. AAPG Annual Convention Expanded Abstract, Salt Lake City, Utah, AAPG.
	
Chauvin, A., et al. (1994). "A reconnaissance paleomagnetic study of Cretaceous rocks from central Cuba." Geophysical Research Letters 21(16): 1691-1694.
	
Chavarria, P. D. and W. Montero Pohly (1988). Mapa Geo-estructural y Sismos del Valle Central (Geo-structural and seismic map of the Valle Central). Costa Rica, Escuela Centroamericana de Geologia.
	
Chavez-Cabello, G., et al. (2007). The Mojave-Sonora Megashear; the hypothesis, the controversy, and the current state of knowledge. Geology of Mexico; celebrating the centenary of the Geological Society of Mexico. S. A. Alaniz-Alvarez and A. F. Nieto-Samaniego. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 422: 233-259.
	The San Marcos fault is a regional structure in northeast Mexico with a minimum length of 300 km, which separates the Coahuila block from the Coahuila fold belt; the fault dips north-northeast and its trend is west-northwest. The San Marcos fault is a basement structure that has been reactivated multiple times, and along its trace there is stratigraphic and structural evidence of intermittent activity since at least the Late Jurassic to the Pliocene-Quaternary. The structural evidence analyzed in this work suggests that the San Marcos fault accommodated mainly north-northeast crustal extension in pre-Tithonian and Neocomian pulses of activity. This extension may have contributed to development and growth of the Sabinas basin to the north. We found no evidence to support previous proposals of large lateral offset across the fault in Late Jurassic time, but we document a small component of right-lateral slip. At least four reactivation events have been recognized along the San Marcos fault. The first, in Neocomian time, was normal and triggered deposition of the San Marcos Formation. The second reactivation of the San Marcos fault involved reverse slip during Paleogene time, and it must include minor movements along secondary faults associated with the San Marcos fault. Interpretation of the reactivation event of the San Marcos fault as a reverse fault is based on (1) the occurrence of drape folds and minor tectonic transport to the south-southwest along the main trace of the fault; (2) the occurrence of a nearly perpendicular fold axis of different generation in the southwest sector of the Sabinas basin; (3) uplift of progressively older rocks toward the northeast within the San Marcos Valley; and (4) the existence of near perpendicular directions of tectonic transport determined for different structures within the San Marcos Valley (e.g., faults in the western sector of the valley record tectonic transport to the west and faults in the southwest sector of the valley record tectonic transport to the south-southwest). Secondary faults associated with the San Marcos fault vary in orientation from nearly east-west to nearly north-south, and are best represented by the El Caballo and El Almagre faults exposed in western Coahuila and southeastern Chihuahua. Reactivation of the San Marcos fault as a reverse fault occurred late, relative to an earlier stage of detachment (locally duplicating the stratigraphic sequence) in localities over the Coahuila platform and in the Sabinas basin itself. The relative importance and scale of these detachment folds need to be explored in further detail. The third reactivation event was normal with a left-lateral component (late Miocene-early Pliocene), and the fourth and last event is dominantly normal (Pliocene-Quaternary). These last two reactivation events along the San Marcos fault were recognized along the segment of the fault buried by volcanic products of the Camargo volcanic field in southeast Chihuahua State. These late events might also be present along the San Marcos fault in Coahuila; the lack of Cenozoic sequences atop the fault trace makes their recognition difficult.

Chávez-Cernas, J. (1980). Geologic Aspects of the Río Nimoyores Basin, Guanacaste. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 41.
	
Cheilletz, A. (1976). Etude Géologique et Métallogénique des Indices a Cuivre et Molybdène de Type Porphyre Cuprifère de la Zone ed Vert de Gris-Jean Rabel, Presqu'ile du Nord-Ouest, Haiti (Geologic and metallogenic study of the Cuivre indices and molybdenum of copper prophyry type of the zone of Vert de Gris-Jean Rabel, northwest peninsula, Haiti). Nancy, France, University of Nancy: 177.
	
Cheilletz, A., et al. (1978). "Petrography and geochronology of the two intrusive complexes of copper porphyery of Haiti, Contribution to the study of the copper laramienne provence of the Greater Antilles insular arc (Pétrographie et géochronologie de deux complexes intrusifs a porphyres cupriferes d'Haiti, Contribution a la connaiscance de la province cuprifere laramienne de l'arc insulaire de Grande Antilles)." Societé Géologique de France Buletin, ser 7 20: 107-114.
	
Chen, A., et al. (1982). "Seismicity of the forearc marginal wedge (accretionary prism)." Journal of Geophysical Research 87: 3679-3690.
	
Chen, J. H., et al. (1991). "Precise chronology of the last interglacial period: 234U-230Th data from fossil coral reefs in the Bahamas." Geological Society of America Bulletin 103: 82-97.
	
Chennouf, T. (1987). The Southern Extremity of the Barbados Ridge: Tectonic and Sedimentary Processes from Seismic Stratigraphy Analysis (Lesser Antilles Island Arc) (Accretion). Paris, France, University de Paris VI (Pierre et Marie Curie): 198.
	 La secteur d'etude se situe a 200 km a l'Est de Trinidad, entre les paralleles 10$/sp/circ$N et 11$/sp/circ$N et les meridiens 59$/sp/circ$W et 57$/sp/circ$40W. Il se place en partie sur la terminaison meridionale du prisme d'accretion de la Ride de la Barbade et sur le glacis continental de la marge Orenoque. Ce secteur est caracterise par une tectonique active, de puissants apports sedimentaires et une importante argilocinese. La deformation tectonique liee a la subduction atlantique sous la plaque Caraibe se manifeste tres differement suivant le lieu: (1) Au front du prisme, c'est l'accretion oceanique proprement dite, qui se manifeste par la formation de plis cylindriques a legerement dissymetriques. La longueur moyenne des axes anticlinaux est de l'ordre de 20 km. (2) Dans la partie centrale du prisme, c'est la predominance des phenomenes cisaillants qui aboutissent a l''incorporation' in situ de bassins syn-deformation, l'individualisation de plis en 'echelon' dont les axes sont de faible longueur (10 km en moyenne). (3) Dans la partie profonde du prisme, c'est l'installation de niveaux de decollement plus profond que celui du front de deformation et la formation des 'duplex'. L'argilocinese ne se developpe pas dans les zones ou predomine la compression (front de deformation); elle se manifeste essentiellement dans la partie la plus interne du prisme ou les fentes d'extension associees aux systemes decrochants (par rotation de blocs) favorisent la remontee des argiles sous compactees. Cette tectonique synsedimentaire se presente sous deux formes: (1) les volcans de boue qui perturbent peu la geometrie des couches sedimentaires, (2) les domes qui, au contraire, transforment profondement la morphologie et l'organisation des depots. La forte pente des flancs des domes est souvent la cause de deplacements gravitaires de sediments vers le fond des bassins 'interdiapirs'. L'aspect sedimentaire sur l'ensemble de la region se caracterise par la coexistence de facies trs differents dans des espaces voisins qui s'explique par le concours des evenements suivants: glissements synsedimentaires, drapage de formations a facies pelagique sur des facies terrigenes, profondes erosions arrachant aux zones hautes un materiel qui sera depasse en contre-bas ou evacue a grandes distances par les canyons.

Chevalier, Y., et al. (1988). "Obduction et collision pre-Tertiaire dons les internes de la Chain Caraibe venezuelienne, sur le transect Ile de Margarita-Pennisule d'Araya (Pre-Tertiary obduction and collision within the Venezuelan Chain Caraibe, south of the transect of Margarita Island-Araya Penninsula)." Compte Rendu de la Academie des Sciences de Paris 307(2): 1925-1932.
	French

Chew, D. M., et al. (2007). "U-Pb geochronologic evidence for the evolution of the Gondwanan margin of the north-central Andes." Geological Society of America Bulletin 119(5-6): 697-711.
	We investigated the Neoproterozoic-early Paleozoic evolution of the Gondwanan margin of the north-central Andes by employing U-Pb zircon geochronology in the Eastern Cordilleras of Peru and Ecuador using a combination of laser-ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry detrital zircon analysis and dating of syn- and post-tectonic intrusive rocks by thermal ionization mass spectrometry and ion microprobe. The majority of detrital zircon samples exhibits prominent peaks in the ranges 0.45-0.65 Ga and 0.9-1.3 Ga, with minimal older detritus from the Amazonian craton. These data imply that the Famatinian-Pampean and Grenville (= Sunsas) orogenies were available to supply detritus to the Paleozoic sequences of the north-central Andes, and these orogenic belts are interpreted to be either buried underneath the present-day Andean chain or adjacent foreland sediments. There is evidence of a subduction-related magmatic belt (474-442 Ma) in the Eastern Cordillera of Peru and regional orogenic events that pre- and postdate this phase of magmatism. These are confirmed by ion-microprobe dating of zircon overgrowths from amphibolite-facies schists, which reveals metamorphic events at ca. 478 and ca. 312 Ma and refutes the previously assumed Neoproterozoic age for orogeny in the Peruvian Eastern Cordillera. The presence of an Ordovician magmatic and metamorphic belt in the north-central Andes demonstrates that Famatinian metamorphism and subduction-related magmatism were continuous from Patagonia through northern Argentina to Venezuela. The evolution of this extremely long Ordovician active margin on western Gondwana is very similar to the Taconic orogenic cycle of the eastern margin of Laurentia, and our findings support models that show these two active margins facing each other during the Ordovician

Chibas, E. J. (1896). "The manganese deposit of the Department of Panama, Republic of Colombia." American Society of Civil Engineers?: 63-76.
	
Chicangana, G. (2005). "The Romeral fault system: A shear and deformed extinct subduction zone between oceanic and continental lithospheres in northwestern South America." Earth Sciences Research Journal 9(1): 50-64.
	The Romeral Fault System (RFS) extends 1600 km from Barranquilla-Colombia to Talara city-Peru and before the Pliocene. In the Middle Eocene RFS defined the northwestern border of the South America plate, being originated by a triple junction rift-rift-rift occurred from lower to middle Jurassic, when the South American sector separated from Chortis, Oaxaca and Yucatan blocks. From Late Mesozoic until Early Paleocene, the Paleo Pacific plate converged on NW South America corner being subducted when an anomalous thick oceanic crust, represented by the Caribbean plate, was accreted extinguishing gradually from the North of Peru to the North of Colombia. The collision generated a transtensive field stress in back arc region, due to the ancestral Central Cordillera rising in continental border. The RFS rocks suffered low grade metamorphism and some rocks of extinct subduction zone suffered metamorphic inversion. During Late Paleogene until Early Miocene, the convergence South America, Farallon and North America plates produced clockwise rotation in Caribbean Plate, which moved to NE producing a dextral displacement in the suture, generating big milonyte belts in the RFS rocks. With the Farallon Plate break, in the Middle Miocene, due to Galapagos triple junction activation, the Caribbean plate moved to the NNE colliding with the south of the North American plate, being trapped between South and North American plates. This caused the Costa Rica-Panama-Choco block (CRCB) collision with the NW of South America plate, deforming the north of the Northern Andes generating a change in the convergence of Nazca plate in this sector. From Late Pliocene, when convergence change finish, Carnegie Ridge collision in the south of NW South America configuring the actual lithosphere geometry and the orogenic styles of the Northern Andes. Based on Petrogenetic correlations supported by interpretation of secondary sources in geology, tectonic, petrogenesis and geophysics, a model for a regional seismotectonic characterization of this zone was done. The deformed zone represents an extinct subduction zone including fore arc basin rocks with fragments of a Lower-Late Cretaceous volcanic arc and some continental fragments of South America plate. I conclude that RFS is a weak rheologic area and a lithosphere contrast between a thick oceanic and the continental crust, presenting a high seismological activity with historically great earthquakes in Colombia and Ecuador.

Chiesa, S. (1987). "The largest Plinian eruption of Arenal volcano, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 6: ?
	
Chiesa, S. (1991). "A biotite pumice flow in the Río Liberia (Guanacaste), Costa Rica, Central America." Geological Magazine of Central America 13: ?
	
Chiesa, S., et al. (1992). "Pyroclastic rocks associated with the formation of the Guayabo caldera, Cordillera de Guanacaste, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 14: ?
	
Chigne, N. and L. Hernández (1990). 1985-1987, Main aspects of petroleum exploration in the Apure area of southwestern Venezuela. Classic petroleum provinces. J. Brooks. Bath, England, Geological Society of London. 50: 55-75.
	
Chinchilla-Chavez, A. L. (1989). Geologic Study of the Montezuma Formation (Plio-Pleistocene), Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 148.
	
Chinn, E. W. (1986). Diagenesis of Tertiary Volcanogenic Sandstones of the Térraba Belt, Southwest Costa Rica. Department of Geology and Geophysics. Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Louisiana State University: 72.
	
Chorowicz, J., et al. (1989). Utilisation de l'imagerie SPOT et MOMS-01 pour l'analyse tectonique en contexte de limite de plaques:  Exemples du rift est-africain, de la collision nord-Caraibe et des Andes de Colombie (Use of SPOT and MOMS-1 imagery for plate tectonic analysis:  Examples of the East African Rift, and the northern Caribbean-Colombian Andes collision). La recherche et les satellites a haute resolution spatiale; SPOT, LANDSAT TM.:  Resumes etendus (Research and high resolution satellites; SPOT, LANDSAT TM.:  Summaries. G. Ducher and D. Cadet. 114: 76-78.
	
Chorowicz, J., et al. (1988). Resultats geologiques obtenus par l'utilisation de l'imagerie SPOT en contexte de limite de plaque:  Exemples du Rift Est-Africain et de la collision Nord Caraibe (Geologic results obtained from the use of SPOT imagery along plate boundaries:  Examples in the East African Rift and of the northern Caribbean collision). SPOT 1; Utilisation des images, bilan, resultats  (SPOT 1; Image utilization, assessment, results). Toulouse, France, Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales. 1: 861-869.
	
Chorowicz, J., et al. (in press). "The Garzon Fault: Active southwestern boundary of the Caribbean plate in Columbia." Geologische Rundschau.
	
Chotiros, N. P., et al. (1997). "Analysis of acoustic backscatter in the vicinity of the Dry Tortugas." Geo - Marine Letters 17(4): 325-334.
	
Chow, J. (1985). Biostratigraphy and Marine Paleoenvironments of the Gulf of Mexico, the Western Caribbean, and the Eastern Equatorial Pacific. Department of Geology. College Station, TX, Texas A&M University: 309.
	
Chowns, T. M. and C. T. Williams (1983). Pre-Cretaceous rocks beneath the Georgia coastal plain; Regional implications.
	
Christenson, G. (1990). The Florida lineament. Transactions-Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies. 15: 99-115.
	
Christenson, K. (2003). "Expedition Nalga De Maco, Dominican Republic." NSS News 61(1): 7-17, 27.
	
Christeson, G. L., et al. (2003). "Deep structure of an island arc backstop, Lesser Antilles subduction zone." Journal of Geophysical Research 108(B7): 2327.
	We present the results from a coincident seismic reflection/refraction grid conducted at the Lesser Antilles subduction zone near 16°N. This paper focuses on the seismic refraction data and constraints these data place on the three-dimensional structure of the island arc backstop. We find that the backstop in this region contains considerable topography in both the strike and dip directions. Two ridges, each 25–35 km in length and ~10 km in width, rise 1–6 km above the adjacent basement. The eastern edge of one of the ridges deepens by ~4–6 km over a horizontal distance of 10 km and forms the eastern edge of the backstop. In contrast to the complex nature of the backstop, the adjacent accretionary wedge displays little lateral variability at large scales. This may be a consequence of the spatial scales involved: the backstop topography is ~10–35 km in width, while the accretionary wedge extends ~125 km from the deformation front to the backstop. The top of the subducting oceanic crust, as identified by an increase in velocities to 6–6.5 km/s, intersects the backstop at a depth of ~14–15 km. The updip limit of plate boundary seismicity is located 75–100 km west and downdip of the backstop. However, two earthquake clusters are observed at the intersection of the subducted Barracuda Ridge and Tiburon Ridge with the backstop, suggesting active deformation associated with the backstop edge at these locations.

Christeson, G. L., et al. (2000). "Seismic attenuation in the Costa Rica margin wedge; amplitude modeling of ocean bottom hydrophone data." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 179(2): 391-405.
	
Christeson, G. L., et al. (1999). "Structure of the Costa Rica convergent margin, offshore Nicoya Peninsula." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 104(B11): 25443-25468.
	
Christian, J. T. (1985). A re-examination of the type locality for the Paleocene Globorotalia pseudomenardii Zone, Pointe-a-Pierre, Trinidad and Tobago. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, July 7-15, 1979. 4: 289-299.
	
Christofferson, E. (1973). Linear Magnetic Anomalies in the Colombia Basin, Central Caribbean Sea. Department of Geology. Kingston, RI, University of Rhode Island: 76.
	
Christofferson, E. (1976). "Colombian Basin magmatism and Caribbean plate tectonics." Geological Society of America Bulletin 87: 1255-1258.
	
Chrt, J. and J. Sevcik (1992). "Kyzova loziska zony las Moscas-Siguanea v serii Trinidad v Kubanske Republice (Translated title: Pyrite deposits in the Moscas-Siguanea area, Trinidad, Cuba)." Geologicky Pruzkum 34(8): 248-251.
	
Chubb, L. J. (1953). "A subsidence in the mountains of Jamaica." Colonial Geology and Mineral Resources 3: 127-132.
	
Chubb, L. J. (1956). "Rudist Assemblages of the Antillean Upper Cretaceous." Bulletin of American Paleontology 37(161): 23.
	
Chubb, L. J. (1956). "Some Rarer Rudists From Jamaica, B.W.I." Palaeontographica America 4(26): 30.
	
Chubb, L. J. (1956). "Thyrastylon, a New Rudist Genus From the Upper Cretaceous of Guatemala, the Antilles, and Persia, With a Discussion of the Functions of Rudist Oscules and Pillars." Palaeontographica America 4(27): 18.
	
Chubb, L. J. (1958). Field meeting at Green Bay and Port Henderson Hill, Jamaica. Proceedings of the Geologists Association. 69: 182-187.
	
Chubb, L. J. (1958). "The higher Miocene of southeastern Jamaica." Geonotes (Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica) 1: 26-31.
	
Chubb, L. J. (1959). "Upper Cretaceous of central Chiapas, Mexico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 58: 313-320.
	
Chubb, L. J. (1961). "Rudist Assemblages in Cuba." Bulletin of American Paleontology 43(198): 12.
	
Chubb, L. J. (1971). "Rudists of Jamaica." Palaeontographica America 7(45): 100.
	
Chubb, L. J. and K. Burke (1963). "Age of the Jamaican granodiorite." Geology Magazine 100: 524-532.
	
Chuy, T., et al. (1984). Seismicity in the terrirory of Camagüey and Ciego de Avila provinces, Cuba. Seismological Investigations in Cuba. La Habana, Instituto Geofisica y Astronomia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba. 5: 61-94.
	
Cifelli, R. and G. Glacon (1985). Evolutionary trends in early-middle Miocene Globorotalia of Trinidad. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, July 7-15, 1979. 4: 300-309.
	
Clark, L. F. (1989). The Geology, Geochemistry, and Petrogenesis of El Vale Volcano, Panama. Department of Geology. Tampa, Florida, University of South Florida: 137.
	
Clark, S. A. (2007). Characterizing the southeast Caribbean-South American plate boundary at 64°W. Houston, TX, Rice University: 81.
	The crustal and lithospheric structure of the northern South America plate boundary with the southeast Caribbean has been the focus of many studies. In this region, westward subduction of (Atlantic) oceanic South America transitions to east-west transform between continental South America and the Caribbean plate. Previous models invoke a poorly-constrained component of north-south convergence between the Caribbean and continental South America, predicting that the westward subduction transitions to northwest-dipping subduction beneath the Serrania del Interior. These models predict that continental crust extends north of the Venezuela coast beneath the Leeward Antilles remnant arc islands, and that the Leeward Antilles are accreting onto South America. The results presented in this dissertation determine instead that the dextral strike-slip system along the Venezuelan coast cuts near-vertically through the crust and offsets the Moho. The strike-slip system fundamentally defines the plate boundary, deriving from a shear tear through the entire lithosphere that is actively propagating north of the Paria peninsula. This shear tear detaches subducting oceanic crust from buoyant continental crust along the weakened, former passive margin. Thrust faults flanking the strike-slip system to the north and south dip systematically toward the plate boundary. These faults have been previously interpreted as delineating a 300 km-wide diffuse plate boundary zone, caused by oblique convergence partitioned into orthogonal thrust and strike-slip displacements. Instead, these faults are driven largely by vertical rather than horizontal tectonics, and are the result of the geodynamic response to the shear tear.

Clark, T. F., et al. (1978). "Heat flow in the eastern Caribbean." Journal of Geophysical Research 83: 5883-5891.
	
Claure, M. (1977). Informe Sobre la Metalogenesis en la Republica Dominicana (Report on the Metalogenesis in the Dominican Republic), United Nations.
	
Clavijo, J. (1985). La secuencia de la Formacion los Santos en la quebrada Piedra Azul (The sequence of the Santos Formation in the Piedra Azul ravine). Proyecto Cretacico Contribuciones. F. Etayo-Serna and F. Laverde-M. Bogota, Colombia, Publicaciones Especiales del Ingeominas. 16, IV: 18.
	
Clayton, T. and R. B. Pearce (2000). "Alteration mineralogy of Cretaceous basalt from ODP Site 1001, Leg 165 (Caribbean Sea)." Clay Minerals 35(4): 719-733.
	
Clayton, T., et al. (1999). "Indirect climatic control of the clay mineral composition of Quaternary sediments from the Cariaco basin, northern Venezuela (ODP Site 1002)." Marine Geology 161(2-4): 191-206.
	
Cleary, J. G. (2004). Discovery of jadeite in Guatemala. Betting on industrial minerals; proceedings of the 39th forum on the Geology of industrial minerals. S. B. Castor, K. G. Papke and R. O. Meeuwig, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology: 82-83.
	
Clemens, R. E. and B. Burkart (1969). Structure of the western Altos Cuchumatanes, Guatemala. Abstracts for 1968, Geological Society of America. 121: 56-57.
	
Clemens, R. E. and B. Burkart (1971). Geology of the western Altos Cuchumatanes, Guatemala: A preliminary report. Transactions, Caribbean Geologic Conference, 5, St. Thomas, V.I., July, 1968. Queens Colege, N.Y. 5: 117-118.
	
Clemens, R. E. and B. Burkart (1971). "Stratigraphy of northwestern Guatemala." Boletin de Society Geologia Mexicana 32: 143-158.
	
Clemens, R. E. and B. Burkart (1976). Hoja San Miguel Acatan del mapa geologico de Guatemala
(San Miguel Acatan Sheet of the Geologic Map of Guatemala), Instituto de Geografico Nacional.
	
Clemens, R. E., et al. (1970). Hoja Chiquimula ND 16-5 del Mapa Geologico de Guatemala (Chiquimula ND 16-5 Sheet of the Geologic Map of Guatemala), Instituto de Geografico Nacional de Guatemala.
	
Clemens, R. E. and L. E. Long (1969). Rb-Sr isotope study of the Chiquimula pluton, Guatemala. Abstracts with Programs for 1969, part 7. Atlantic City, NJ, Geological Society of America: 137.
	
Clement, B. M., et al. (1993). "Paleomagnetic estimate of the emplacement temperature of the long runout Nevado de Colima volcanic debris avalanche deposit." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 120: 499-510.
	
Clemons, R., et al. (1969). Mapa Geológico General de Guatemala, Chiquimula ND 16-5 G (General Geologic Map of Guatemala, Chiquimula ND 16-5 G, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Clemons, R. E. (1966). Geology of the Chiquimula Quadrangle, Guatemala, Central America. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, Texas, The University of Texas, Austin: 124.
	
Clemons, R. E. (1966). Hoja Chiquimula 2250-II G del mapa geologico de Guatemala (Chiquimula Sheet 2250-II G of the Geologic Map of Guatemala), Instituto Geografico Nacional de Guatemala.
	
Clemons, R. E. (1969). Geologic history of the Chiquimula region, Guatemala. Trabajos Tecnicos Presentados en la Segunda Reunion de Geologos de America Central, Publ. Geol. del ICAITIA. 2: 72-75.
	
Clemons, R. E., et al. (1974). "Stratigraphic nomenclature of recognized Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks of western Guatemala." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 58: 313-220.
	
Clemons, R. E. and L. E. Long (1971). "Petrologic and Rb-Sr isotopic study of the Chiquimula pluton, southeastern Guatemala." Geologic Society of America Bulletin 82: 2729-2740.
	
Clift, P. D., et al. (2003). "Tectonic erosion of the Peruvian forearc, Lima Basin, by subduction and Nazca Ridge collision - art. no. 1023." Tectonics 22(3): 1023.
	
Clifton, K. E. (1996). A field guide to the reefs of Caribbean Panama with an emphasis on western San Blas (8th International Coral Reef Symposium, Panama, 24-29 June 1996). Panama City?
	
Cloos, M. and R. Shreve (1988). "Subduction channel model of prism accretion, melange formation, sediment subduction and subduction erosion at convergent plate margin: 1.  Background and description." PAGEOPH 128(3-4): 455-500.
	
Coates, A. G. (1965). The geology of the Cretaceous Central Inlier around Arthurs Seat, Clarendon, Jamaica. Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference. Port of Spain: ?
	
Coates, A. G. (1968). The geology of the Central Inlier around Arthur's Seat, Clarendon, Jamaica. 5th Caribbean Geologic Conference: 309-316.
	
Coates, A. G. (2003). "Early Neogene history of the Central American arc from Bocas del Toro, western Panama." Geological Society of America Bulletin 115(3): 271-287.
	A newly discovered sequence of lower to middle Miocene rocks from the eastern Bocas del Toro archipelago, western Panama, reveals the timing and environment of the earliest stages in the rise of the Isthmus of Panama in this region. Two new formations, the Punta Alegre Formation (lower Miocene, Aquitanian to Burdigalian) and the Valiente Formation (middle Miocene, Langhian to Serravallian), are here named and formally described. The Punta Alegre Formation contains a diagnostic microfauna of benthic and planktic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils that indicate deposition in a 2000-m-deep pre-isthmian neotropical ocean from as old as 21.5-18.3 Ma. Its lithology varies from silty mudstone to muddy foraminiferal ooze with rare thin microturbidite layers near the top. The Valiente Formation, which ranges in age from 16.4 to ca. 12.0 Ma, lies with slight angular unconformity on the Punta Alegre Formation and consists of five lithofacies: (1) columnar basalt and flow breccia, (2) pyroclastic deposits, (3) coarse-grained volcaniclastic deposits, (4) coral-reef limestone with diverse large coral colonies, and (5) marine debris-flow deposits and microturbidites. These lithofacies are interpreted to indicate that after ca. 16 Ma a volcanic arc developed in the region of Bocas del Toro and that by ca. 12 Ma an extensively emergent archipelago of volcanic islands had formed. (super 39) Ar/ (super 40) Ar dating of basalt flows associated with the fossiliferous sedimentary rocks in the upper part of the Valiente Formation strongly confirms the ages derived from planktic foraminifera and nannofossils. Paleobathymetric analysis of the two new formations in the Valiente Peninsula and Popa Island, in the Bocas del Toro archipelago, shows a general shallowing from lower- through upper-bathyal to upper-neritic and emergent laharic and fluviatile deposits from ca. 19 to 12 Ma. The overlying nonconformable Bocas del Toro Group contains a lower transgressive sequence ranging from basal nearshore sandstone to upper-bathyal mudstone (ca. 8.1-5.3 Ma) and an upper regressive sequence (5.3-3.5 Ma). A similar paleobathymetric pattern is observed from the Gatun to Chagres Formations (12-6 Ma) in the Panama Canal Basin area and in the Uscari, Rio Banana, Quebrada Chocolate, and Moin Formations (8-1.7 Ma) in the southern Limon Basin of Costa Rica.

Coates, A. G., et al. (2003). "Early neogene history of the Central American arc from Bocas del Toro, western Panama." Geological Society of America Bulletin 115(3): 271-287.
	
Coates, A. G., et al. (2004). "The geology of the Darien, Panama, and the late Miocene-Pliocene collision of the Panama Arc with northwestern South America." Geological Society of America Bulletin 116(11-12): 1327-1344.
	The geology of the Darien province of eastern Panama is presented through a new geologic map and detailed biostratigraphic and paleobathymetric analysis of its Upper Cretaceous to upper Miocene sediments. The sequence of events inferred from the stratigraphic record includes the collision of the Panama arc (the southwestern margin of the Caribbean plate) and South American continent. Three tectonostratigraphic units underlie the Darien region: (1) Precollisional Upper Cretaceous-Eocene crystalline basement rocks of the San Blas Complex form a series of structurally complex topographic massifs along the northeastern and southwestern margins of the Darien province. These rocks formed part of a >20 m.y. submarine volcanic arc developed in a Pacific setting distant from the continental margin of northwestern South America. The northerly basement rocks are quartz diorites, granodiorites, and basaltic andesites, through dacites to rhyolites, indicating the presence of a magmatic arc. The southerly basement rocks are an accreted suite of diabase, pillow basalt, and radiolarian chert deposited at abyssal depths. Precollisional arc-related rocks, of Eocene to lower Miocene age, consist of 4000 m of pillow basalts and volcaniclastics, and biogenic calcareous and siliceous deep-water sediments. They consist of the Eocene-Oligocene Darien Formation, the Oligocene Porcona Formation and the lower-middle Miocene Clarita Formation. Postcollisional deposits are mostly coarse- to fine-grained siliciclastic sedimentary rocks and turbiditic sandstone of upper middle to latest Miocene age. This 3000 m thick sedimentary sequence is deformed as part of a complexly folded and faulted synclinorium that forms the central Chucunaque-Tuira Basin of the Darien. The sedimentary package reveals general shallowing of the basin from bathyal to inner neritic depths during the 12.8-7.1 Ma collision of the Panama arc with South America. The sediments are divided into the upper middle Miocene Tapaliza Formation, the lower upper Miocene Tuira and Membrillo Formations, the middle upper Miocene Yaviza Formation, and the middle to upper Miocene Chucunaque Formation. The precollisional open marine units of Late Cretaceous-middle Miocene age are separated from the overlying postcollisional sequence of middle to late Miocene age by a regional unconformity at 14.8-12.8 Ma. This unconformity marks the disappearance of radiolarians, the changeover of predominantly silica deposition from the Atlantic to the Pacific, the initiation of the uplift of the isthmus of Panama, and the onset of shallowing upward, coarser clastic deposition. This pattern is also recorded from the southern Limon Basin of Caribbean Costa Rica to the Atrato Basin of northwestern Colombia. By the middle late Miocene, neritic depths were widespread throughout the Darien region, and a regional unconformity suggests completion of the Central American arc collision with South America by 7.1 Ma. No Pliocene deposits are recorded from either the Darien or the Panama Canal Basin, and no sediments younger than 4.8 Ma have been identified in the Atrato Basin of Colombia, suggesting rapid uplift and extensive emergence of the Central American isthmus in the latest Miocene. Northward movement of the eastern segment of the Panama arc along a now quiescent Panama Canal Zone fault during Eocene-Oligocene time may have dislocated the pre-collision arc. Since collision, the portion west of this fault (Chorotega Block) has remained stable, without rotation; to the east, in the Darien region, compression has been accommodated through formation of a Panama microplate with convergent boundaries to the north (North Panama deformed belt) and south (South Panama deformed belt), and suturing with South America along the Atrato Valley. Deformation within the microplate has been accommodated in the Darien province by several major left-lateral strike-slip faults that were active until the early Pliocene, since when the plate has behaved rigidly.

Coates, A. G., et al. (1992). "Closure of the Isthmus of Panama: The near-shore marine record of Costa Rica and western Panama." Geological Society of America Bulletin 104: 814-828.
	
Coates, A. G. and J. B. Williams (1970). Geology of the Hellshire Hills quadrangle. Kingston, Jamaica, Jamaica Geological Survey Department.
	
Cobiella, J. (1979). "La Formación El Cobre (The El Cobre Formation)." Revista La Minería en Cuba 5 (3): 17-21.
	
Cobiella, J. (1983). "Algunas consideraciones sobre el origen de la fosa de Bartlett (Some considerations on the Origin of the Bartlett Trough)." Revista de Geología y Minería 1: 17-36.
	
Cobiella, J. (1983). "Propuesta de una nueva unidad litoestratigreafica en el Eoceno de Cuba oriental (Proposal of a new lithostratigraphic unit in the Eocene of eastern Cuba)." Revista de Geología y Minería 2: 29-56.
	
Cobiella, J. (1984). Sobre el Origen del Extremo Oriental de la Fosa de Bartlett  [On the origin of the Eastern end of Bartlett (Cayman) Trough]. Santiago de Cuba, Editorial Oriente Press.
	
Cobiella, J. (1988). "El vulcanismo Paleogenico Cubano: Apuntes para un neuvo enfoque (The Cuban Paleogene volcanism:  Annotations for a new approach)." Revista Tecnológica 18: 25-32.
	
Cobiella, J. and A. A. Hernández (1990). Estudio geológico de la Sierra del Rosario entre Soroa y Cayajabos (Geologic Study of the Sierra del Rosario Between Soroa and Cayajabos), Depto. de Geología, Universidad "Hermanos Saiz" de Pinar del Río.
	
Cobiella, J., et al. (1977). "Geología del flanco sur de la sierra del Purial (Geology of the south flank of mountain of Purial)." Revista La Minería en Cuba 3(1): 54-62.
	
Cobiella, J., et al. (1977). "Geologia del flanco sur de la Sierra del Purial (Geology of the south flank of the Sierra Del Purial)(I)." La Mineria en Cuba 3(1): 55-62.
	
Cobiella, J., et al. (1977). "Geologia del flanco sur de la Sierra del Purial (Geology of the south flank of the Sierra Del Purial)(II)." La Mineria en Cuba 3(2): 44-53.
	
Cobiella, J. and F. Quintas (1984). "Geología de la región central y suroriental de la provincia de Guantánamo (Geology of central and southcentral Guantanamo province)." Editorial Oriente Press: 125.
	
Cobiella, J., et al. (1984). Geología de la Región Central y Suroriental de la Provincia de Guantánamo (Geology of the Central and Southeast Region of Guantánamo Province). Santiago de Cuba, Editorial Oriente.
	
Cobiella, J. L. (1974). "Los macizos serpentiniticos de Sabanilla Mayari Arriba (Serpentine massifs of Sabanilla, Mayari Arriba )." Revista Tecnológica 12(4): 41-50.
	
Cobiella, J. L. (1978). "Una melange en Cuba oriental (A melange in eastern Cuba)." Revista La Mineria en Cuba 4(4): 46-51.
	
Cobiella, J. L. (1984). Curso de geologia de Cuba (Geology course of Cuba). La Habana, Editorial Pueblo y Eduacion.
	
Cobiella, J. L. (1984). "Posicion de Cuba Oriental en la geologia del Caribe (Position of eastern Cuba in the geology of the Caribbean)." Revista Mineria y Geologia 2: 65-92.
	
Cobiella Reguera, J. L. (19??). "About the tectonic position of the metaterrigenous-carbonate sequence in the Maisi region."??? ???: 73-82.
	
Cobiella Reguera, J. L. (1988). "El volcanismo Paleogenico Cubano.  Apuntes para un nuevo enfoque (Cuban Paleogene volcanism: Notes for a new focus)." Revista Tecnológica 18(4): 25-32.
	
Cobiella Reguera, J. L. (1998). "Los melanges de Sierra del Rosario, Cuba occidental. Tipos e importancia regional ( Melanges of  Sierra del Rosario, western Cuba. Types and regional significance)." Minería y Geología XV(2): 3-9.
	
Cobiella Reguera, J. L. (1998). "Zonación de la sedimentación, el magmatismo y la tectónica del Paleoceno- Eoceno Medio de Cuba (Paleocene Middle Eocene zonation of sedimentation, magmatism and tectonics in Cuba)." Memories I, Third Cuban Geological Congress I: 132-135.
	
Cobiella Reguera, J. L. (2000). "Jurassic and Cretaceous geological history of Cuba." International Geology Review 42(7): 594-616.
	
Cobiella Reguera, J. L. and E. Cruz Gámez (1999). GeoCuba. Espacios Naturales y Geología Cubana (Geocuba. Natural Spaces and Cuban Geology), Asociación Española para la Enseñanza de las Ciencias de La Tierra (Spain) and Universidad de Pinar del Río (Cuba).
	
Cobiella Reguera, J. L. and J. Rodríguez Pérez (1984). "Posición de Cuba oriental en la geología del Caribe (Eastern Cuba position in Caribbean Geology)." Minería y Geología II (2): 65-92.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. (1992). "Pliegues de deslizamiento submarino en sedimentos y lavas de la Fm. El Sábalo, Sierra del Rosario. Pinar del Río (Submarine slide folding in sediments and lavas of  El Sábalo Fm., Sierra del Rosario, Pinar del Río)." Revísta Tecnológica 22(1): 3-10.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. (1995). "Jurassic sediments and events in Guaniguanico mountains, western Cuba." The First SEPM Congress on Sedimentary Geology, Abstracts and Program, St. Petersburg, Florida. 1: 39-40.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. (1996). "Estratigrafia y eventos jurásicos en la cordillera de Guaniguanico, Cuba occidental (Stratigraphy and Jurassic events in Guaniguanico Cordillera,western Cuba)." Minería y Geología 13( 3): 11-25.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. (1997). "Zonación estructurofacial del Paleoceno - Eoceno Medio de Cuba (Paleocene-Middle Eocene tectonofacies zonation of  Cuba) " Minería y Geología 14(1): 3-12.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. (1998). "The Cretaceous System in Cuba - an overview." Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie Teil I, H.3-6: 431-440.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. (1998). "Una panorámica de los sistemas Jurásico y Cretácico de Cuba (An overview of the Jurassic and Cretaceous systems in Cuba)." Geología y Minería ‘98, La Habana, Centro Nacional de Información Geológica Memorias II: 274-276.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. (2000). "Jurassic and Cretaceous geological history of  Cuba." International Geology Review 42: 594-616.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. (2002). Remains of ceanic lithosphere in Cuba: Types, origin and emplacement ages. Caribbean Geology into the Third Millenium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. Jackson. Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 35-46.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. and A. Hernández- Escobar (2000). "Estratigrafía y tectónica de la Sierra del Rosario, Cordillera de Guaniguanico, Cuba occidental (Stratigraphy and tectonics of Sierra del Rosario, Guaniguanico Cordillera, western Cuba)." Minería y Geología.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. and A. Hernández-Escobar (1997). "Estudio de algunas areniscas de las formaciones San Cayetano y Polier, Sierra del Rosario, Cuba occidental (Study of some sandstones of  San Cayetano and Polier formations, Sierra del Rosario, western Cuba)." Minería y Geología XIV(3): 59-68.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. L. (1983). "Sobre la posición tectónica de la secuencia metaterrígena- carbonatada de la región de Maisí (On the tectonic position of the metaterrigenous-carbonate sequence in Maisí region)." Minería y Geología 1(1): 71-82.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. L. (1996). "El magmatismo jurasico ( caloviano ?- oxfordiano ) de Cuba occidental: ambiente de formacion e implicaciones regionales (Jurassic (Callovian?-Oxfordian) magmatism in western Cuba: formational environment and regional implications)." Revista de la Asociacion Geologica Argentina 51(1): 15-28.
	
Cobiella-Reguera, J. L. (2005). "Emplacement of Cuban Ophiolites." Geologica Acta 3(3): 273-294.
	 	   	According to their lithological and structural characteristics, three ophiolite bearing structural units are recognized in Cuba: 1) The Northern Ophiolitic Belt, a complex mélange that stretches more than 1000 km along the island; 2) The metamorphic basement of the Cretaceous Volcanic Arc Terrane; and 3) The tectonic slices in the high pressure metamorphic Escambray (Guamuhaya) Massif of south central Cuba. The available age constrains indicate that relics of oceanic lithosphere in Cuba are Late Mesozoic in age and probably originated in two different tectonic environments; 1) in a Late Jurassic- Neocomian small oceanic basin resulting from drifting between North America and a southern continent; and 2) in a suprasubduction marginal basin developed between the North American passive margin and an Aptian-Albian volcanic arc. Serpentinite slices and the high pressure amphibolites in the Mesozoic metasedimentary rocks of the Escambray (Guamuhaya) Massif originated during closure of a small oceanic basin, possibly during the Albian. The basement metamorphic rocks of the Volcanic Arc Terrane were derived from Upper Jurassic- Neocomian oceanic crust, metamorphosed during the development on this crust of a Middle Cretaceous volcanic arc. Ophiolites of the northern belt were probably derived from both the formerly mentioned small oceanic basin and suprasubduction marginal basin, and were emplaced in several episodes from the Campanian to the Middle Eocene. The different ophiolite types in Cuba represent relics of the oceanic lithosphere (the Proto-Caribbean oceanic basin) that developed between North and South America after the Pangea breakup. An alternative plate tectonic model is proposed and discussed.

Cofer-Shabica, N. B. (1988). The Late Pleistocene Deep Water History of the Venezuela Basin in the Eastern Caribbean Sea. thesisDepartment of Geological Sciences. Miami, FL, University of Miami: 120.
	
Cohen, A. C. and J. G. Morrin (1990). Morphological relationships of bioluminescent Caribbean species of Vargula (Myodocopa). Ostracoda and global events:  International Symposium on Ostracoda. R. Whatley and C. Maybury. Aberystwyth, United Kingdom, University College of Wales. 10: 381-400.
	
Cohen, A. D. (1989). "The Changuinola peat deposit of northwestern Panama: A tropical, back-barrier, peat (coal)-forming environment." International Journal of Coal Geology 12: 157-192.
	
Cohen, A. D., et al. (1986). "Geologic characteristics of peat deposits in Costa Rica (preliminary study)." Geological Magazine of Central America 4: ?
	
Cole, W. S. (1956). "The Jamaican Larger Foraminifera." Bulletin of American Paleontology 36(158): 34.
	
Cole, W. S. (1957). "Late Oligocene Larger Foraminifera From Barro Colorado Island, Panama Canal Zone (With a Detailed Analysis of American Miogypsinids and Heterosteginids)." Bulletin of American Paleontology 37(163): 30.
	
Cole, W. S. (1958). "Larger foraminifera from Carriacou, British West Indies." Bulletin of American Paleontology 38: 327-337.
	
Cole, W. S. (1969). "Names of and Variation in Central American larger Foraminifera, Particularly the Eocene Pseudophragminids." Bulletin of American Paleontology 56(248): 55.
	
Cole, W. S. and P. J. Bermudez (1944). "New Foraminiferal Genera From the Cuban Middle Eocene." Bulletin of American Paleontology 28(113): 20.
	
Cole, W. S. and P. J. Bermudez (1947). "Eocene Discocyclinidae and Other Foraminifera From Cuba." Bulletin of American Paleontology 31(125): 36.
	
Colectivo de Autores (1996). Estratigrafía del arco volcánico cretácico en Cuba. Ofiolitas y arcos volcánicos de Cuba IUGS/UNESCO. M. Iturralde-Vinent. Miami, International Geological Correlation Program, Project 364, Contribution 1: 190-230.
	
Coleman, A. J. (2000). Tertiary tectonics of the Hispaniola Fault Zone in the northwestern peidmont of the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic. CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK: 305.
	
Coleman, A. J. and M. A. Winslow (2002). Tertiary tectonics of the Hispaniola Fault Zone in the northwestern Piedmont of the Cordillera Central, Dominican. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 73-85.
	
Colletta, B., et al. (1990). Tectonic style and crustal structure of the Eastern Cordillera (Colombia) from a balanced cross-section. Petroleum and Tectonics in Mobile Belts. J. Letouzey. Paris, France, Editions Technip: 81-100.
	
Colletta, B., et al. (1990). Tectonic style and crustal structure of the Eastern Cordillera (Colombia) from a balances cross section. petroleum and tectonics in mobil belts. J. Letouzey. Paris, France, Editions Technip: 81-100.
	
Collins, L. S. (1993). "Neogene paleoenvironments of the Bocas del Toro Basin, Panama." Journal of Paleontology 67: 699-710.
	
Collins, L. S., et al. (1996). "The late Miocene Panama isthmian strait." Geology 24(8): 687-690.
	
Collins, L. S., et al. (1995). Timing and rates of emergence of the Limón and Bocas del Toro basins:  Caribbean effects of Cocos Ridge subduction? Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 263-289.
	
Colmenares, L. and M. D. Zoback (2003). "Stress field and seismotectonics of northern South America." Geology Boulder 31(8): 721-724.
	We have integrated in situ stress, neotectonic, and Global Positioning System data to investigate the complex interactions among the South American, Caribbean, and Nazca plates and the Costa Rica-Panama microplate and to examine different seismotectonic models that have been proposed for the region. The resulting data set was used to generate an integrated stress map of the region that shows that the stress field in northern South America varies systematically in both orientation and relative magnitude. In the southwestern part of the study area, the Ecuadorian Andes stress province exhibits strong E-W compression resulting from the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South American plate. In the North Andes stress province, the observed NW-SE compression may result from the convergence between the Caribbean and the South American plates and/or the negative buoyancy of the already subducted Caribbean plate beneath northwestern South America. Possible convergence between the Costa Rica-Panama microplate with respect to northwestern South America may also be a source of compression in this region. In north and northeastern Venezuela, normal and strike-slip faulting with a NE-SW direction of extension characterizes the San Sebastian-El Pilar stress province.

Colmenares, L. B. (2005). Rock Strength Under True Triaxial Loading, Seismotectonics of Northern South America and Geomechanics and Coal Bed Methane Production in the Powder River Basin, Stanford University: 221.
	In this thesis, I present three research projects in the areas of rock mechanics, seismotectonics and geomechanics. In the first study, I examined seven failure criteria by comparing them to published polyaxial test data for five rock types at a variety of stress states. I demonstrated that the way a failure criterion fits the data would depend on the type of failure criterion and on the intermediate principal stress (&sigma;<sub>2 </sub>) dependence of the rock in question. Additionally, if only data from triaxial tests are available, it is possible to incorporate the influence of &sigma;<sub>2</sub> on failure by using a polyaxial failure criterion. In the second study, the combination of in-situ stress, neotectonic, and GPS data was used to generate an integrated stress map of northern South America, which shows that the stress field in the region varies systematically in orientation and relative magnitude. This change in the stress field appears to reflect both relative plate motions and the negative buoyancy of the subducted Caribbean slab. In the third project I evaluated the geomechanics and wellbore completion methods of Coalbed Methane (CBM) wells in the Powder River basin. It has been identified that water-enhancement procedures after under-reaming the coal result in hydrofrac'ing of the coal (and possibly the adjacent strata), which can cause excess CBM water production and inefficient depressurization of coals. Water-enhancement tests data from &sim;550 wells were used to obtain the magnitude of the least principal stress, which indicates the orientation of the hydrofracs. Vertical fractures (VF), and horizontal fractures (HF) occur in the basin. Water production from wells with HF is minimal and excessive water production is always associated to wells with VF. In wells with high water production, gas production is significantly delayed compared to wells with VF and low water production, which are excellent gas producers. Since wells with HF are usually poor gas producers, it is suggested that such wells are hydrofrac'ed (and propped) to enhance gas production. Additionally, in areas of vertical fracture growth the injection during the water-enhancement tests should be restricted, so propagation of induced fractures into the overlying formations is prevented.

Colmenares, O. A. (1994). Lower Cretaceous Palynostratigraphy, Organic Sedimentology and Evolution of the Maracaibo Basin, Western Venezuela, University of Toronto: 468.
	Palynological analyses of four outcrop and four subsurface sections of the Aptian-Albian siliciclastic-carbonate platform facies of the Aguardiente Formation and the Cogollo Group of the Maracaibo Basin yielded a total of 97 species of miospores 60 species of dinoflagellate cysts, freshwater protists and acritarchs, and numerous phytoclasts. Corollina, Araucariacites and Afropollis are the most common elements, indicating close resemblance with coeval assemblages from Brazil and Africa. Quantitative comparison of the dinoflagellate cysts and the occurrence of Xenascus plotei, Achomosphaera triangulata, Kiokansium unituberculatum and some species of Subtilisphaera indicate similarities with low latitude areas. The occurrence of several species of Subtilisphaera in tropical and subtropical areas indicates initiation of provincialism of peridiniacean dinocysts during the Aptian-Albian. Four biozones are defined using marine and terrestrial species of palynomorphs. Biozones I (Early Aptian) and II (Early to Middle Aptian) have rich terrestrial assemblages and lesser or absent marine components. Biozone III (Late Aptian) is characterized by the diversification or tricolpate angiosperm pollen in northern South America and increasingly diverse dinocysts. Biozone IV is defined by the first occurrence of Elaterosporites klaszi and Xenascus plotei, determining the base to be Early Albian. The Aguardiente Formation is Aptian-Albian, the Apon Formation is restricted to the Aptian, the Lisure Formation is Late Aptian to Albian and the Maraca Formation is Albian. Regional palynostratigraphic correlation indicates major facies changes related to carbonate dominance northwards away from the siliciclastic influx from the south. The palynofacies and palynological assemblages of the Aguardiente Formation are dominated by terrestrial organic matter. Size statistical variations of terrestrial phytoclasts and the compositional variation of the palynofacies are related to relative sea-level changes and to paleoenvironmental oxidation. Five sedimentary phases are defined indicating transgressive and regressive pulses, correlated to relative sea-level changes. The miospore assemblages of this study are inferred to represent mainly coastal plant communities. Dinoflagellate cysts are dominated by a few generalist species. Seven new species of miospores are described and new taxonomic combinations and emendation are also proposed. Many species of rare miospores and dinocysts are described in open nomenclature and may be new.

Coltrin, D. G., Jr. (1987). Seismic Reflection Imaging Problems Resulting From a Rough Surface at the Top of the Accretionary Prism at Convergent Margins. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, Texas, University of Texas at Austin: 152.
	
Coltrin, G., et al. (???). "Seismic reflection imaging problems resulting from a eough surface at the top of the accretionary prism at convergent margins."
	
Combellas-Bigott, R. (2003). Depositional Framework and Sequence Stratigraphic Framework of the Middle Miocene Depositional Episode Central Gulf of Mexico. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, University of Texas at Austin.
	
Comer, J. B. (1974). "Genesis of Jamaican bauxite." Economic Geology 69: 1251-1264.
	
Coney, P. J. (1983). "Un modelo tectónico de México y sus relaciones con América del Norte, América del Sur y el Caribe (A tectonic model of Mexico and its relations with North America, South America and the Caribbean)." Revista del Instituto Mexicano del Petróleo 15: 6-16.
	
Connors, M., et al. (1996). "Yucatan karst features and the size of Chicxulub crater." Geophysical Journal International 127(3): F11-F14.
	
Conolly, J. R. and M. Ewing (1967). "Sedimentary in the Puerto Rico Trench." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 37(1): 44-59.
	
Constantz, B. R. (1989). Skeletal organization in Caribbean Acropora spp. (Lamarck). Origin, Evolution, and Modern Aspects of Biomineralization in Plants and Animals. R. E. Crick. New York, NY, Plenum Press: 175-199.
	
Contreras, D. R. (2008). Defining the Northeastern Boundary of the Supergiant Maracaibo Foreland Basin, Venezuela. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin. MS: 184.
	Differences in styles of structure and sedimentation and the distribution of hydrocarbons across the 140-km-long and 1-km-wide Burro Negro fault zone (BNFZ) constrain its origin as a deeply-rooted, right-lateral strike-slip fault that formed a major Paleogene tectonic and paleogeographic boundary along the northeastern edge of the supergiant Maracaibo basin. Complex subsurface structures and the lack of high quality seismic data and deep wells have made it difficult for previous workers to determine whether the BNFZ truncates the northeastern extension of the giant Eocene oil reservoirs in the Lake Maracaibo area or whether these reservoirs extend northeast of the BNFZ.
 In Chapter 2, I integrate 2848 km of two dimensional (2D) seismic reflection data, 29 wells, gravity and magnetic data, and maps of outcrop geology to provide an improved structural interpretation of the BNFZ that can be used to assist future explorationprograms in the region. Across the 1-km-wide BNFZ, the structural style seen on seismic lines changes abruptly from Eocene transtensional deformation in the Outer Maracaibo foreland basin to convergent deformation of the deepwater Inner Maracaibo foreland basin northeast of the BNFZ. I determined a right-lateral strike-slip fault character for the BNFZ that formed as a result of at least 7.2 km of Eocene right-lateral offset. Stratigraphic correlations using wells and seismic data spanning the BNFZ support the idea that giant Eocene oil reservoirs of the Lake Maracaibo area may continue towards the northeast into a complexly deformed Inner Maracaibo foreland basin consisting of Eocene deep-water sedimentary rocks. Late Eocene growth strata composed of deepmarine clastic rocks of the Agua Negra Group were deposited in piggyback basins in the Inner basin and accompanied Eocene thrusting and folding of the Lara nappes to the southeast 
In Chapter 3, I present a subsurface geological interpretation of the subsurface of the northern edge of the Maracaibo foreland basin using 988 km of seismic data, 17 wells and 14,700 km2 of gravity and aeromagnetic data in the North Ambrosio area. Mapping of key surfaces in the basin that include the Eocene unconformity show that the primary structures in the subsurface are five, north to northeast-striking, right-lateral strike-slip faults of Eocene age (Icotea, East Urdaneta, West Urdaneta, San Ramón and La Concepción). On seismic data, these faults exhibit profiles typical of “positive flower zones”, where the strike-slip fault converges from a 2 to 4-km-wide fault zone at the surface to a narrow zone at the top of basement. The higher levels of the faults are composed of en echelon anticlines that form excellent structural traps for oil and gas. The 180 km2 Santa Rita pull-apart basin of Eocene age was identified at a left-step between the Icotea and East Urdaneta faults. Well logs show that Eocene sand bars were deposited in a tide-dominated deltaic system similar to that described by previous ix workers in areas to the south. I used temperature measurements from one well to calculate the depth of the oil window in the North Ambrosio area from 2.0 to 3.5 km and the gas window from 3.5 to 4.5 km. I also estimated the depth range of the “Golden Zone”, or depth interval where oil and gas is most likely to be preserved. The predicted Golden Zone corresponds well with reported depths of production and shows in the North Ambrosio area. 
Gas potential for the North Ambrosio area could be determined form seismic and well data within a small area ~1800 km2 representing about 3.6% of the area of the Maracaibo foreland basin. The interaction of northeast-striking faults, such as the Icotea, East Urdaneta, West Urdaneta, and La Concepción fault zones controlled sedimentation during the Eocene foreland phase of the Maracaibo basin. Elongate Eocene sand bodies deposited in a tide-dominated deltaic system represent the main target for further exploration in the North Ambrosio area. The petroleum system is characterized by a strong foreland subsidence during Paleocene-Eocene times that buried Late Cretaceous source rocks of the La Luna Formation to depths of 4000 m below the surface. The source rocks reached gas generation window during two separate periods: middle-late Eocene and Miocene-Pliocene. 

Cooey, J. C. (1978). Southern Margin of Hispaniola and Mona Passage. University of Southern Mississppi, Naval Ocean Research Development Activities.
	
Cooey, J. C. (1978). Structure and stratigraphy of the offshore margin of the southern Dominican Republic. Hattiesburg, Mississippi, University of Southern Mississippi: 53.
	
Cook, E. E. (1967). Geophysical reconnaissance in the northwestern Caribbean: 33.
	
Cooper, J. C. (1982). Geology of the Fondo Negro region, Dominican Republic. Albany, New York, State University of New York at Albany: 145.
	
Cooper, M., Addison, F., Alvarez, R., Hayward, A., Howe, S., Pulham, A. and Taborda, A. (1995). Basin development and tectonic history of the Llanos basin, Colombia. Petroleum basins of South America. A. Tankard, Suarez, S. and Welsink, H., The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Memoir 62: 659-665.
	
Copper, C., et al. (1984). Caribbean tectonics and relative plate motions. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargrave and R. Shagam, GSA. 162: 31-63.
	
Copper, M., et al. (1994). Evolution of the Llanos Basin and the deformation of the eastern cordillera, Colombia. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 373.
	
Cordani, U. G., et al. (1968). "Outline of Precambrian geochronology of South America." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 5: 629-632.
	
Cornell, R. K., et al. (1986). "Application of well logs to the recognition of geological features." Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 206-216.
	
Corona, E. L., et al. (1998). "The Sierra Madre Oriental (Mexico). A Mid-Cretaceous homoclinal ramp in the Gulf border." C R Acad Sci Ser II A 326(10): 723-728.
	
Corredor, F. (2003). "Seismic strain rates and distributed continental deformation in the northern Andes and three-dimensional seismotectonics of northwestern South America." Tectonophysics 372(3-4): 147-166.
	The seismic strain rates and configuration in the northern Andes are estimated by summing the components of the Centroid Moment Tensor (CMT) solutions for earthquakes with M<inf>w</inf>>5.0 and are compared with those predicted by various models of relative plate motions and GPS data. Moment tensor components are summed linearly in four different regions with similar seismotectonics to infer changes in the regional strain patterns along the northern Andes and to retrieve strain rates and relative plate velocities between this region and the stable South American plate. The Andean seismic strain rates are the result of east-southeast-directed contraction due to the collision of the Nazca and Caribbean plates with the South American plate and the collision of the Panama block against central Colombia, with a component of northeast-directed motion due to the obliquity of the eastern boundary of the northern Andes with respect to the boundary of the Nazca and Caribbean plates, with the South American plate along the Colombia trench and the Southern Caribbean Deformation zone, respectively, where the convergence is normal. The present motion of the Central Andes towards the northeast does not require the plate boundary between the Caribbean and South American plates to be along the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia and the Bocono Fault in Venezuela. The seismic moment rates for the northern Andes are small compared to the total expected seismic strain rates calculated from plate motion models and GPS data, suggesting that most of the strain is released aseismically and that is accommodated by folding, fault creeping, rigid block translation or other undetermined processes. Finally, a three-dimensional model of the CMT solutions and other seismicity in northwestern South America is presented, where major subducting slabs, including the Peru flat-slab and the Ecuador and Central Colombia segments of the Nazca and Caribbean plates, become more evident and easier to interpret. The Caribbean plate is interpreted to culminate at the location of the Bucaramanga "nest" offering an explanation to this swarm of seismicity in the northern Andes.

Corrigan, H. T. (1967). Guidebook to the Geology of the Upper Magdalena Basin (Northern Portion). Bogota, Colombia, Colombian Society of Petroleum Geologists and Geophysicists.
	
Corrigan, J., et al. (1990). Forearc response to subduction of the Cocos Ridge, Panama-Costa Rica. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 102: 628-652.
	
Corrigan, J. D. (1985). Burica Peninsula, Geologic Map. Austin, Texas, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics.
	
Corrigan, J. D. (1986). Cross sections of Burica Peninsula. Austin, Texas, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics.
	
Corrigan, J. D. (1986). Geology of the Burica Peninsula, Panama-Costa Rica: Neotectonic Implications of the Southern Middle America Convergent Margin. Department of Geological Scieneces. Austin, Texas, University of Texas at Austin: 152.
	
Cortés, J. (1991). "The coral reefs of Golfo Dulce, Costa Rica: Geological aspects." Geological Magazine of Central America 13: ?
	
Cortes, M., et al. (2005). "Paleostress evolution of the northern Andes (Eastern Cordillera of Colombia): Implications on plate kinematics of the South Caribbean region." Tectonics 24(1): 1-27.
	New tectonic field data and paleostress determinations in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia enable us to identify stress regimes that prevailed in the northern Andes since Late Cretaceous times until present day. These regimes were characterized by an E-W to WSW-ENE active contraction from Late Cretaceous to late Paleocene. This direction subsequently changed to NW-SE and finally became WNW-ESE during the Andean tectonic phase. The characteristics and relative chronology of these regimes were deduced from field structures and stratigraphic criteria, using stress inversion of fault slip data sets. To evaluate our model, we used the rotation poles of the South America, Caribbean and Nazca plates relative to North America, and paleogeographic reconstructions of the Caribbean region to derive a kinematic model of the northern Andes. Assuming a general correspondence between the regional convergence directions and the regional compression, we built a theoretical model of the regional stress regimes based on kinematics of the northwestern South America since Late Cretaceous times. This model reveals a major variation at the end of the Paleocene when relative divergence shifted to convergence between the Americas. This is in agreement with our tectonic model based on independent tectonic field data inversion in the Eastern Cordillera. This regional kinematic and tectonic change, which affected the Caribbean at the end of the Paleocene, was responsible for, and consistent with, the major change in stress patterns and structural style in the Eastern Cordillera. It is also coeval with the development of a major regional unconformity in Colombia.

Coryell, H. N. and R. W. Mossman (1942). "Foraminifera from the Charco Azul Formation, Pliocene, of Panama." Journal of Paleontology 16(2): 233-246.
	
Cosillo-Pinto, A. G. (1989). Geochemistry and Structural Geology of the Bellavista Gold Mine, Miramar, Puntarenas, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 169.
	
Costa, C., et al. (2000). Map and Database of Quaternary Faults and Folds in Argentina, U.S. Geological Survey: 81.
	
Cotilla, M. O. and J. L. Alvarez (2001). "Seismogenetic regularities of the Cuban Western Neotectonic Unit." Revista Geologica de Chile 28(1): 3-24.
	
Cotilla Rodriguez, M. O. (2003). "The Santiago de Cuba earthquake of 11 June 1766: Some new insights." Geofisica-Internacional 42(4): 589-602.
	Data concerning the Santiago de Cuba earthquake of 11 June 1766 are examined using information collected in the Archivo de Indias, Seville, and other sources in Spain and abroad. The earthquake was felt over a large area including La Habana and Jamaica. A damage distribution with reference to urban settlements is provided. The total number of casualties is estimated at 34 to 40 dead and 700 injured. A tsunami did not occur. The approximate location of the epicentre was 19.9< degrees >N, -76.1< degrees >W, in the Bartlett - Caiman Fault Zone. The focal depth is estimated at 25 km. the epicentral intensity is estimated at IX (MSK) and the magnitude (MS) at 6.8. Between 1578 and 1842 this sector experienced other strong seismic events: four of 1=8 (MSK) and six of 1=7 (MSK).

Cotilla Rodriguez, M. O., et al. (1998). "Neotectonic kinematics of eastern Cuba  (Cinematica neotectonica de Cuba oriental)." Revista de la Sociedad Geologica de Espana 11(1-2): 33-42.
	
Cotillon, P., et al. (2000). Compared cyclicity and diagenesis of two anoxic deposits in the Caribbean domain; the Pleistocene-Holocene of Cariaco Basin (Site 1002) and the Upper Cretaceous La Luna-Querecual Formation (North Venezuela). Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary event; covering Leg 165 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Miami, Florida, to San Juan Puerto. R. M. Leckie, H. Sigurdsson, G. D. Acton et al. 165: 125-140.
	Two geographically close hemipelagic deposits are compared: (1) the Pleistocene-Holocene part of the Cariaco Basin succession off Venezuela drilled in Hole 1002C and (2) the Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian to Santonian) La Luna-Querecual Formation, which crops out in northern Venezuela from the Sierra de Perija, west of the Gulf of Maracaibo, to the Gulf of Paria eastward. This analysis is based on thin-section descriptions, porosity data, and examination of core photographs. Despite their very different ages, these formations are similar in facies, structure, and diagenetic behavior. Their facies are calcareous black shales rich in organic matter and planktonic remains such as foraminifers, radiolarians, and diatoms. Their structures result in a high-frequency cyclic fabric with superimposed units ranging from obliquity cycles to annual varves, as well as several types of solar and pluriannual El Nino-type cycles. In the Cariaco succession, the frequencies of pluriannual cycles have been determined by a statistical study on deposits with standardized compaction and sedimentation rates to convert the thickness of cycles to a scale proportional to their duration. Their diagenetic behavior is signaled by (1) early carbonate precipitation under bacterial control leading to beige micritic layers, (2) carbonate and siliceous concretions before major compaction, (3) recrystallization, (4) deformation from compaction, and (5) dissolution. The main observed lithologic differences between the Cariaco Basin and the La Luna-Querecual successions result from the weak diagenetic evolution for the Cariaco series. This evolution reached an ultimate state for the La Luna-Querecual Formation because of tectonic overburial, leading to recrystallization and precipitation of large carbonate and siliceous nodules, and to cementation. Thus, it is appropriate to consider the Cariaco series as an illustration of the initial state of the La Luna Formation. Major common characteristics relative to the genesis of the two deposits signify the similar anoxic depositional environment (900 and 500 m deep for the Cariaco and the La Luna-Querecual Formations, respectively), similar paleogeographic and latitude (2 degrees -15 degrees N) settings on the Guyanese Craton Margin, and similar climate and current controls leading to varves and lower order depositional cycles. Cycles are manifested as an alternation of light layers enriched with planktonic microfossils deposited during dry periods and of dark layers composed of clay-organic complexes with a maximum of detrital quartz, deposited during wet periods. The major discrepancy in the sedimentation rates (128 m/m.y. for the Cariaco series, 13 m/m.y. for the La Luna Formation) of equally compacted deposits fits principally with different tectonic and sea-level histories in the two series. Indeed, the sedimentary fluxes were low during the Late Cretaceous, before the Laramide orogeny. They were much more important in the Pleistocene-Holocene because of enhanced land erosion due to block faulting in the Venezuelan Andes and the Guyanese Craton and to a lower sea level.

Couch, R. and S. Woodcock (1981). "Gravity and structure of the continental margins of southwstern Mexico and northwestern Guatemala." Journal of Geophysical Research 86(B3): 1829-1840.
	
Coulon, C., et al. (1991). "Spatial and temporal evolution of the volcanism of Martinique (Lesser Antilles): Petrogenetic implications." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France, Huitieme Serie 162(6): 1037-1047.
	
Counil, J. L., et al. (1989). "Long-wavelength magnetic anomalies in the Caribbean: Plate boundaries and allochthonous continental blocks." Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth and Planets 94(6): 7419-7431.
	
Courtney, W. S. (1860). The Fold Fields of Santo Dominigo. New York, ?
	
Coutín, D. and A. Brito (1975). "Características de la zeolitización de las rocas sedimentarias de origen volcánico de Cuba oriental (Characteristics of the Zeolitization of the Sedimentary Rocks of Volcanic Origin of Eastern Cuba)." Instituto de Geología y Paleontología, Serie Geológica 20: ?
	
Coutin, D. P., et al. (1981). "Caracteristicas de las acumulaciones bauxiticas en la Provincia de Guantanamo, Cuba (Characteristics of the bauxite accumulation in Guantanamo Province, Cuba)." Informe Cientifico-Técnico, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 153: 1-34.
	
Coutin, D. P., et al. (1980). "La teledetección en el estudio de la estructura semicircular del sur de Holguín (zona oriental de Cuba) [Remote sensing in the study of the semicircular structure south of Holguin (eastern zone of Cuba)]." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(2): 43-51.
	
Cowan, H., et al. (2000). Map and Database of Quaternary Faults in the Vicinity of Managua, Nicaragua, U.S. Geological Survey: 18.
	
Cowan, H., et al. (1998). Map and Database of Quaternary Faults and Folds in Panama and Its Offshore Regions, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey: 41.
	
Cox, D. P. (1973). Porphyry Copper Deposits in Puerto Rico and Their Relation to Arc-trench Tectonics, U.S. Geologic Survey: 9.
	
Cox, D. P. and R. P. Briggs (1973). Metallogenic Map of Puerto Rico, U.S. Geologic Survey.
	
Cox, D. P., et al. (1973). "Hydrothermal alteration in Puerto Rican porphyry copper deposits." Economic Geology 68: 1329-1334.
	
Cox, D. P., et al. (1977). "Potassium-argon geochronology of some metamorphic, igneous, and hydrothermal events in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands." Journal of Research of the U.S. Geological Survey 5: 689-703.
	
Cox, K. S. (1997). A multi-channel seismic approach to the kinematic evolution of the Lake Izabel basin, Guatemala. Arlington, TX, University of Texas at Arlington: 212.
	
Craig, A. K. (1988). Coastal conservatism in the western Caribbean. The Coastal Zone:  Man's Response to Change. K. Ruddle, W. B. Morgan and J. R. Pfafflin. Switzerland, Harwood Academic Publications: 237-235.
	
Craig, D. B. (1968). The Geology of the Morant Stock, Jamaica Geological Survey.
	
Craig, E. H. C. (1907). The metamorphic rocks of Trinidad, Government of Geology Council Paper. 76: 5-9.
	
Crane, D. C. (1965). Geology of Jocotán and Timushán Quadrangles, Southeastern Guatemala. Department of Geology and Geophysics. Houston, TX, Rice University: 85.
	
Crescini, C. M. (1998). Sequence stratigraphy and thermal maturation of the Pomeroon Concession, Offshore Guyana, University of South Carolina: 120.
	
Crevello, P. D. and W. Schlager (1980). "Carbonate debris sheets and turbidites, Exuma Sound, Bahamas." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 50: 1121-1148.
	
Criaud, A. and C. Fouillac (1989). The distribution of arsenic (III) and arsenic (V) in geothermal waters: Examples from the Massif Central of France, the island of Dominica in the Leeward Islands of the Caribbean, the Valles Caldera of New Mexico, U.S.A., and Southwest Bulgaria. Water-rock Interaction. K. Groenvold. Reykjavik, Iceland, University of Iceland, Nordic Volcanology Institute. 76: 259-269.
	
Cronin, T. M. and N. Schmidt (1988). Evolution and biogeography of Orionina in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Caribbean:  Evolution and speciation in Ostracoda; II. Evolutionary Biology of Ostracoda: Its Fundamentals and Applications. T. Hanai, N. Ikeya and K. Ishizaki. Tokyo, Japan, University of Tokyo. 11: 927-938.
	
Crosby, J. (1980). Stratigraphy Beneath and Geologic Origin of the Northern Florida Straits from Recent Multichannel Seismic Reflection Data, University of Delaware.
	
Crowe, J. C. and R. T. Buffler (1984). Regional Seismic Reflection Profiles Across the Middle America Trench and Convergent Margin of Costa Rica, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics.
	
Crowe, J. C. and R. T. Buffler (1984). Regional seismic reflection profiles across the Middle America Trench and convergent margin of Costa Rica. Seismic expression of structural styles: a picture and work atlas. A. W. Bally. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 15: 3.4.2_147-143.144.142_162.
	
Crowe, J. C. and R. T. Buffler (1986). Top of Accoustic Basement and Thickness of Sediment, Costa Rica Margin, ??
	
CSC, S. A. C. (1989). Estudio sedimentologico de nucleos del pozo W3 Campo Centro Lago Estado Zulia, Lagoven, S.A.: 69.
	
CSC, S. A. C. (1990). Estudio sedimentologico de nucleos del pozo W8 Campo Centro Lago, Lagoven S.A.: 137.
	
CSC, S. A. C. (1991). Estudio sedimentologico de nucleos del pozo W11 Campo Centro Lago, Lagoven S.A.: 24.
	
CSC, S. A. C. (1991). Estudio sedimentologico de nucleos del pozo W18 Campo Centro Lago Estado Zulia, Lagoven, S.A.: 45.
	
CSC, S. A. C. (1992). Estudio sedimentologico de nucleos del pozo W12 Campo Centro Lago, Lagoven S.A.: 107.
	
CSC, S. A. C. (1993). Estudio sedimentologico de nucleos del pozo W5 Campo Centro Lago, Lagoven S.A.: 107.
	
CSC, S. A. C. (1996). Estudio sedimentologico de nucleos del pozo W7 Campo Centro Lago Estado Zulia, Lagoven, S.A.: 37.
	
Cserna, Z. d. (1971). "Precambrian sedimentation, tectonics and magnetism in Mexico." Geologischen Rundschau 60: 1488-1513.
	
Cserna, Z. d. (1971). "Taconian (early Caledonian) deformation in the Huasteca structural belt of eastern Mexico." American Journal of Science 271: 544-550.
	
Culver, S. J. (2003). "Benthic Foraminifera across the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary: A review." Marine Micropaleontology 47(3-4): 177-226.
	 The response of the Earth's biota to global change is of fundamental interest to paleontologists, but patterns of change in paleontologic data are also of interest to a wider spectrum of Earth scientists in that those patterns are of great significance in constraining hypotheses that attempt to explain physical changes in the Earth's environment. The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary is a case in point. Some paleontologists have criticized the bolide impact hypothesis, not because they deny the impact but because the proposed effects of that impact do not always conform to the available paleontological data. Benthic foraminifera are of particular interest in this context because it has been suggested for over 20 years that shallow-water benthic foraminifera were affected more severely than deep-water benthic foraminifera by events at the K-T boundary. This observation adds to the fact of planktonic foraminiferal extinction and indicates that K-T boundary environmental effects were largely restricted to shallow waters. In this paper I review all published works on smaller benthic foraminifera at the K-T boundary and conclude the following. (1) Shallow-water benthic foraminifera were not more severely affected than deeper dwelling species. True extinction, as opposed to local extinction and/or mass mortality, is generally quite low no matter what the water depth. (2) The data are not sufficient in quality, quantity and geographic range to conclude that there is a latitudinal pattern of extinction. (3) In general, biotic changes (such as they are) begin before the boundary in shallow and intermediate depth waters and at the boundary in deep water. Disagreements about the placement of the boundary and the presence, absence and duration of hiatuses hinder more precise conclusions. (4) There appears to be preferential survivorship of epifaunal species into the early Danian with a short interval dominated by infaunal taxa in the earliest Danian. This pattern can best be explained by short-lived input of increased amounts of organic matter at the boundary followed by a sudden collapse of primary productivity and, hence, major reduction or cessation of organic flux to the seafloor. In summary, based on the current dataset, smaller benthic foraminifera, no matter whether they lived in shallow or deep waters, high or low latitudes, or infaunal or epifaunal microhabitats, survived the environmental events across the K-T boundary quite well. Mass extinction does not characterize this group of organisms at this time.

Cumming, G. L. and S. E. Kesler (1976). "Source of lead in Central American and Caribbean mineralization." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 31: 262-268.
	
Cumming, G. L. and S. E. Kesler (1987). "Lead isotopic composition of the oldest volcanic rocks of the eastern Greater Antilles island arc." Chemical Geology 65: 15-23.
	
Cumming, G. L., et al. (1981). "Source of lead in Central American and Caribbean mineralization, II.  Lead isotope provinces." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 56: 199-209.
	
Cumming, G. L., et al. (1982). "Source of lead in sulfide ore at the Puebleo Viejo gold-silver mine oxide deposit, Dominican Republic."  HYPERLINK "http://georef.cos.com/cgi-bin/search?jrnlCode=9471&jrnlName=Economic%20Geology%20and%20the%20Bulletin%20of%20the%20Society%20of%20Economic%20Geologists" Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists 77: 1939-1941.
	
Cunningham, A. D. (1998). Neogene Evolution of the Pedro Channel Carbonate System, Northern Nicaragua Rise. Houston TX, Rice University: 378.
	Pedro Channel is the deepest, central-most seaway on the northern Nicaragua Rise.   A revised bathymetric map illustrates a seafloor dissected by numerous canyons and gullies as well as portions of a drowned carbonate bank with keep-up bank morphology.  The 3.5 kHz echogram data interpretation in Pedro Channel indicates the banks provide both a line and point source of sediment to the channel floor. Concentric facies belts along the bank margins illustrate the line source concept.  Localized zones of coarser-grained deposits at the bases of canyons along the bank margins depict the point source concept. The synthetic seismograms for ODP Site 1000 have low correlation coefficients (0.321).  Visual correlation of the synthetic seismogram with SCS data indicates a good correlation of seismic facies with various lithologic intervals.  An interpretation of SCCS and MCS data reveals that periplatform sedimentation has dominated Pedro Channel from the early Miocene to recent.  Dredge haul analysis suggests that a neritic carbonate bank drowned partially in the middle Oligocene and finally in the early Miocene.  Erosion affects the edges of this drowned bank in the middle Miocene.  Faults in Pedro Channel illustrate characteristics typical of sinistral strike-slip faults including vertical to sub-vertical faults, faults that splay upward, forced folds, and linear fault traces in map view.

Cunningham, A. D. and A. W. Droxler (2000). Synthetic seismogram generation and seismic facies to core lithology correlation for sites 998, 1000, and 1001. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Caribbean Ocean history and the  Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary event; covering Leg 165 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Miami, Florida, to San Juan Puerto Rico, sites 998-1002, 19 December 1995-17 February 1996,. R. M. Leckie, H. Sigurdsson, G. D. Acton et al. College Station, TX, Texas A & M University, Ocean Drilling Program. 165: 205-217.
	
Curet, A. F. (1981). Geologic Map of the Mayaguez and Rosario Quadrangles, Puerto Rico, U.S. Geological Survey. I-1657.
	
Curran, D. W. (1980). Geology of the Siguatepeque Quadrangle, Honduras, Central America. Department of Geological Sciences. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York at Binghamton: 194.
	
Curran, D. W. (1981). Mapa Geologica de Honduras, Santa de Yojoa sheet (Geologic Map of Honduras, Santa de Yojoa sheet). Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Instituto Geografico Nacional.
	
Curran, D. W. (1981). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, Siguatepeque sheet (Geologic Map of Honduras, Siguatepeque sheet), Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Curran, D. W. (1981). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, Taulabé sheet (Geologic Map of Honduras, Taulabé sheet), Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Curran, H. A. and B. White (1984). Field Guide to the Cockburn Town Fossil Coral Reef and Associated Facies, San Salvador, Bahamas. Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium on the Geology of the Bahamas, June 16-20: 71-96.
	
Curran, H. A., et al. (2004). Geology of Long Island, Bahamas: A Field Trip Guide for the 12th Symposium on the Geology of the Bahamas and Other Carbonate RegionsCenter. San Salvador, Bahamas. San Salvador, Bahamas, Gerace Research Center.
	
Curran, H. A. e. (1986). Pleistocene and Holocene carbonate environments on San Salvador Island, Bahamas 6: Field Trip No. 1, 1986 SEPM Annual Meeting.
	
Curtis, J. H. (1997). Climatic variation in the circum-Caribbean during the Holocene, University of Florida: 149.
	Climate variability has been reconstructed in the circum-Caribbean region on the basis of oxygen isotopic ratios in fossil shells of ostracods and gastropods from six lakes including Lakes Punta Laguna, Chichancanab, and Coba, Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico; Lake Peten-Itza, Peten, Guatemala; Lake Valencia, Venezuela; and Lake Miragoane, Haiti. By using these records, changes in evaporation to precipitation ratios for the region during the Holocene were reconstructed. Following arid conditions during the last Ice Age, climate in the Neotropics became wetter and lake basins filled between $/sim$10,500 and $/sim$7,600 $/sp[14]$C years BP. Holocene oxygen isotopic records for the six lakes, interpreted as a record of evaporation to precipitation changes, are broadly similar but regional differences do exist. In the majority of the lakes, the overall climatic pattern indicates that conditions were dry but becoming wetter during the earliest Holocene ($/sim$10,500 to $/sim$8,500 $/sp[14]$C years BP), followed by maximum moisture availability during the early to middle Holocene ($/sim$8,500 to $/sim$3,000 $/sp[14]$C years BP), and a return to drier conditions during the latest Holocene ($/sim$3,000 $/sp[14]$C years BP to present). This pattem may be explained by precessionally driven changes in the seasonal distribution of solar energy that controls the intensity of the annual cycle and rainfall abundances. Differences between records include variability in the timing and rates of initial lake filling and the occurrence of centurial to decadal climatic events (wet and dry periods). For example, the late Holocene history of the Yucatan Peninsula was marked by several periods of drought (centered on 585, 862, and 1391 AD) that coincided with major cultural discontinuities in the Classic Maya civilization. Some of the decadal- to centurial-scale differences in isotopic records are probably the result of local differences in a lake's response to climate forcing, such as lake volume, altitude, orography, basin morphology, and rates of filling. Abrupt climatic changes observed in the isotopic records can not be explained by orbitally driven forcing and must have roots in other mechanisms, such as solar variability, volcanism, ocean-atmosphere interactions, and natural unforced variability.

Curtis, J. H., et al. (1999). "Climate change in the Lake Valencia basin, Venezuela, ~12,600 yr BP to present." The Holocene 9: 609-619.
	
Curtis, J. H., et al. (1998). "A multi-proxy study of Holocene environmental change in the Maya Lowlands of Peten, Guatemala." Journal of Paleolimnology 19: 139-159.
	
Curtis, J. H. and D. A. Hodell (1993). An isotopic and trace element study of ostracods from Lake Miragoane, Haiti:  A 10,500 year record of paleosalinity and paleotemperature changes in the Caribbean. Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records, American Geophysical Union. 78.
	
Curtis, J. H., et al. (1996). "Climate variability on the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico) during the last 3500 years and implications for Maya cultural evolution." Quaternary Research 46: 37-47.
	
Cushman, J. A. and H. H. Renz (1946). "The foraminiferal fauna of the Lizard Springs Formation of Trinidad, B.W.I." Cushman Lab. Foraminifera Research Special Publication 18: 1-48.
	
Cushman, J. A. and H. H. Renz (1948). "Eocene Foraminifera of the Navet and Hospital Hill Formation of Trinidad, B.W.I." Cushman Lab. Foraminifera Research Special Publication 24: 1-12.
	
Cushman, J. A. and H. H. Renz (1948). "The foraminiferal fauna of the Oligocene St. Croix Formation of Trinidad, B.W.I." Cushman Lab. Foraminifera Research Special Publication 22: 1-46.
	
Cushman, J. A. and R. M. Stainforth (1945). "The foraminifera of the Cipero Marl Formationx Formation of Trinidad, B.W.I." Cushman Lab. Foraminifera Research Special Publication 14: 1-75.
	
Cutress, B. M. (1980). "Cretaceous and Tertiary Cidaroida (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) of the Caribbean Area." Bulletin of American Paleontology 77(309): 221.
	
d' Acremont, E., et al. (2003). "Numerical modelling of a mantle plume: The plume head-lithosphere interaction in the formation of an oceanic large igneous province." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 206(3-4): 379-396.
	The thermomechanical processes associated with formation of large igneous provinces (LIPs) remain poorly understood owing to fundamental difficulties in simulating plume-lithosphere interactions in current numerical models. These models, which aim to simulate the rise of mantle plume and the spread of plume head material, imply a mechanically over-simplified lithosphere and, commonly, a flat lithosphere (zero vertical displacement) as the upper boundary condition. We propose a new numerical model, derived from lithospheric-scale models. It has a high numerical resolution in the lithospheric domain and explicitly accounts for: (1) free upper surface boundary condition, (2) elastic-plastic-ductile lithospheric rheology, including surface faulting, and (3) vertical strength variations in the lithosphere. We study the final stages of plume ascent and we focus on surface and lithospheric evolution and intra-plate strain localisations. The experiments predict that the first surface elevation occurs in less than 0.2Ma after plume initiation at 400 km depth. Variation of rheological parameters results in different surface elevations (500-2500 m), ascent (2-10 m/yr) and base plate strain rates (10<sup>-12</sup>-10<sup>-15</sup> s<sup>-1</sup>). Fast (0.2-0.3 m/yr) plume head flattening starts at the moment when the plume head reaches the base of the lithosphere. It leads to large-scale extension and deep normal faulting at the centre of the plateau, and to strong thermomechanical erosion at its base. The erosion is maximal not under the plume centre (as was predicted before), but in two large bordering zones. Our study locally is the igneous province of the Caribbean plate where the pre-existing (Farallon) lithosphere has been affected by the Galapagos hotspot activity that generated thermal perturbations and crustal thickening with two main episodes of volcanism and underplating.

da Franca, R. and N. dos Anjos (1989). The hydrogeological atlas of the Caribbean Islands. Memoirs of the International Symposium on Hydrogeological Maps as Tools for Economic and Social Development. Paris, France, UNESCO, Division of Water Science: 399-405.
	
Daal, J. Q. and R. Lander (1993). Yucal-Placer Field - Venezuela, Eastern Venezuela Basin, Guarico-Subbasin. Structural Traps VIII. N. H. Foster and E. A. Beaumont. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. VIII: 307-328.
	
d'Acremont, E., et al. (2003). "Numerical modelling of a mantle plume; the plume head-lithosphere interaction in the formation of an oceanic large igneous province." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 206(3-4): 379-396.
	The thermomechanical processes associated with formation of large igneous provinces (LIPs) remain poorly understood owing to fundamental difficulties in simulating plume-lithosphere interactions in current numerical models. These models, which aim to simulate the rise of mantle plume and the spread of plume head material, imply a mechanically over-simplified lithosphere and, commonly, a flat lithosphere (zero vertical displacement) as the upper boundary condition. We propose a new numerical model, derived from lithospheric-scale models. It has a high numerical resolution in the lithospheric domain and explicitly accounts for: (1) free upper surface boundary condition, (2) elastic-plastic-ductile lithospheric rheology, including surface faulting, and (3) vertical strength variations in the lithosphere. We study the final stages of plume ascent and we focus on surface and lithospheric evolution and intra-plate strain localisations. The experiments predict that the first surface elevation occurs in less than 0.2 Ma after plume initiation at 400 km depth. Variation of rheological parameters results in different surface elevations (500-2500 m), ascent (2-10 m/yr) and base plate strain rates (10 (super -12) -10 (super -15) s (super -1) ). Fast (0.2-0.3 m/yr) plume head flattening starts at the moment when the plume head reaches the base of the lithosphere. It leads to large-scale extension and deep normal faulting at the centre of the plateau, and to strong thermomechanical erosion at its base. The erosion is maximal not under the plume centre (as was predicted before), but in two large bordering zones. Our study locally is the igneous province of the Caribbean plate where the pre-existing (Farallon) lithosphere has been affected by the Galapagos hotspot activity that generated thermal perturbations and crustal thickening with two main episodes of volcanism and underplating.

Daigle, D. M. (1986). Origin of Deep Marine Dolomite in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Department of Geological Sciences. Memphis, TN, Memphis State University: 118.
	
Daily, A. F. (1974). Reporte Sobre Placeres Auriferos en la Concesion Cuaron y Laguna Redonda, Provincia El Seybo (Report on the Gold Placers in the Cuaron Concession and Lake Redonda, El Seybo Province), ?
	
Dall, W. H. (1912). "New species of fossil shells from Panama and Costa Rica." Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 59: 1-10.
	
Dallmeyer, M. D. (1977). Quaternary Biostratigraphy of Deep-sea Benthic Foraminifera From the Eastern Caribbean Sea. Department of Geology. Athens, GA, University of Georgia: unknown p.
	
Dallmeyer, R. D. (1984). Ar40/Ar39 ages from a pre-Mesozoic crystalline basement penetrated at hiles 537 and 538A of the Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 77, southeastern Gulf of Mexico: Tectonic implications. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. Washington, D.C, U.S. Government Printing Office. 77: 497-506.
	
Dallmeyer, R. D. (1989). "A tectonic linkage between the Rokelide orogene (Sierra Leone) and the St. Lucie metamorphic complex in the Florida subsurface." Journal of Geology 89: 183-195.
	
Dallmus, K. F. (1963). "The geology and oil accumulations of the Eastern Venezuela Basin." Tulsa Geological Society Digest 31: 103-128.
	
Dallmus, K. F. (1965). "The geology and oil accumulations of the Eastern Venezuela Basins." Boletín Informativo, Asociación Venezolana de Geología, Minería y Petróleo 8: 5-32.
	
Dalmayrac, B. and P. Molnar (1981). "Parallel thrust and normal faulting in Peru and constraints on the state of stress." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 55: 473-481.
	
Dame, R. C. (1973). Polarity and non polarity of igneous in Costa Rica. Informe y trabajos técnicos presentados en la Tercera Reunión de Geólogos de América Central. IV: 41-46.
	
Damon, P. and P. Coney (1983). "Rate of movement of nuclear Central America along the coast of Mexico during the last 90 Ma." Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs 15: 553.
	
Damon, P. E. and E. Montesinos (1978). "Late Cenozoic volcanism and metallogenesis over an active Benioff zone in Chiapas, Mexico." Arizona Geological Society Digest 11: 155-168.
	
D'Andrea, A. F. and G. R. Lopez (1997). "Benthic macrofauna in a shallow water carbonate sediment: Major bioturbators at the Dry Tortugas." Geo - Marine Letters 17(4): 276-282.
	
Darce, M. (1987). "Geology of the La Libertad mineral district, Nicaragua." Geological Magazine of Central America 7.
	
Darce, M., et al. (2000). "Nicaragua: 1, New concepts point toward oil, gas potential in Nicaragua." Oil and Gas Journal 98(6): 69-73.
	
Darce-Rivera, M. (1980). Site Location and Evaluation of Magnetite Sand Deposits Along the Pacific Coast of Nicaragua. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 75.
	
Darlington, P. J. (1938). "The origin of the fauna of the Greater Antilles, with discussion of dispersal of animal over water and through the air." Quarterly Reviews of Biology 13: 274-300.
	
Dart, R. L. (1980). Puerto Rico Seismic Program: Suggestions on the Analysis of 16-mm Seismic Data from Local Networks, U.S. Department of the Interior.
	
Darton, N. H. (1926). "Geology of Guantanamo Basin, Cuba." Journal of the Washington Academy of Science 16: 324- 333.
	
Dasgupta, S. N. and S. A. Vincenz (1975). "Paleomagnetism of a Paleocene pluton on Jamaica." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 25: 49-56.
	
Davalos, L. M. (2004). Historical biogeography of the Antilles: Earth history and phylogenetics of endemic chiropteran taxa, Columbia University: 268.
	Vicariance and dispersal are the main hypotheses used to explain the distribution and diversification of taxa on both continents and islands. Research on the origin and diversification of island biotas is particularly appealing because these have inspired classical models in biogeography. This study examined competing explanations of Caribbean historical biogeography: an Oligocene land bridge between northern South America and the West Indies, and Cenozoic dispersal from South America and/or Central America. Separate and combined phylogenetic analyses were conducted using new molecular data and published morphological characters for five monophyletic bat lineages; <italic>Mormoops, Pteronotus</italic>, a clade comprising <italic>Brachyphylla, Erophylla</italic>, and <italic>Phyllonycteris</italic>, the subtribe Stenodermatina, and Natalidae. The resulting phylogenies were analyzed using event-based biogeography methods, synthesized into hypotheses of area relationships, and used to generate estimates of divergence times at critical nodes. The phylogenies of three of the five lineages are congruent with a single range expansion onto the Caribbean, whereas <italic> Mormoops</italic> is also consistent with this result but further studies of fossil remains are necessary, and Antillean <italic>Pteronotus</italic> appears to be a product of at least two separate invasions. Continental Stenodermatina and Natalidae descended from Caribbean ancestors. The ancestral areas of all the lineages are Mexico, Central America, and northern South America. The patterns of area relationships derived from phylogenies are equivocal in their support for the land bridge hypothesis. The ages of the bat lineages appear to be too young to have used an Oligocene land bridge. Instead, lowering and rising sea levels at key transitions during the Miocene may have facilitated the spread, and subsequent isolation, of the bat lineages leading to diversification and shared biogeographic pattern. The role of the Miocene in Caribbean biogeographic history should be tested with additional phylogenies, new molecular data, as well as the fossil record. The correlation of geological history, phylogenetic patterns, and the timing of diversification in bats demonstrates congruent biogeographic patterns in the Caribbean are pervasive even among the most vagile organisms.

Davidson, J. P., et al. (1993). "The geochemistry of the igneous rock suite of St. Martin, northern Lesser-Antilles." Journal of Petrology 34(5): 839-866.
	
Daviess, S. N. (1947). Cross Section Loma Petón-Mogote de Jumagua, Sagua la Grande District. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 7.
	
Daviess, S. N. (1947). Geology of the Triunfo Uplift Area, Matanzas Province, Cuba. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 19.
	
Daviess, S. N. (1947). Northeastern Matanzas Province. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 9.
	
Daviess, S. N. (1947). Northern Coast of Cuba from Varaderos to Bahia de Carahatas. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 22.
	
Daviess, S. N. (1947). Preliminary Report on the Geology of the Jaronu District, Camaguey Province, Cuba. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 18.
	
Daviess, S. N. (1947). Reconnaisance Mapping of the Sabinilla and Teja Uplifts. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
Daviess, S. N. (1947). Reconnaisance Work in Northern Santa Clara Province. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 5.
	
Daviess, S. N. (1947). Sagua la Grande Area. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 5.
	
Daviess, S. N. (1948). Additional Notes on the Geology of Jaronu. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Daviess, S. N. (1948). Geology of Northeastern Matanzas Province. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 40.
	
Davis, C., et al. (1994). Sedimentary geology and carbon-isotope stratigraphy of Cretaceous marine strata in western Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 432-446.
	
Davis, C. L. (1998). Paleoceanographic influences on accumulation of organic matter and trace metals in Cretaceous black shale and carbonate, western Maracaibo Basin, Indiana University: 349.
	Hundreds of meters of interbedded marine black shale and carbonate accumulated on the passive margin of northern South America during the middle Cretaceous. The Cenomanian-Santonian La Luna Formation and time-equivalent units represent a globally significant sink for reduced carbon and metals. These stratigraphic units are the source for vast petroleum reserves in the Maracaibo Basin, yet few studies have detailed the vertical distribution of sedimentary constituents through the more than 100 meters of La Luna strata. In the present study, inorganic and organic geochemical, isotopic, and petrographic data for La Luna and underlying early Cretaceous black shales and carbonates in core ALP-6 from the western Maracaibo Basin are presented stratigraphically. Geochemical data are integrated with biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic data to assess temporal changes in the accumulation and relative abundance of sedimentary components. A five-part subdivision is proposed for the La Luna Formation in ALP-6 based on stratigraphic variation in the concentration of aluminum, titanium, iron, total sulfur, organic carbon and carbonate carbon. The relative abundance of biological marker compounds shows subtle variation between subunits due to the effects of mineral and elemental composition on pathways of molecular diagenesis. Chemostratigraphic subdivisions of La Luna in ALP-6 can be correlated with an outcrop section located more than 50 km to the west. Globally reduced bulk sedimentation rates, widespread oxygen depletion in the evolving Atlantic basin, and episodic coastal upwelling off northern South America allowed unusually high concentrations of organic carbon and trace metals to accumulate in the La Luna Formation. Biological marker distributions and trace metal abundances in underlying Aptian-Albian black shale contrast sharply with trends in La Luna. Pronounced inorganic and organic geochemical variation through the ALP-6 core reflect the combined influence of sea level change, variations in the source and preservation of organic detritus, and fluctuations in the thickness and lateral extent of oxygen-depleted water.

Dawe, S. E. (1984). The Geology of the Mountain Pine Ridge Area and the Relation of the Mountain Pine Ridge Granite to the Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic Geological History, Belize, Central America. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York at Binghamton: 52.
	
Day, R. A., et al. (2000). "Data integration for velocity modeling and depth conversion, Trinidad and Tobago." 32nd annual offshore technology conference; 2000 proceedings; Volume 1, Geology, earth sciences, and environmental factors 1: 41-43.
	Gas-bearing reservoirs southeast of Trinidad are often difficult to represent geometrically in spite of excellent quality 3-D seismic data available in the area. Developmental challenges of this field include: (1) multiple pay sands (about 20); (2) fault-induced compartmentalization; (3) broad low-relief hydrocarbon accumulations; and (4) complex velocity variations. Variations in facies and burial rates in addition to shallow and localized gas-bearing sands give rise to a complex subsurface velocity field. The localized gas-bearing sands manifest seismically as pronounced "gas sags". Accurate depth representation of proven and non-proven resources was accomplished using a minimum number of seismic surfaces (the five best horizons), all mappable faults, a robust velocity model (for depth conversion), and well data to build a depth model of all of the sands and shales in the subsurface. Below the shallow gas-bearing sands, initial efforts were not adequate to completely remove the gas sags, which impact over 25% of the study area. To accomplish final depth reconstruction, a number of seismic traverses were interpreted through wells which pass through the shallow gas-bearing sands. These lines were depth converted and used to remove the gas sag where the velocity model was inadequate due to incorrect imaging of the seismic data. This was an iterative process which made use of geospatial data (isopachs, well data, fault displacements, etc.) and was tested against all geophysical data (seismic interpretation, amplitudes, and velocity data). The result was a model which not only added 0.5 TCF of proven resources, but also explained the trapping mechanism responsible for gas accumulations in multiple reservoir compartments.

De Andrade Nery Leao, Z. M. (1982). Morphology, Geology and Developmental History of the Southernmost Coral Reefs of Western Atlantic, Abrolhos Bank, Brazil. Miami, FL, University of Miami: 239.
	
de Balko, D. A. (1991). Seismic Stratigraphy and Geologic History of Upper Middle Jurassic through Lower Cretaceous Rocks, Deep Eastern Gulf of Mexico. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 143.
	
de Bellard, P. E., et al. (1982). "Visita del Grupo Espeleologico a la Isla de Saint Vincent en el Caribe:  El volcan the Soufriere (Visit of the Speleological Group of Saint Vincent Island in the Caribbean:  Soufriere)." Boletin Sociedad Venezolana de Ciencias Naturales 37(140): 73-85.
	
de Boer, J. (1974). Mapa Geofisico Preliminar de Costa Rica 1:500:000 (Preliminary Geophysical Map of Costa Rica 1:500;000), Institute for Geological Nacional.
	
de Boer, J. (1979). "The outer arc of the Costa Rican orogen (oceanic basement complexes of the Nicoya and Santa Elena peninsulas)." Tectonophysics 56: 221-259.
	
De Boer, J., et al. (1991). "Evidence for active subduction below western Panama." Geology 19: 649-652.
	
de Boer, J., et al. (1988). "Quaternary calc-alkaline igneous in western Panama: Regional variation and implication for plate tectonic framework." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 1: 275-293.
	
De Boer, J. Z., et al. (1991). "Evidence for active subduction below western Panama." Geology 19: 649-652.
	
de Boer, J. Z., et al. (1995). Cenozoic magmatic phases of the Costa Rican island arc (Cordillera de Talamanca). Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 35-55.
	
de Buisonje, P. H. (1974). "Neogene and Quarternary geology of Aruba, Curaçao, Bonaire (Netherland Antilles)." Uitgaven Natuurweternschappelijke Studierkring voor Suriname en de Nederlandse Antillen 78: 291.
	
de Buisonje, P. H. and J. I. S. Zonneveld (1976). "Caracasbaai:  A submarine slide of a high coastal fragment in Curaçao." Nieuwe West-Indische gids 5: 55-88.
	
de Cabrera, S. (1986). Biostragraphy of the QG-29 well Quiamare Field, northeast of Anzoátegui  (Bioestratigrafia del pozo QG-29 campo Quiamare, Noreste de Anzoátegui): 18.
	
de Cabrera, S. C. and N. D. G. Canudas (1994). Biostratigraphy and paleogeography of the eastern Venezuela Basin during the Oligo/Miocene. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 231-233.
	
de Cserna, Z. (1970). Mesozoic sedimentary, magmatic activity and deformation in northern Mexico. The geologic framework of the Chihuahua tectonic belt. K. Seewald and D. Sundeen. Midland, Texas, West Texas Geological Society: 99-118.
	
de Cserna, Z. (1976). Mexico-geotectonics and mineral deposits
New Mexico Geological Society, Mexico, tectonics, minerals. ? 6: 18-25.
	
de Cserna, Z., et al. (1962). Dedades isotópicas de rocas metamorficas del centro y sur de Guerrero y de una monzonita cuarcifera del norte de Sinaloa (Minor isotopes of metamorphic rocks of central and south Guerrero and a quartz monzonite north of Sinaloa). Estudios Geocronológicos de Rocas Méxicanas (Geochronologic Studies of Mexican Rocks ). C. J. Fries. México, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. 64: 71-84.
	
De Golyer, E. (1918). "The geolgoy of Cuban petroleum deposits." American Associatin of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 2: 133-167.
	
De Golyer, E. (1918). "The geology of Cuban petroleum deposits." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 2: 133-167.
	
de Graff, J. V. (1989). Assessing landslide hazard for regional development planning in the eastern Caribbean. Meeting of Experts on Hazard Mapping in the Caribbean:  Proceedings. D. Barker. Mona, Jamaica, University of West Indies Publication Association: 40.
	
de Graff, J. V., et al. (1989). Landslides:  Their extent and significance in the Caribbean. Proceedings of the 28th International Geological Congress Symposium on Landslides: Extent and Economic Significance. E. E. Brabb and B. L. Harrod. Rotterdam, Netherlands, A. A. Balkema: 51-80.
	
de Klasz, I. and S. de Klasz (1990). Danian deep-water (bathyal) agglutinated foraminifera from Bavaria and their comparison with approximately coeval agglutinated assemblages from Senegal and Trinidad. Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on Paleoecology, Biostratigraphy, Paleoceanography and Taxonomy of Agglutinated Foraminifera,  Tubingen, Sept. 17-29, 1989. C. Hemleben, M. A. Kaminski, W. Kuhnt and D. B. Scott. 327: 387-431.
	
de la Fuente, L. R. (1979). Informe Preliminar Proyecto Exploracion Geologica-Geoquimica de los Sectores El Rancho, Miches y El Valle, Cordillera Oriental, Republica Dominicana (Preliminary Report Geologic-geochemistry Exploration Project of the El Rancho, Miches and El Valle sectors, Cordillera Oriental, Domincian Republic). Santo Dominigo, OEQ-DGM.
	
de la Fuente, S. (1975). Geografia Dominicana (Dominican Geography). Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic, Editorial Colegial Quisqueyana.
	
De la Torre, A. (1972-1975). Informe de los estudios micropaleontologicos de la province de Pinar del Rio (report on the Micropaleontologic Studies of the Province of Pinar del Rio), Archivo Instituto Geologia y Paleontology, Academia Ciencia de Cuba, La Habana.
	
de Leon, R. (1983). Aspectos Geologicos e Hidrogeologicos de la Region Suroeste (Geological and Hydrogeological Aspects of the Southeast Region). Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic, Museo de Historia Natural.
	
De Obaldia, F., et al. (1991). "Coseismic uplift associated with the Costa Rica earthquake (Ms 7.5) of April 22, 1991." EOS (American Geophysical Union Transactions) 72: 301.
	
de Porla, J. (1962). Consideraciones Sobre el Estado Actual de la Estratigrafia del Terciario en Colombia (Considerations on the Actual State of the Tertiary Stratigraphy of Colombia). Colombia, Universidad Industrail de Santander, Bucaramanga.
	
de Porta, J. (1966). Geologia del extremo sur del Valle del Magdalena Medio entre Honda y Guataqui (Colombia) (Geology of the extreme south of the Vally of the Middle Magdalean between Honda and Guataqui), Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga (Colombia): 347.
	
de Porta, J. (2003). "La formacion del istmo de Panama; su incidencia en Colombia 
Translated Title: Formation of the Panama Isthmus and its impacts in Colombia." Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Naturales 27(103): 191-216.
	The first outlines of the Isthmus of Panama began in the middle Miocene. Its formation had impacts on paleography. The elevation of the Cordillera Oriental, which began between 12.9 and 11.8 million years ago, had its maximum intensity between 5 and 2.5 million years ago, causing changes in the hydrographic networks of the Amazon, Orinoco and Magdalena rivers. The record of a cold epoch in the Sabana de Bogota, dated at 2.7 million years ago, may correspond to a glacial stage of the upper Pliocene. The formation of the Itsthmus led to the great faunal exchange between North and South America. During the Pleistocene, along the Caribbean coasts of Colombia, a series of coral reefs, dated between 300,000 and 124,000 years, formed.

De Riemer, V. W. (1978). "Results of geological investigations in the northwestern part of the Dominican Republic." Neues Jahrbuch Geologisches Paleontologisches Monatsheft 35: 162-172.
	
De Santis, F., et al. (1990). The earthquakes of April and May 1989: Evidence of liquefaction (Los sismos de Abril y Mayo de 1989: Evidencias de Licuación). II XI Seminario de Geotecnia, Caracas. Mem. SVMSIF.
	
De Santis, F., et al. (1989). "Manifestations of "lateral spread" on the lacustrian delta of Güigüe, south coast of Lago de Valencia, during the Caracas earthquake of 29-07-67 (Manifestaciones de "lateral spread" en el delta lacustre de Güigüe, costa sur del Lago de Valencia, durante el terremoto de Caracas del 29-07-67). VII Cong. Geol. Venezolano, Barquisimeto."  43: 1123-1136.
	
de Toni, B., et al. (1994). Tectonic events and structural styles in the Barinas-Apure Basin. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 311-313.
	
De Vletter, D. R. (1946). "Geology of the Western Part of Middle Oriente, Cuba." Geographische en Geologische Mededeelingen.  Physiographisch-Geologische Reeks, Series 2 8: 101.
	
De Wever, P., et al. (1985). "Discovery of Lias-Lower Dogger ocean material on Santa Elena Peninsula (Costa Rica, Central America)." Compte Rendue, Ser., 2 300(15): 759-764.
	
de Zoeten, R. (1988). Structure and Stratigraphy of the Central Cordillera Septentrional, Dominican-Republic. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 168.
	
De Zoeten, R., et al. (1991). Geologic map of the northern Dominican Republic. Geological and tectonic development of the North American-Caribbean plate boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis, Geological Society of America. 262: Plate 1.
	
de Zoeten, R., et al. (1991). Geologic map of the northern Dominican-Republic. Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary Zone in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. 262.
	
de Zoeten, R. and P. Mann (1991). Structural Geology and Cenozoic Tectonic History of the Central Cordillera Septentrional, Dominican-Republic. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. 262: 265-279.
	
De Zoeten, R. and P. Mann (1999). Cenozoic El Mamey Group of northern Hispaniola: A sedimentary record of subduction, collisional and strike-slip events within the North America-Caribbean plate boundary zone. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 247-286.
	
Deal, C. S. (1983). "Oil and gas developments in South America, Central America, Caribbean area and Mexico in 1982." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 67: 1849-1860.
	
Dean, B. W. (1976). Focal Mechanism Solutions and Tectonics of the Middle America Arc. Hanover, NH, Dartmouth College: 81.
	
Dean, B. W. and C. L. Drake (1978). "Focal mechanism solutions and tectonics of the Middle America arc." Journal of Geology 86: 111-128.
	
Dean, W. E., et al. (1999). "Molybdenum accumulation in Cariaco basin sediment over the past 24 k.y.: A record of water-column anoxia and climate." Geology 27(6): 507-510.
	
Deaton, B. C. and B. Burkart (1984). "Time of sinistral slip along the Polochic Fault of Guatemala." Tectonophysics 102: 297-313.
	
Defant, M., et al. (1991). "Andesite and dacite genesis via contrasting processes: The geology and geochemistry of the El Valle volcano, Panama." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 106: 309-324.
	
Defant, M. J. and et al. (1991). "Dacite genesis via both slab melting and differentiation:  Petrogenesis of La Yeguada volcanic complex, Panama." Journal of Petrology 32: 1101-1142.
	
Defant, M. J. and et al. (1992). "The geochemistry of young volcanism throughout western Panama and southeastern Costa Rica: An Overview." Journal of the Geological Society of London 149: 569-579.
	
Defant, M. J., et al. (1991). "Dacite genesis via both differention and slab melting: Petrogenesis of La Yeguada volcanic complex." Journal of Petrology 32: 1101-1142.
	
Defant, M. J., et al. (2001). "The geology, petrology, and petrogenesis of Saba Island, Lesser Antilles." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 107(1-3): 87-111.
	Saba is the northernmost volcano along the Lesser Antilles island-arc chain. The Lesser Antilles arc results from the west-northwest subduction of the Atlantic lithosphere beneath the previous termCaribbeannext term Plate. Sediment thickness along the trench decreases northward away from sediment sources on the continent of South America. We focused our attention on Saba precisely because it is the furthest away from documented geochemical effects in the southern arc volcanics of the large sediment thicknesses — normally attributed to both source or upper level contamination (i.e. assimilation). Field mapping, petrology, mineralogy, K–Ar dating, and geochemical analyses (major and trace element) indicate a complex history of magma petrogenesis including crystal fractionation, magma mixing, and, surprisingly, crustal assimilation. This is the first time assimilation has been documented in the northern section of the Lesser Antilles arc. Magma mixing shows up in the field as banded pumice and petrographically and mineralogically as complex zoning in phenocrysts (such as reverse zoning in plagioclase), disequilibrium mineral assemblages (e.g. quartz and olivine), and disequilibrium between minerals and whole-rock compositions (e.g. forsterite content of olivine). Mass-balance modeling of major and trace elements support our contention that crystal fractionation (including amphibole) played an important role in magma evolution. However, various geochemical trends can only be explained by assimilation-fractional crystallization based on the fact that the trends of various trace elements and trace-element ratios vary with increasing silica. Finally, we could find no evidence of sediment source contamination in the most mafic rocks. It may exist but is overprinted by the later assimilation effects. 

Dehlinger, P. and J. W. Antoine (1962). Seismic refraction profiles on the outer ridge north of Puerto Rico, The A&M College of Texas.
	
DeIgnacio, C., et al. (2003). "El Chichon volcano (Chiapas volcanic belt, Mexico) transitional calc-alkaline to adakitic-like magmatism: Petrologic and tectonic implications." International Geology Review 45(11): 1020-1028.
	
del Giudice, D. (1960). "Apuntes sobre la geología del Departamento de Nueva Segovia (Annotations on the geology of the Department of Nueva Segovia)." Boletin Servicios Geológicos Nacional Nicaragua 4: 17-37.
	
del Giudice, D. and G. Recchi (1969). Geologia del Area del Proyecto Minero del Azuero (Geology of the Azuero Mineral Prospect). ???, Programa para desarolo de las Naciones Unidas: ???
	
Del Ollo, D., et al. (1994). Origen del petroleo en la cuenca de Falcon (Origin of petroleoum in the Falcon Basin). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 408-410.
	
DeLandro, W. V. C., Ed. (1986). Petrophysical study of the Samaan field shaly sands, offshore Trinidad. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago. ???, ???
	
Delevoryas, T. and S. C. Srivastava (1981). "Jurassic plants from the Department of Francisco Morazán, Central Honduras." Reviews of Paleobotany and Palynology 34: 345-357.
	
Delgado, I. (1993). Lama-Field - Venezuela, Maracaibo-Basin, Zulia-State. Structural Traps VIII. N. H. Foster and E. A. Beaumont. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. VIII: 271-294.
	
DeMets, C. (1995). "A reappraisal of seafloor spreading lineations in the Gulf of California: Implications for the transfer of Baja California to the Pacific Plate and estimates of Pacific-North America motion." Geophysical Research Letters 22(24): 3545-3548.
	
DeMets, C. (2002). "Reply to ''Comment on 'A new estimate for present-day Cocos-Caribbean plate motion: Implications for slip along the central American volcanic arc''' by Marco Guzman-Speziale and Juan Martin Gomez - art. no. 1946." Geophysical Research Letters 29(20): 1946.
	
DeMets, C. and T. H. Dixon (1999). "New kinematic models for Pacific-North America motion from 3 Ma to present: I, Evidence for steady motion and biases in the NUVEL-1A model." Geophysical Research Letters 26(13): 1921-1924.
	
DeMets, C., et al. (1990). "Current plate motions." Geophysical Journal International 101: 425-478.
	
DeMets, C., et al. (2000). "GPS geodetic constraints on Caribbean-North American plate motion." Geophysical Research Letters 27: 437-440.
	
DeMets, C., et al. (2000). "GPS geodetic constraints on Caribbean-North America plate motion." Geophysical Research Letters 27(3): 437-440.
	
DeMets, C. and S. Traylen (2000). "Motion of the Rivera plate since 10 Ma relative to the Pacific and North American plates and the mantle." Tectonophysics 318(1-4): 119-159.
	
DeMets, C. and M. Wiggins-Grandison (2007). "Deformation of Jamaica and motion of the Gonave Microplate from GPS and seismic data." Geophysical Journal International 168(1): 362-378.
	
DeMets, C. and D. S. Wilson (1997). "Relative motions of the Pacific, Rivera, North American, and Cocos plates since 0.78 Ma." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 102(2): 2789-2806.
	
Deng, J. S. and L. R. Sykes (1995). "Determination of Euler pole for contemporary relative motion of Caribbean and North American plates using slip vectors of interplate earthquakes." Tectonics 14(1): 39-53.
	
Deng, X. (1997). Fine-grained sediments in Barbados accretionary complex: Mineralogy, sedimentation, diagenesis, geochemistry, and fault mechanisms. Columbia, Missouri, University of Missouri - Columbia: 283.
	 Barbados Ridge complex marks the location where the North American Plate is being subducted underneath the Caribbean Plate. Deposition and diagenesis of fine-grained sediments, the major component of this prism, have had a great impact on the prism tectonics and hydrology. Recent ODP drillings in this region have provided premium conditions for studying the sediments within three structural domains: offscraped section, decollement zone, and underthrust section. Systematic mineralogic and chemical studies show that origins, types, and provenance of clay minerals radically change across a major lithostratigraphic boundary between the Miocene (Unit II) and Oligocene intervals (Unit III). These mineralogic changes are consistent with other changes in geological and geophysical aspects of the stratigraphy. The accreted domain above the decollement zone is rich in smectite, whereas the underthrust domain is rich in illite and kaolinite. These mineralogic changes probably resulted from a shift in detrital provenance near the end of the Oligocene. The underthrust sediments came mainly from South America, whereas the offscraped clays are mixtures of continental detritus and authigenic smectite from local volcanic ashes. Smectite-to-illite alteration was not detected in either the underthrust or decollement sections. Early diagenesis of the fine-grained sediment is characterized by ash alteration to smectite in the accreted section, and fluid flow and radiolarians help promote smectite formation near the top of the decollement. The amounts of authigenic smectite in the sediment were calculated by NEWMOD simulation, and those amounts are 20-60% in Unit II and less than 20% in Unit III in total clay minerals. Oxygen-isotope analysis of 31 samples from four ODP sites supports that smectitic clays change in their origins and provenance at the lithologic boundary between Units II and III. Smectite is not in isotopic equilibrium with in situ pore waters except near the top of the decollement zone. Authigenic smectite is abundant in the accreted Miocene section and has $/delta/sp[18]$O values of 26-30$/perthous,$ indicating formation at shallow burial depths (e.g., within 200 mbsf). Authigenic smectite near the top of the decollement zone tends to be near equilibrium with in situ pore waters, indicating its spatial connection with the zones of dissolution of radiolarians and/or extensive fluid flow. Underthrust smectite has $/delta/sp[18]$O values of 19-23$/perthous,$ indicative of a detrital origin. Correct calculations of porosity in the smectite-rich interval depend on the amount of interlayer water lost during routine oven drying. With less than 80% interlayer water lost as an artifact of oven drying, the Miocene section has higher porosity than the underthrust section. Swelling nature of smectite enhances the build-up of excess pore pressure in the smectite-rich interval. The smectite-rich interval is the weakest part of this prism; this weakness results mainly from the swelling pressure. The base of the decollement zone is located where smectite is at a minimum and shear strength of sediments increases. Thus, the intrinsic nature of smectite probably influences decollement localization.

Dengo, C. A. (1972). "Review of Caribbean serpentinites and their tectonic implications." Geological Society of America Memoir 132: 303-312.
	
Dengo, C. A. (1986). "Comment on "Late Cretaceous allochthons and post-Cretaceous strike-slip displacement along the Cuilco-Chixoy-Polochic Fault, Guatemala" by T.H. Anderson, R.J. Erdlac, and M.A. Sandstrom." Tectonics 5: 469-472.
	
Dengo, C. A. and M. C. Covey (1993). "Structure of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia:  Implications for trap styles and regional tectonics." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 77(8): 1315-1337.
	
Dengo, G. (1953). "Geology of the Caracas region in Venezuela." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 64: 7-40.
	
Dengo, G. (1962). Estudio Geologico de la Region de Guanacaste, Costa Rica (Geologic Study of the Region of Guanacasta, Costa Rica). San Jose, Costa Rica, Instituto Geografico de Costa Rica.
	
Dengo, G. (1962). Mapa geologico generalizado de la provincia de Guanacaste y zonas adyacentes (Generalized Geologic Map of the Province of Guanacaste and Adjacent Zones), Ministerio de Obras Publicas, Instituto Geografico de Costa-Rico, San Jose de Costa Rica.
	
Dengo, G. (1962). Tectonic-igneous sequences in Costa Rica. Petrologic Studies: A Volume to Honor A. F. Buddington. A. E. J. Engel, J. L. James and B. F. Leonard. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America: 133-161.
	
Dengo, G. (1968). Estructura Geológica, Historia Tectónica y Morfología de America Central (Structural Geology, Tectonic History and Morphology of Central America). Guatemala, Instituto Centroamericano de Investigación y Tecnología Industrial (ICAITI).
	
Dengo, G. (1968). Relacion de las serpentinitas con la tectonica de America Central (Relation of the serpentinites with the geology of Central America). Symposio Panamericano del Manto Superior (Mexico) Group 2: 23-28.
	
Dengo, G. (1969). "Problems of tectonic relations between Central America and the Caribbean." Transactions Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies 19: 311-320.
	
Dengo, G. (1973). Estructura geologica, historia tectonica y morfologia de America Central (Geologic structure, tectonic history and morphology of Central America). Guatemala City, Instituto Centroamericano de Investigacion Tecnologia Industrial.
	
Dengo, G. (1975). "Produccion de minerals en la region circumcaribe (Production of minerals in the circum-Caribbean region)." Symposium on non-renewable natural resources of Latin America, Caracas, June, 1975: 37.
	
Dengo, G. (1983). Mid America:  Tectonic setting for the Pacific margin from southern Mexico to northern Colombia. Guatemala City, Centro de Estudios Geologicos de America Central.
	
Dengo, G. (1985). Mid America: Tectonic setting for the Pacific margin from southern Mexico to northwestern Colombia. The Ocean Basins and Margins, Vol. 7: The Pacific Ocean. A. E. M. Nairn, F. G. Stehli and S. Uyeda. New York, Plenum Press. 7: 123-180.
	
Dengo, G. and O. Bohnenberger (1969). Structural development of northern Central America. Tectonic Relations of Northern Central America and the Western Caribbean - The Bonacca Expedition. A. R. McBirney, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 203-220.
	
Dengo, G., et al. (1970). "Tectonics and igneous along the Pacific marginal zone of Central America." Geologische Rundschau Band 59: 1215-1232.
	
Dengo, G. and J. E. Case, Eds. (1990). The Caribbean Region. The Geology of North America. Boulder, Geological Society of America.
	
Dengo, G., et al. (1970). Metallogenic map of Central America:  ICAITI. Geologic Publications. Guatemala. 3: 57.
	
Denning, W. H. (1955). "Preliminary results of geophysical exploration for gas and oil on the south coast of Puerto Rico." Puerto Rico Division of Mineralogy and Geology Bulletin 2: 17.
	
Denny, W. M., III, et al. (1994). "Seismic stratigraphy and geoelogic history of middle-Cretaceous through Cenozoic rocks, southern Straits of Florida." Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 78: 461-487.
	
Denyer, C. P. and M. O. Arias (1991). "Algunas consecuencias geologicas del terremoto de la costa caribe de Costa Rica, America Central (Some geologic consequences of the Caribbean coast earthquake in Costa Rica, Central America)." Boletin de la Sociedad Geologica del Peru 82: 23-28.
	
Denyer, P. (1990). "Technical note: Details on the geology of Punta Morales-Coyolito-Manzanillo." Geological Magazine of Central America 11.
	
Denyer, P. and O. Arias (1991). "Stratigraphy of the central region of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 12.
	
Denyer, P. and P. O. Baumgartner (2006). Emplacement of Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous radiolarites of the Nicoya Complex (Costa Rica). Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 203-218.
	
Denyer, P., et al. (2006). Characterization and tectonic implications of Mesozoic-Cenozoic oceanic assemblages ofCosta Rica and Western Panama. Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 219-236.
	
Denyer, P., et al. (1987). "Geologic mapping of a sector near the high basin of the Río Niñey, Limón, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 7.
	
Denyer, P. and E. P. Kuypers (1979). "Mineralizasiones de manganeso intercalada in basaltos del complejo de Nicoya, Guanacaste, Costa Rica (Mineralizations of intercalated manganese in basalts of the Nicoya comples, Guanacaste, Costa Rica)." Geografico Nacional informe semestral, Julio a dic: ?
	
Denyer-Chavarría (1977). Notes about Manganese Mineralization of the Nicoya Ophiolite Complex, Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 65.
	
Denyer-Chavarria, P. and W. Montero-Pohly (1988). Mapa Geo-Estructural y Sismos del Valle Central (Structural and Seismic Map of Valle Central). San Jose, Costa Rica, Instituto Geografico Nacional.
	
Deschamps, A. (2000). Characterization of modern reefs using the Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment (AGRRA) protocol and digitized aerial photographs, Tobago Cays Marine Park, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, University of Ottawa: 196.
	A digital thematic map of the shallow marine habitats surrounding the Tobago Cays and the Horseshoe Reef was created using a low-cost remote sensing methodology. Colour aerial photographs were selected because of their high spatial resolution and availability. The aerial photographs were scanned, georeferenced, rectified (ground control points and a second order polynomial) and mosaicked to cover the entire study arm. Benthic classes were derived and described objectively using agglomerative hierarchical classification of field data. Supervised classification of the Tobago Cays was obtained using this field derived classification. The final thematic map comprises 8 classes (mixed live coral community, dead coral substratum with mixed algae, seagrass dominated, macro algae dominated, sand dominated, rubble dominated, deep water and beach sands) with an overall accuracy of 87% and a Kappa and Tau coefficients of 85%. Producer and user accuracies of individual classes range between 53% and 100%. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

Desmet, A. and G. Rocci (1988). "Les dolerites et les ferrobasalts du complexe ophiolitique de Santa Elena (Costa Rica):  Relations, geochimie et contexte geodynamique (The dolerites and ferrobasalts of the ophiolitic complex of Santa Elena (Costa Rica):  Relations, geochemistry and geodynamic context)." Bulletin Societe geologique de France 8(3): 479-487.
	
Desreumaux, C. (1987). Contribution to the Geologic Study of teh Central and Meridianal Regions of Haiti (Greater Antilles) from Cretaceous to Recent  (Contribution à l'étude géologique des régions centrales et méridionales d'Haïti, (Grandes Antilles) du Crétacé à l'Actuel). Bordeaux, France, Université de Bordeaux I, n 904: 424.
	
Deville, E., et al. (2003). "The origin and processes of mud volcanism: New insights from Trinidad." Geological-Society-Special-Publication 216: 475-490.
	The mobilized sediments expelled by the mud volcanoes in Trinidad correspond to liquefied argillaceous and sandy material in which the solid fraction is systematically polygenic and originating from several formations (Cretaceous to Pliocene). The mud is notably rich in thin-grained quartz that is angular and frequently mechanically damaged related to shearing at great depth, during the sedimentary burial, and/or hydraulic fracturing processes. The exotic clasts are mostly fractured fragments from various formations of the tectonic wedge (mostly Palaeocene to Miocene). The origin of the solid particles of the mud is polygenic, including deep Cretaceous-Palaeogene horizons close to the decollement, and various materials from the stratigraphic pile pierced by the mud conduits. Moreover, the fluids expelled by the mud volcanoes have a deep origin and notably the gas phase is thermogenic methane generated probably below a depth of 5000 m. The effusions occur either during cycles of moderate effusion of mud and fluids (quiescence regime), or during catastrophic events responsible for the expulsion of huge volumes of mud, clasts and fluids (transient regime). Available subsurface data suggest that the deep structure of the mud volcanoes includes: (1) a focused deep conduit at depth in the zone of overpressure, (2) a mud chamber intruding the surrounding formations around and above the top of the abnormal pressure zone, and (3) a superficial outlet leading to the surface vents.

DeWever, P., et al. (1985). "Decouverte de materiel oceanique du Lias-Dogger inferieur dans la peninsule de Santa Elena (Costa Rica, Amerique Centrale) (Discovery of oceanic material from the lower Lias-Dogger within the Santa Elena Peninsula (Costa Rica, Central America)),." Academie des Sciences Paris Comptes Rendus 2(15): 759-764.
	
Dewey, J. F. (1991). Allochthonous Terranes, Cambridge University Press.
	
Dewey, J. F. and J. L. Pindell (1085). "Neogene block tectonics of eastern Turkey and northern South America: Continental applications of the finite difference method." Tectonics 4(1): 71-83.
	
Dewey, J. F. and W. C. Pitman, III (1998). Sea-level changes: Mechanisms, magnitudes and rates. Paleogeographic Evolution and Non-glacial Eustacy: North America. J. L. Pindell and C. Drake. Tulsa OK, Society for Sedimentary Geology. 58: 1-16.
	
Dewey, J. W. (1971). Seismicity Studies with the Method of Joint Hypocenter Determination. Berkeley, CA, University of California Berkeley: 173.
	
Dewey, J. W. (1972). "Seismicity and tectonics of western Venezuela." Bulletin of the Seismologial Society of America 62: 1711-1751.
	
Dewey, J. W. and S. T. Algermissen (1974). "Seismicity of the Middle America are-trench system near Managua, Nicaragua." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 64: 1033-1048.
	
Dewey, J. W. and G. Suárez (1991). Seismotectonics of Middle America. Neotectonics of North America. D. B. Slemmons, E. R. Engdahl and D. D. Blackwell. Boulder, Geological Society of America. 1: 309-321.
	
Dewey, J. W., et al. (2004). Seismicity and tectonics of El Salvador. Natural hazards in El Salvador. W. I. Rose, J. J. Bommer, D. L. Lopez, M. J. Carr and J. J. Major, Geological Society of America. 375: 363-378.
	The large-scale plate-tectonics framework of El Salvador was defined in the "plate-tectonics revolution" of the 1960s and 1970s, but important issues related to seismic hazards depend on details that have been only recently, or are not yet, understood. Present evidence suggests that coupling across the interface-thrust zone beneath coastal El Salvador is sufficient to produce occasional interface-thrust earthquakes as large as M approximately 8. The rate of such earthquakes is determined by the percentage of relative plate motion that is accumulated as elastic strain on the thrust-fault interface between the Cocos and Caribbean plates, which appears to be lower than in many other subduction zones, but is not well established. Earthquakes in the interior of the Cocos plate, such as the El Salvador earthquake of January 13, 2001, account for a significant percentage of Wadati-Benioff zone earthquakes. Separate consideration of the seismic hazard posed by, respectively, Cocos intraplate earthquakes and interface-thrust earthquakes is complicated by the difficulty of separating interface-thrust and Cocos intraplate events in earthquake catalogs. Earthquakes such as the San Vicente-San Salvador sequence of February 13-25, 2001, probably result from the motion of the Central American forearc northwestward with respect to the interior of the Caribbean plate; the geometry of the fault systems that accommodate the motion remains to be worked out. Understanding of this tectonic complexity and associated seismic hazards will be facilitated greatly by the long-term operation of high-sensitivity local seismograph networks, such as that operated by, and currently being upgraded by, the Servicio Nacional de Estudios Territoriales (SNET) of El Salvador.

Dey, S. and L. Smith (1989). "Carbonate and volcanic sediment distribution patterns on the Grenadines Bank, Lesser Antilles island arc, East Caribbean." Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 37(1): 18-30.
	
Dhondt, S., et al. (1996). "Oscillatory marine response to the Cretaceous-Tertiary impact." Geology 24(7): 611-614.
	
Di Croce, J. (1995). Eastern Venezuelan basin: sequence stratigraphy and structural evolution. Houston, TX, Rice University,: 225.
	A regional study has been carried out within the Eastern Venezuela Basin and its offshore continuation to the Orinoco Delta and the Barbados Accretionary Complex. The Eastern Venezuela Basin and its offshore continuation is a Neogene foredeep superimposed on a Mesozoic passive margin. The Cretaceous to Paleocene of Eastern Venezuela is best subdivided into five second order transgressive-regressive cycles bounded by a 131 Ma (basal Cretaceous) sequence boundary, four maximum flooding surfaces with the inferred age of lower Aptian (111 Ma), upper Albian (98 Ma), middle Cenomanian (95 Ma), middle Turonian (91.5 Ma) and an upper Paleocene sequence boundary (58.5 Ma). An upper Paleocene to Eocene second-order cycle (58.5 Ma-36 Ma) is followed by the Oligocene which is subdivided into two third-order cycles bounded respectively by 36 Ma, 30 Ma and 25.5 Ma sequence boundaries. An uppermost Oligocene to lower Miocene (25.5 Ma) basal foredeep unconformity is associated with the sudden deepening of the passive margin in response to the emplacement of the Serrania del Interior. The Neogene of the Eastern Venezuela foredeep consists of three second-order sequences defined by 25.5 Ma, 16.5 Ma and 10.5 Ma boundaries. In the offshore an upper Miocene (5.5 Ma) unconformity is associated with deeply incised submarine canyons. Sixteen third-order sequence boundaries are recognized and correlated over the region.

Di Croce, J. (1996). Eastern Venezuela Basin: Sequence Stratigraphy and Structural Evolution. Houston, TX, Rice University: 225.
	
Di Croce, J., et al. (1999). Sequence stratigraphy of the Eastern Venezuelan Basin. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 419-476.
	
Di Marco, G. (1993). Evolution sédimentaire et tectonique d'un prisme d'accretion tertiare et mise en place des terrains du sud du Costa Rica (Amerique Central) (Sedimentary and Tectonic Evolution of a Tertiary Accretionary Prism and Placement in the Terrains of South Costa Rica). Lausanne, Switzerland, University of Lausanne: 245.
	
Di Marco, G., et al. (1995). Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary paleomagnetic data and a revised tectonostratigraphic subdivision of Costa Rica and western Panama. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 1-27.
	
Díaz, C. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (1981). "Estratigrafía, paleontología y paleogeografía del banco carbonatado Cretácico de Sierra de Cubitas (Stratigraphy, paleontology and paleogeography of the Cretaceous carbonate bank of Sierra de Cubitas)." Resúmenes Primera Jornada Científica de la Sociedad Cubana de Geología: 51-52.
	
Diaz, D. D. and D. A. Lilliyenberg (1989). "New data on Holocene tectonic movements in western Cuba." Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 305: 166-171.
	
Diaz de Gamero, M. L. (1986). Geological evolution of the northern Agua Salada Subbasin, East Falcon, Venezuela. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 288-302.
	
Diaz de Gamero, M. L., et al. (1994). The Caujarao and El Veral formations, east of Cumarebo Northeastern Falcon, Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 237-239.
	
Díaz de Villalvilla, L. (1988). Caracterización geológica y petrológica de las asociaciones vulcanógenas del arco insular cretácico en Cuba central (Geologic and Petrologic characterization of the volcanogenic associations of the Cretaceous Insular Arc in Central Cuba). Instituto de Geología y Paleontología (Tesis de Doctorado): ?
	
Díaz de Villalvilla, L. and M. Dilla (1986). "Principales características petroquímicas de la asociación traquibasalto-traquiandesita (Principal petrochemical characteristics of the trachybasalt-trachyandesite association)." Serie geológica CIDP 2: 77-90.
	
Díaz de Villalvilla, L. and M. M. Dilla (1985). "Proposición para una división de la llamada Formación Tobas (Provincias Cienfuegos, Villa Clara y Sancti Spiritus) (Proposition for a division called Tobas Formation (Cienfuegos, Villa Clara and Sancti Spiritus provinces)." Serie Geológica del CIG 1: 133-149.
	
Diaz de Villalvilla, L. T. (1985). "Proposal for a division of the so-called Tobas Formation (Cienfuegos, Villa Clara and Sancti Spiritus Provinces)." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 1: 133-154.
	
Diaz M., J. M., et al., Eds. (2000). Coral Areas of Colombia (Areas Coralinas de Colombia). Serie Publicaciones Especiales. Sta. Marta, Colombia, INVEMAR.
	
Diaz Otero, C. (1984). "Paleoecologic considerations on the carbonate bank of the Sierra de Cubitas, Camaguey Province, Cuba."?? ?: 8-24.
	
Díaz-Martínez, R., et al. (1998). "El placer lateral de playa Mejías (noreste de Cuba Oriental): un ejemplo de interacción de procesos aluviales y marinos en la concentración de minerales de elementos preciosos (The Mejías beach placer (NE Oriente, Cuba): A case of interaction of alluvial and marine processes in the concentration of precious elements-bearing minerals)." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 351-371.
	
Dickens, G. R. (1998). "High-resolution records of the late Paleocene thermal maximum and circum-Caribbean volcanism: Is there a causal link? Comment." Geology 26(7): 670-670.
	
Dickens, G. R., et al. (1998). "High-resolution records of the late Paleocene thermal maximum and circum-Caribbean volcanism; is there a causal link?; discussion and reply." Geology 26(7): 670-671.
	
Dickey, P. (1980). Barbados as a fragment of South America ripped off by continental drift. The Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo.
	
Dickeys, J. S. (1975). "A hypothesis of the origin for podiform chromite deposits." Geochemical Cosmochemical Acta 39: 1061-1074.
	
Dickinson, W. R. and P. F. Coney (1980). Plate tectonic constraints on the origin of the Gulf of Mexico. Symposium on the Origin of the Gulf of Mexico and the Early Opening of the Central Atlantic Ocean. R. H. Pilger, Jr. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University: 27-36.
	
Dickinson, W. R., et al. (1986). The Bisbee Basin and its bearing on Late Mesozoic paleogeographic and paleoetectonic relations between the Cordilleran and Caribbean regions. Cretaceous Stratigraphy Western North America. P. L. Abbott. Los Angeles, CA, Pacific Section, SEPM: 51-62.
	
Dickinson, W. R. and T. F. Lawton (2001). "Carboniferous to Cretaceous assembly and fragmentation of Mexico." Geological Society of America Bulletin 113(98): 1142-1160.
	
Dickson, K. K. (1954). Petrographic Report 122: Preliminary report on igneous rocks. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Dickson, K. K. (1955). Petrographic Report 319: Summary report on igneous rocks in Las Villas and Camaguey Provinces. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 13.
	
Diebold, J., et al. (1999). New insights on the formation of the Caribbean basalt province revealed by multichannel seismic images of volcanic structures in the Venezuelan Basin. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 561-589.
	
Diebold, J. B., et al. (1981). "Venezuelan Basin crustal structure." Journal of Geophysical Research 86: 7901-7923.
	
Dilek, Y. (1998). Structure and tectonics of intermediate-spread oceanic crust drilled at DSDP/ODP Holes 504B and 896A, Costa Rica Rift. Geological Evolution of Ocean. A. Cramp, C. J. Macleod, S. V. Lee and E. J. W. Jones, Geological Soc Publishing House: 179-197.
	
DiLeonardo, C. G. (2001). The influence of lower plate tectonism on the evolution of accretionary forearc systems. Santa Cruz, CA, University of California, Santa Cruz: 148.
	The application of advanced geophysical and remote sensing techniques, to the study of modern accretionary forearcs, has yielded new insight into their tectonic evolution. Emerging, from these studies, is a clearer understanding of the important influence of lower plate deformation on strain in the overlying forearc. Two studies, using 3-D seismic reflection and coherence imaging, were conducted of the Barbados accretionary wedge. Combined coherence and seismic amplitude imaging of the d&eacute;collement, zone reveal anomalous NE-trending lineaments parallel and abutting zones of high amplitude negative polarity reflections. Detailed mapping of structures within the lower plate and through the d&eacute;collement, reveal high angle faults cutting the d&eacute;collement, zone and penetrating the upper plate. These structures apparently channel migration of deeply sourced fluids through the d&eacute;collement, zone. Evidence from seismic data, structure contour maps and isopach maps, indicates these faults are right-lateral strike slip faults. Basement structure maps show offset of prominent relic topography across this zone of up to 1.3km. Also cutting the d&eacute;collement, are NNE-trending structures which show complex history of interactions with the NE-trending faults and which mirror basement topography. A number of out-of-sequence faults are recognized inboard from the deformation front and also mirror basement topography. Analysis of sea floor surface and near surface reflectors indicate that several NNE-trending out-of-sequence faults display normal offset while the majority are consistent with thrusting. Detailed mapping of these structures in the lower plate indicates that normal faulting controls the geometry of out-of-sequence normal and thrust faulting. Nine left-lateral arc-oblique strike-slip faults cut the Cascadia accretionary wedge off the coast of Oregon and Washington and are strikingly similar in character to the oblique strike-slip fault discovered cutting the Barbados accretionary wedge. An integrated study involving structural analysis and remote sensing was conducted of the Cascadian forearc of Oregon. The combined results of this study and that of the Barbados Ridge d&eacute;collement, support a mechanical model of shear failure along arc-oblique strike-slip faults in response to compression across the forearc. This model may explain the existence of arc-oblique strike-slip faults in accretionary forearc systems globally. 

DiLeonardo, C. G., et al. (2002). "Control of internal structure and fluid-migration pathways within the Barbados Ridge decollement zone by strike-slip faulting: Evidence from coherence and three-dimensional seismic amplitude imaging." Geological Society of America Bulletin 114(1): 51-63.
	
Dill, H. G. and H. R. Bosse (2000). "Mineralogical and chemical studies of volcanic-related argillaceous industrial minerals of the Central American Cordillera (western El Salvador)." Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists 95(3): 517-538.
	
Dilla Alfonso, M. and L. Garcia Mendez (1984). "Stratigraphy and sedimentogenesis of the superpositioned basins of central Cuba." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 3: 101-154.
	
Dilla, M. and L. Díaz de Villalvilla (1986). "Sobre la edad de algunas vulcanitas de las provincias camagueyanas (On the age of some volcanics of the Camaguey provinces)." Serie Geológica CIDP 2: 91-103.
	
Dilla, M. and L. Garcia (1985). "New data on the stratigraphy of the provinces of Cienfuegos, Villa Clara and Sancti-Spiritus." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 1: 53-77.
	
Dillon, W. P., et al. (1992). "Accretionary margin of north-western Hispaniola: Morphology, structure, and development of the northern Caribbean plate boundary." Marine and Petroleum Geology 9: 70-88.
	
Dillon, W. P., et al. (1990). Structural segmentation in an active submarine tectonic accretionary wedge, as disclosed by GLORIA sidescan sonar and multichannel seismic profiling, Caribbean Plate boundary north of Haiti. USGS research on energy resources, 1990: Program and Abstracts. L. M. H. Carter, U. S. Geological Survey. C 1060: 24-26.
	
Dillon, W. P., et al. (1993). Magnetic anomaly map of the central Cayman Trough, northwestern Caribbean Sea. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
Dillon, W. P., et al. (1996). A review of the tectonic problems of the strike-slip northern boundary of the Caribbean Plate and examination by GLORIA. Geology of the United States' seafloor; the view from GLORIA. J. V. Gardner, M. E. Field and D. C. Twichell. Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press: 135-164.
	
Dillon, W. P., et al. (1987). "Geology of the Caribbean." Oceanus 30(4): 42-52.
	
Dillon, W. P., et al. (1989). Morphology, structure and active tectonism of the insular margin off northwestern Hispaniola. Transactions of the 12th Caribbean geological conference. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. 12: 133-142.
	
Dillon, W. P., et al. (1993). Ancient crustal fractures control the location and size of collapsed blocks at the Blake Escarpment, east of Florida. Submarine landslides; selected studies in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone. W. C. Schwab, H. J. Lee and D. C. Twichell, U. S. Geological Survey. B 2002: 54-59.
	
Dillon, W. P. and J. G. Vedder (1973). "Structure and development of the continental margin of British Honduras." Geological Society of America Bulletin 84: 2713-2732.
	
Dillon, W. P., et al. (1972). "Structural profile of the northwestern Caribbean." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 17: 175-180.
	
Direccion General de Geologia (1987). Mineral Resource Assessment of the Republic of Costa Rica [map], Direccion General de Geologia, Minas e Hidrocarburos//Universidad de Costa Rica.
	
Dix, G. R., et al. (1999). "Marine saline ponds as sedimentary archives of late Holocene climate and sea- level variation along a carbonate platform margin: Lee Stocking Island, Bahamas." Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 150(3-4): 223-246.
	
Dixon, C. G. (1955). Geology of Southern British Honduras with Notes on Adjacent Areas, Department of Surveys, Georgetown.
	
Dixon, C. G. (1956). Geology of Southern British Honduras, With Notes on Adjacent Areas. Belize, British Honduras, Government Printing Office.
	
Dixon, H. L. and S. K. Donovan (1994). "Local extinction patterns and the decline of the Jamaican Paleogene Echinoid fauna." Palaios 9: 506-511.
	
Dixon, T. H. (1993). "GPS measurement of relative motion of the Cocos and Caribbean plates and strain accumulation across the Middle America Trench." Geophysical Research Letters 20(20): 2167-2170.
	
Dixon, T. H. and M. I. Daily (1981). "Analysis of a SEASAT-SAR image of the northeastern Dominican-Republic." Photo-Intérpretation (Paris, France) 5: 4.3-4.7.
	
Dixon, T. H., et al. (1998). "Relative motion between the Caribbean and North American plates and related boundary zone deformation from a decade of GPS observations." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 103(B7): 15157-15182.
	
Dixon, T. H., et al. (1991). "First epoch geodetic measurements with the Global Positioning System across the northern Caribbean Plate boundary zone." Journal of Geophysical Research:  Solid Earth and Planets 96(2): 2397-2415.
	
Dixon, T. H. and A. L. Mao (1997). "A GPS estimate of relative motion between North and South America." Geophysical Research Letters 24(5): 535-538.
	
Dobretsov, N. L. and L. V. Dobretsova (1989). "Eclogite and glaucofane schists of the Urals, Spitsberger and Cuba Island." Eclogites and Glaucofane Schists in Fold Regions: 107-132.
	
Dobretsov, N. L., et al. (1987). "Eclogites in Cuba." Dokl. Acad. nauk SSSR  249: 179-184.
	
Dobson, L. M. (1990). Seismic Stratigraphy and Geologic History of Jurassic Rocks, Northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 165.
	
Dobson, L. M. and R. T. Buffler (1997). "Seismic stratigraphy and geologic history of Jurassic rocks, northeastern Gulf of Mexico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 81(1): 100-120.
	
Dodge, R., et al. (1983). "Pleistocene sea levels from raised coral reefs of Haiti." Science 219: 1423-1425.
	
Dohm, C. F. (1941). The Commendador Anticline Republica Dominicana, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey: 11.
	
Dohm, C. F. (1941). The Geology of the Azua-Enriquillo Basin Areas Covered by Aerial Mosaics 7: 14-15. New York City, Seaboard Petroleum Company: 8.
	
Dohm, C. F. (1942). Report of a Geological Reconnaissance of Guayabin Anticline, Cibao Valley, Dominican-Republic. New York City, Seaboard Petroleum Company: 6.
	
Dohm, C. F. (1943). Geologic Map of and Report on the Western Portion of the Cibao Basin, Dominican-Republic. New York City, Dominican Seaboard Oil Company.
	
Dolan, J., et al. (1991). Sedimentologic, stratigraphic, and tectonic synthesis of Eocene-Miocene sedimentary basins, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 217-264.
	
Dolan, J. F. (1984). Field map of the southern Peralta Belt.
	
Dolan, J. F. (1988). Paleogene Sedimentary Basin Development in the Eastern Greater Antilles: Three Studies in Active Margin Sedimentology. Santa Cruz, University of California Santa Cruz: 236.
	
Dolan, J. F. (1989). "Eustatic and tectonic controls on deposition of hybrid siliciclastic/carbonate basinal cycles: discussion with examples." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 73: 1233-1246.
	
Dolan, J. F. and P. Mann, Eds. (1998). Active Strike-Slip and Collisional Tectonics of the Northern Caribbean Plate Boundary Zone. Special Papers. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Dolan, J. F., et al. (1998). Active tectonics of the north-central Caribbean:  Oblique collision, strain partitiohning, and opposing subducted slabs. Active Strike-Slip and Collisional Tectonics of the Northern Caribbean Plate Boundary Zone. J. F. Dolan and P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 326: 1-61.
	
Dolan, J. F. and D. J. Wald (1997). "The 1946 Hispaniola earthquake and the tectonics of the North America Caribbean plate boundary zone, northeastern Hispaniola - Comment." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 102(B1): 785-792.
	
Dolan, J. F. and D. J. Wald (1998). The 1943-1953 north-central Caribbean earthquakes: Active tectonic setting, seismic hazards, and implications for Caribbean-North American plate motions. Active Strike-Slip and Collisional Tectonics of the Northern Caribbean Plate Boundary Zone. J. F. Dolan and P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 326: 143-169.
	
Dollfus, A. and E. De Montserrat (1868). Voyage geologique dans les republiques de Guatemala et de Salvador (Geologic Voyage Within the Republics of Guatemala and Salvador). Paris, Imprimerie imperiale.
	
Dominguez, H. (1983). Field map of the geology of the southern termination of the Cordillera Central.
	
Dominguez, H. (1987). Mineralization at the El Recodo Copper Prospect, Southeastern Cordillera Central, Dominican-Republic. Washington, D.C., George Washington University: 203.
	
Dominguez, S., et al. (1998). "Upper plate deformation associated with seamount subduction." Tectonophysics 293(3-4): 207-224.
	
Domínguez-Alvarez, R. A. (1978). Preliminary Study of the Fortuna Project Dam Site and Geotechnical Observations. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 77.
	
Domning, D. P. (1988). "Fossil Sirenia of the West Atlantic and Caribbean region: I, Metaxytherium floridanum Hay, 1922." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 8(4): 395-426.
	
Domning, D. P. (1989). "Fossil Sirenia of the West Atlantic and Caribbean region:  II, Dioplotherium manigaulti Cope, 1883." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 9(4): 415-428.
	
Domning, D. P. (1989). "Fossil Sirenia of the West Atlantic and Caribbean region; III, Xenosiren yucateca, gen. et sp. nov." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 9(4): 429-437.
	
Domning, D. P. (1990). "Fossil Sirenia of the West Atlantic and Caribbean region; IV, Corystosiren varguezi, gen. et sp. nov." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 10(3): 361-371.
	
Domning, D. P. (1997). "Fossil Sirenia of the west Atlantic and Caribbean region. VI.  Crenatosiren olseni (Reinhart, 1976)." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 17(2): 397-412.
	
Donahue, J. and W. Harbert (1994). Fluvial history of the Jama River drainage. Regional Archaeology in Northern Manabi, Ecuador, Volume 1: Environment, Cultural Chronology, and Prehistoric Subsistence in the Jama River Valley. J. A. Zeidler and D. M. pearsall, University of Pittsburgh. 8: 43-58.
	
Donaldson, J. W. (1970). A paleomagnetic study of the Permian basalts at Las Delicias, Coahuila, Mexico. Houston, TX, Rice University: ?
	
Donnelly, T., et al. (1971). Chemical evolution of the igneous rocks of the eastern West Indies: An investigation of thorium, uranium, and potassium distributions and lead and strontium isotopic ratios. Caribbean Geophysical, Tectonic, and Petrologic Studies. T. Donnelly. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 130: 181-224.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1964). "Evolution of eastern Greater Antilles island arc." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 48: 680-696.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1965). "Sea-bottom morphology suggestive of post-Pleistocene tectonic activity of the eastern Greater Antilles." Geological Society of America Bulletin 76: 1291-1294.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1966). Geology of St. Thomas and St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Caribbean Geologcial Investigations. H. H. Hess. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 98: 85-176.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1967). Some problems of island-arc tectonics, with reference to the northeastern West Indies. Studies in Tropical Oceanography. I. f. M. Sciences. Miami, FL, University of Miami. 5: 74- 87.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1968). Caribbean island arcs in light of the sea-floor spreading hypothesis. Transcripts from the New York Academy of Science. 30: 745-750.
	
Donnelly, T. W., Ed. (1971). Caribbean Geophysical, Tectonic, and Petrologic Studies. Geological Society of America Memoir. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1973). Circum-Caribbean explosive volcanic activity:  Evidence from Leg 15 sediments. Leg 15:  Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. N. T. Edgar and J. Saunders. 15: 969-988.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1973). "Late Cretaceous basalts from the Caribbean, a possible flood basalt province of vast size." EOS 54: 1004.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1973). Magnetic observations in the eastern Caribbean Sea. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. N. T. Edgar, J. B. Saunders and e. a. . Washington D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. 15: 1023-1029.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1975). The geological evolution of the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico - Some critical problems and areas. The Ocean Basins and Margins: V. 3: The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. A. E. M. Nairn and F. H. Stehli. New York, Plenum Press. 3: 663-684.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1985). Mesozoic and Cenozoic plate evolution of the Caribbean region. The Great American Biotic Interchange. F. G. Stehli and S. D. Webb. New York-London, Plenum Press: 89-121.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1989). Geologic history of the Caribbean and Central America. The Geology of North America-An Overview. B. A. W. and P. A. R., Geological Society of America. A: 299-321.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1990). "Caribbean biogeography:  geological considerations on the problem of vicariance vs dispersal." Biogeographical Aspects of Insularity 85: 595-609.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1990). "Pelagic sediment, deep water chemistry, and tectonics:  an application of the history of biological sediment accumulation on the tectonic history of the Caribbean." Rivista Italiana di Paleotologia e Stratigrafia 96: 143-164.
	
Donnelly, T. W. (1994). The Caribbean sea floor. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 41-64.
	
Donnelly, T. W., et al. (1990). History and tectonic setting of Caribbean magmatism. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. H: 339-374.
	
Donnelly, T. W., et al. (1968). Geologic history of the landward extension of the Bartlett Trough -- some preliminary notes. Transactions Fourth Caribbean Geologic Conference, Trinidad: 225-228.
	
Donnelly, T. W., et al. (1990). Northern Central America; The Maya and Chortis blocks. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case, Geological Society of America. A: 371-396.
	
Donnelly, T. W., et al. (1973). Basalts and dolerites of late Cretaceous age from the central Caribbean. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. 15: 1137.
	
Donnelly, T. W. and J. J. W. Rogers (1978). "The distribution of igneous rock suites throughout the Caribbean." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 151-162.
	
Donnelly, T. W. and J. J. W. Rogers (1980). "Igneous series in island arcs." The northeastern Caribbean compared with worldwide island- arc assemblages
Bulletin Volcanologique 43: 347-382.
	
Donovan, S. K. (1988). A preliminary biostratigraphy of the Jamaica fossil Echinoidea. Echinoderm Biology: Proceedings of the Sixth International Echinoderm Conference. R. D. Burke, P. V. Mladenov, P. Lambert and R. L. Parsley. Victoria, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam: 125-131.
	
Donovan, S. K. (1993). Jamaican Cenozoic Echinoidea. Biostratigraphy of Jamaica. R. M. Wright and E. Robinson, Geological Society of America. 182: 371-412.
	
Donovan, S. K. (1994). "Isocrinid crinoids from the late Cenozoic of Jamaica." Atlantic Geology 30(3): 195-203.
	
Donovan, S. K. (1994). Northern South America. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 229-247.
	
Donovan, S. K. (1994). Trinidad. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 209-228.
	
Donovan, S. K. (1998). An introduction to the Bowden shell bed, Southeast Jamaica. The Pliocene Bowden shell bed, Southeast Jamaica. S. K. Donovan. 35: 3-8.
	
Donovan, S. K. (1998). The Pliocene Bowden shell bed, Southeast Jamaica.
	
Donovan, S. K. (2003). "Charles Taylor Trechmann and the development of Caribbean geology between the wars." Proceedings of the Geologists Association 114: 345-354.
	
Donovan, S. K. (2010). "A field guide to the Cretaceous and Cenozoic fossil decapod crustacean localities of Jamaica." Caribbean Journal of Science 46(1): 39-53.
	Jamaica has a rich invertebrate fossil record. The principal localities for fossil decapod crustaceans are Upper Cretaceous (two sites), Paleocene (one site), Eocene (four sites), Miocene (one site), Pliocene (one site) and Pleistocene (six sites); there are no Oligocene localities. Few taxa and specimens are known from the Upper Cretaceous and Paleogene, but this is interpreted, in part, as collection failure. Neogene localities have produced much more diverse faunas, but the only site to yield moderately common and diverse carapace remains is Lower Miocene.

Donovan, S. K., et al. (1988). "Report of a field meeting to the Round Hill region of southern Clarendon, 9 April 1988." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica(25): 44-47.
	
Donovan, S. K. and G. Draper (2001). "Further fossil cephalopds from Jamaica." Paläontologische Zeitschrift 75: 17-21.
	
Donovan, S. K. and G. Draper (2001). "Further fossil cephalopods from Jamaica." Paläontologische Zeitschrift 75: 17-21.
	
Donovan, S. K., et al. (1989). "An Eocene age for an outcrop of the 'Montpelier Formation' at Beecher Town, St Ann, Jamaica using echinoids for correlation." Jornal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 26: 5-9.
	
Donovan, S. K. and D. A. T. Harper (2002). In Trechmann's Footsteps: The Geology of Southeast Barbados - Field Trip #2. 16th Caribbean Geological Conference, June 16th-21st, 2002, Barbados, West Indies - Field Guides. Barbados, West Indies, Government Printing Department: 85-98.
	
Donovan, S. K., et al. (2002). Pleistocene echinoids from the fore reef palaeoenviornments in Barbados and eastern Jamaica: A comparison. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 167-171.
	
Donovan, S. K. and T. A. Jackson, Eds. (1994). Caribbean Geology An Introduction. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association.
	
Donovan, S. K. and T. A. Jackson (2000). "A field guide to the geology of the University of the West Indies campus, Mona." Caribbean Journal of Earth Science 34: 19-26.
	
Donovan, S. K., et al. (1995). Eastern and Central Jamaica. London, Geologists' Association.
	
Donovan, S. K., et al. (1988). Field Guide: Geology of the Round Hill region, southern Clarendon, Geological Society of Jamaica.
	
Donovan, S. K., et al. (2002). Fieldwork: A key component in teaching geology and geomorphology at the University of the West Indies, Jamaica. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 269-279.
	
Donovan, S. K., et al. (1990). Field Guide: Geology of selected localities in Portland, eastern Jamaica., Geological Society of Jamaica.
	
Donovan, S. K., et al. (1990). "Report of a field meeting to selected localities in Portland." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 27: 53-57.
	
Donovan, S. K. and D. N. Lewis (1993). "The H. L. Hawkins collection of Caribbean fossil echinoids: An annotated catalog of rediscovered specimens from the University of Reading, England." Caribbean Journal of Science 29: 186-201.
	
Donovan, S. K., et al. (1997). "Field guide to the geology of east Port Morant Harbour, parish of St. Thomas, SE Jamaica, April 5, 1997." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica XXXII: 49-56.
	
Donovan, S. K., et al. (2002). "A late Cenozoic 'root bed', an unconformity and the tectonic history of Carriacou, The Grenadines, Lesser Antilles." Proceedings of the Geologists Association 113: 199-205.
	
Donovan, S. K., et al. (2003). "The Miocene palaeobathymetry and palaeoenvironments of Carriacou, the Grenadines, Lesser Antilles." Lethaia 36(3): 255-272.
	Carriacou, a small island in the Grenadines, Lesser Antilles, has a Cenozoic rock record that has been important in interpreting the geologic history of the Southern Lesser Antilles Arc Platform. The Lower-Middle Miocene sedimentary succession of the southeast and east coasts, consisting of the Belmont, Kendeace, Carriacou and Grand Bay formations, has been interpreted as a shallowing-upward sequence from turbidite basin to nearshore?/beach? palaeoenvironments. An earlier interpretation of the Belmont Formation as having been deposited in shallow water is at variance with the turbiditic nature of the succession, the included fossils are considered allochthonous. However, an interpretation of the Grand Bay Formation as deep water is supported by multiple lines of evidence, including sedimentology (turbidites), ichnology (autochthonous association of burrows typical of deep-water environments) and palaeontology (terrestrial, planktic, and shallow and deep water benthic species mixed together). The minimum depth of deposition of the Grand Bay Formation was 150-200 m. This suggests that the (unseen) contact between the Carriacou and Grand Bay formations is either an unconformity, formed following rapid deepening of the basin, or a fault, the Grand Bay Formation being deposited in a separate basin from the shallowing-upwards Belmont-Kendeace-Carriacou formations, against which it is now juxtaposed.

Donovan, S. K., et al. (1995). "Further Tertiary cephalopods from Jamaica." Journal of Paleontology 69(3): 588-590.
	
Donovan, S. K., et al. (1991). "A late Middle Eocene echinoid fauna from Portland, northeastern Jamaica." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 28: 1-8.
	
Donskij, V., et al. (1989). "Las estructuras vulcano-tectónicas de la Sierra maestra, su tipificación y origen (Volcano-tectonic structures of the Sierra Maestra, its typification and origen)." Resúmenes y Programa, Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología 89.
	
Doreen, J. M. (1979). "A recorrelation of Miocene formations in the Dominican-Republic." Journal of Petroleum Geology 2: 47-53.
	
Dorel, et al. (1983). "Focal mechanism in Metropolian France and Lesser-Antilles." Annales Geophysicae 1(4-5): 299-306.
	
Dorman, L. M. and e. al (1971). Caribbean Atlantic Geotraverse, NOAA.
	
Doser, D. I., et al. (2005). Historical earthquakes of the Puerto Rico–Virgin Islands region (1915–1963). Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 103–114.
	
Doser, D. I. and S. R. Vandusen (1996). "Source processes of large (M>=6.5) earthquakes of the southeastern Caribbean (1926-1960)." Pure and Applied Geophysics 146(1): 43-66.
	
Douglas, R. (1961). "Orbitolinas from Caribbean islands." Journal of Paleontology 35: 475-479.
	
Doull, M. E. (1983). Turbidite Sedimentation in the Puerto Rico Trench Abyssal Plain, Duke University: 124.
	
Douvillé, H. (1915). "Les couches a orbitoïdes de l'isthme de Panama (Orbitoides habitats of the Panama Isthmus)." Comptes Rendus Sommaires de la Societe Geologique de France 16: 129-131.
	
Dozy, J. J. (1949). "Some notes on the volcanoes of Guatemala." Zeitschr. für Vulkanologie 8: 47-67.
	
Drake (1989). Quaternary Geology and Tectonic Geomorphology of the Coastal Piedmont and Range, Puerto Quepos Area, Costa Rica. Albuquerque, NM, University of New Mexico: 183.
	
Draper, G. (1973). Geology of the Union Hill area, St. Thomas, Jamaica. Cambridge, 	England, Cambridge University: ?
	
Draper, G. (1974). Catalasites and 	fault breccias: A preliminary study. London, Imperial College: 58.
	
Draper, G. (1978). "Coaxial pure shear in Jamaican blueschists and deformation association with subduction." Nature 275: 735-736.
	
Draper, G. (1979). Tectonics of the regionally metamorphosed rocks of eastern Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies: 277.
	
Draper, G. (1983). "Geological setting and petrology of blueschists and associated rocks of Jamaica, West Indies." Geological Society of America Bulletin???: ???
	
Draper, G. (1985). "Geology and hydrocarbon prospects of Jamaica: discussion." American Assoc. of Petroleum Geologist Bulletin 69: 1028-1029.
	
Draper, G. (1985). "A revised tectonic model for the evolution of Jamaica." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica???(???): ???
	
Draper, G. (1986). "Blueschists and associated rocks in eastern Jamaica and their significance for Cretaceous plate-margin development in the northern Caribbean." Geological Society of America Bulletin 97: 48-60.
	
Draper, G. (1987). "Petrology of the metamorphic rocks of eastern Jamaica." Proceedings of a workshop on the status of Jamaican geology 342: 120-150.
	
Draper, G. (1987). Petrology of the metamorphic rocks of eastern Jamaica. Proceedings of a workshop on the status of Jamaican geology. R. Ahmad, Journal of the  Geolical Society of Jamaica. 342: 120-150.
	
Draper, G. (1987). "A revised tectonic model for the evolution of Jamaica." Proceedings of a workshop on the status of Jamaican geology 342: 151-169.
	
Draper, G. (1987). A revised tectonic model for the evolution of Jamaica. Proceedings of a workshop on the status of Jamaican geology. R. Ahmad, Journal of the  Geolical Society of Jamaica. 342: 151-169.
	
Draper, G. (1989). "Comparison of late Cretaceous-Paleogene age rocks of northern Hispaniola and southeastern Cuba: Implications of the tectonic evolution of the Greater Antilles." Primer Congreso Cubano de Geologia, Resumenes y Programa, La Habana: 211.
	
Draper, G. (1998). "Geological and Tectonic evolution of Jamaica." Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference: Articles, Field Guides & Abstracts, Contributions to Geology, U.W.I. Mona 3: 3-9.
	
Draper, G. (1998). Geological and tectonic evolution of Jamaica. Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference: Articles, Field Guides & Abstracts, U.W.I. Mona. 3: 3-9.
	
Draper, G. (2005). Transactions of the 16th Caribbean Geological Conference. 16th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Barbados, Caribbean Journal of Earth Science, Geological Society of Jamaica, University of West Indies, Mona, Kingston 7, Jamaica, W.I.
	
Draper, G. and J. A. Barros (1994). Cuba. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson, University of West Indies Publishers Association: 65-86.
	
Draper, G. and J. M. Bartel (1990). "Development of cleavage in the Cretaceous rocks of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and some tectonic implications." Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 22: A337.
	
Draper, G. and J. M. Bartel (1990). "A note on the relative timing of cleavage formation and magmatism in the Cretaceous rocks of St. Croix, U.S.V.I." Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conference. St. Croix: Miami Geological Society, Miami: 314-318.
	
Draper, G. and R. A. Bone (1981). "Denudation, thermal evolution and preservation of blueschists." Journal of Geology 89: 601-613.
	
Draper, G. and G. Dengo (1990). History of geological investigation in the Caribbean region. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 1-14.
	
Draper, G. and A. G. Fincham (1998). "Karst Geomorphology in Jamaica." Jamaica Underground: 23-28.
	
Draper, G. and A. G. Fincham (1998). Karst Geomorphology in Jamaica. Jamaica Underground. A. G. Fincham, University of the West Indies Press: 23-28.
	
Draper, G., et al. (1996). "Thrust emplacement of the Hispaniola peridotite belt: orogenic expression of the mid Cretaceous Caribbean arc polarity reversal?" Geology 24(12): 1143-1146.
	
Draper, G., et al. (1998). "Thrust deformation in the Maimon Belt and Los Ranchos Formations, central Hispaniola: evidence for Early Cretaceous ophiolite emplacement." Transactions, 14th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, July 1995: 215- 229.
	
Draper, G., et al. (1996). "Thrust emplacement of the Hispaniola peridotite belt: Orogenic expression of the mid-Cretaceous Caribbean arc polarity reversal?" Geology 24(12): 1143-1146.
	
Draper, G. and G. Gutierrez-Alonso (1997). "The structure of the Maimón belt in the island of Hispaniola and its geodynamic implications (La estructura del cinturón de Maimón en la isla de Hispaniola y sus implicaciones geodinámica)." Revista de la Sociedad de España 10(3-4): 79-97.
	
Draper, G., et al. (1976). "Low grade metamorphic belt in Jamaica and its tectonic implications." Geological Society of America Bulletin 87: 1283-1290.
	
Draper, G., et al. (1994). Geologic provinces of the Caribbean region. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 3-12.
	
Draper, G. and J. Lewis (1991). Metamorphic belts in Central Hispaniola. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 29-45.
	
Draper, G. and J. F. Lewis (1982). Petrology and structural development of the Duarte complex, central Dominican Republic:  A preliminary account and some some tectonic implications
Caribbean, Hispaniola, Dominican-Republic, tectonic, structure, petrology. Transactions of th Ninth Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, August 16-20, 1980. W. Snow, N. Gil, R. Llinas et al.: 29-45.
	
Draper, G. and J. F. Lewis, Eds. (1982). Petrology, deformation and tectonic significance of the Amina Schists. Caribbean Geological Conference, 9th, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic. Santo Domingo, ???
	
Draper, G. and J. F. Lewis (1982). Petrology, deformation and tectonic significance of the Amina Schists, north Dominican Republic. Transactions 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo, 1980: 53-64.
	
Draper, G. and J. F. Lewis (1989). "Petrology and structural development of the Duarte complex, Central Dominican Republic: A preliminary account and some tectonic implications." Transactions 10th Caribbean Geological Conference, Cartagena, Colombia, (Aug. 1983): 103-112.
	
Draper , G. and J. F. Lewis (1991). Geologic map of the central Dominican Republic. Geological and tectonic development of the North American-Caribbean plate boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis, Geological Society of America. 262: Plates 2a and b.
	
Draper , G. and J. F. Lewis (1991). Geologic map of the central Dominican Republic (1:150,000). Geological and tectonic development of the North American-Caribbean plate boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis, Geol. Society of America. 262.
	
Draper, G., et al. (1994). Hispaniola. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 129-150.
	
Draper, G. and F. Nagle (1989). "Geological setting and characteristics of blueschist and eclogite bearing melanges in northern Hispaniola." Transactions 11th Caribbean Conference, Barbados, July 1986: 33:31-33:39    
	
Draper, G. and F. Nagle (1991). Geology, structure and tectonic development of the Rio San Juan Complex, northern Dominican Republic. Geological and tectonic development of the North American-Caribbean plate boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis, Geological Society of America,. 262: 77-95.
	
Draper, G. and F. Nagle (1991). Geology, structure and tectonic development of the Rio San Juan complex, northern Dominican-Republic. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 77-91.
	
Draper, G. and G. Wadge (1998). "The geology of Jamaican caves." Jamaica Underground: 29-33.
	
Draper, G. and G. E. Yanni (1988). English/Spanish - Spanish/ English Dictionary of Geological Terms (Preliminary Edition) Occasional Papers - Dialogues series, Latin-American Caribbean Center, Florida International University: 97 
	
Draper, G. a. B., J.M. (1990). A note on the relative timing of cleavage formation and magmatism in the Cretaceous rocks of St. Croix, U.S.V.I. Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, Miami Geological Society: 314-318.
	
Drewes, H. (1986). "Evidence from physical geodesy for geodynamics in the Caribbean area." Tectonophysics 130: 49-59.
	
Drewes, H. (1986). Gravimetric investigations for monitoring Recent tectonics along the Caribbean - South American plate boundary in Venezuela. Symposium on Latin-American geosciences. H. Miller and U. Rosenfeld. Muenster, Federal Republic of Germany, Geologic and Palaeontological Institute. Teil I: Allgemeine, Angewandte, Regionale und Historische Geologie: 1381-1388.
	
Drewes, H., et al. (1995). "The CASA'93 GPS campaign for crustal deformation research along the South Caribbean plate boundary." Journal of Geodynamics 20(2): 129-144.
	
Driscoll, N. and K. Scanlon (1999). Marine geology and geophysics working group report. Seismic and tsunami hazard in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. U. ten Brink, W. Dillon, A. Frankel, C. Mueller and R. W. Rodriguez. San Juan, Puerto Rico, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
Driscoll, N. W. and J. B. Diebold (1998). "Deformation of the Caribbean region: One plate or two?" Geology 26(11): 1043-1046.
	
Driscoll, N. W. and J. B. Diebold (1999). Tectonic and stratigraphic development of the eastern Caribbean:  New Constraints from multichannel seismic data. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 591-626.
	
Drooger, C. W. (1953). "Miocene and Pleistocene foraminifera from Oranjestad, Aruba (Netherland Antilles)." Contributions to the Cushman Foundation for Foraminiferal Research 4(4): 116-147.
	
Drooger, C. W., and Kaasschieter, J. P. H. (1958). Foraminifera of the Orinoco-Trinidad-Paria shelf.
	
Droxler, A. W., et al. (1998). Caribbean constraints on circulation between Atlantic and Pacific Oceans over the past 40 million years. Tectonic Boundary Conditions for Climate Reconstructions. T. J. Crowley and K. C. Burke. New York, Oxford Univesity Press: 169-191.
	
Droxler, A. W., et al. (1989). Neogene tectonic disintegration of a carbonate Eocene-early Miocene megabank along the northern Nicaraguan Rise, Caribbean Sea. Proceedings, Geology of the Caribbean, Third Annual Meeting, St. Croix, U.S.V.I.
	
Drummond, M. S., et al. (1995). "Igneous petrogenesis and tectonic setting of plutonic and volcanic rocks of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica Panama, Central American arc." American Journal of Science 295(7): 875-919.
	
Dubinin, A. V. (1996). "Formation of Fe-Mn nodules in the Guatemalan Basin: Rare-earth element evidence." Geokhimiya(12): 1210-1219.
	
Dublan, L., et al. (1986). Informe final del levantamiento geológico y evaluación de los minerales útiles en escala 1: 50 000 del polígono CAME I Zona Central del Escambray  (Final Report of the Geologic Uplift of the Useful Minerals in scale 1:50000 of the CAME Polygon Central Zone of Escambray). La Habana, Fondo Geológico Nacional.
	
Dublan, L., et al. (1988). "Datos preliminares sobre la edad de las anfibolitas del cinturón de Mabujina de Cuba central según el método paleobotánico (Preliminary data on the age of the amphibolites of the Mabujina belt of central Cuba according to paleobotanic method)." Boletin de Geociencias 3(2): 48-56.
	
Dubreuih, P. (1982). Contribution to the Study of the Neogene Basin of the Central Plateau (Haiti):[Contribution a l'etude du bassin neogene du Plateau central (Haiti)]. Bordeaux, France, Universite de Bordeaux: 200.
	
Dubreuilh, P. (1982). Contribution to the Study of the Neogene Basin of the Central Plateau (Haiti) (Contribution à l'étude du bassin néogène du Plateau central (Haïti)). Bordeaux, France, Université de Bordeaux: 200.
	
Ducloz, C. (1958). Geology and Oil Prospects of Cuban Gulf Concessions, Las Villas Province, Cuba. ???, Texaco Pertoleum Co.
	
Ducloz, C. (1960). "Apuntes sobre el yeso del Valle de Yamuri, Matanzas (Notes on the gypsum of Valle de Yamuri, Matanzas)." Sociedad Cubana de Historia Natural, Memorias 28(1): 1-9.
	
Ducloz, C. (1963). "Geomorphologic study of the region of Matanzas, Cuba (Etude geomorphologique de la region de Matanzas, Cuba)." Arch. des Sciences, Soc. Phy. D., Hist. Nat. Geneva 16(2): 351-402.
	
Ducloz, C. (1989). "Transcurrent faulting: A major tectonic feature of north-central Cuba." Resúmenes y Programa, Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 102.
	
Ducloz, C. and C. C. McFall (1958). Geology of the Meneses Uplift, Las Villas, Cuba [with a recommendation to drill the Mayajigua anticline]. ???, Texaco Petroleum Co: 17.
	
Ducloz, C. and M. Vaugnat (1962). "A propos de l'age des serpenitites de Cuba (About the age of the serpentinites of Cuba)." Archives de Science Societe de Physique et Histoire Naturell de Geneve 15: 309-332.
	
Duenas, J. H. (1986). Geologia y palinologia de la Formacion Cienaga de Oro, region Caribe Colombiana (Geology and palynology of the Cienaga de Oro Formation, Colombian Caribbean region).
	
Duerto, L. (1998). Principales zonas triangulares de Venezuela. Escuela de Geologia, Minas y Geofisica. Caracas, Universidad Central de Venezuela: 176.
	
Duerto, L., et al. (2006). Deep structure of the Merida Andes and Sierra de Perija mountain fronts, Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. 3-D anatomy of a supergiant; Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. P. Mann and A. Escalona. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 90(4): 505-528.
	The Maracaibo Basin is a 50,000-km (super 2) (19,305-mi (super 2) ) topographic depression bounded to the east and south by the Merida Andes of Venezuela and to the west by the Sierra de Perija of Venezuela and Colombia. Both uplifted mountain blocks expose Paleozoic basement rocks and Mesozoic-Cenozoic carbonate and clastic rocks that were mainly folded and thrusted by regional shortening in the Paleogene and late Neogene. Using geologic maps, seismic reflection data, and wells from the steep mountain front areas, we test different structural models of how late Paleogene-Neogene convergence is accommodated along subsurface faults and folds at the mountain fronts. Seismic imaging of the deep (>5-km; >3.1 mi) structure of both Maracaibo mountain fronts shows basinward-dipping monoclines with stratal dips ranging from 20 degrees to overturned and an almost complete lack of faulting in the basin-edge monocline or in adjacent, horizontally bedded strata of the Maracaibo Basin. Seismic data reveal the presence of one or more triangle zones at depth along both the Merida Andes and Sierra de Perija that exhibit characteristic thrust-wedge geometries. The lower part of the wedge is defined by imbricate thrust faults dipping beneath the mountain block and involving the Paleozoic basement. The upper part of the wedge is defined by a basinward-dipping thrust associated with fault-propagation folds at the surface and an overlain basin-edge monocline. The creation of the steep to overturned dips of the monocline is attributed to the effects of 6-10 km (3.7-6.2 mi) of shortening along the lower zone of imbricated thrust faults. This 6-10 km (3.7-6.2 mi) of shortening, calculated from triangle zones of both the Sierra de Perija and Merida Andes, is significantly less than regional estimates from 12 to 60 km (7.4 to 37 mi) of shortening inferred by previous workers from regional balanced cross sections that assume low-angle thrust-type geometries. We propose that a pop-up style of deformation related to the inversion of Jurassic rift features may be a more realistic interpretation of the convergent fault systems that have controlled uplift of the Merida Andes and Sierra de Perija. Inversion of relatively steep, basement normal faults at the edges of and within both ranges may explain lesser amounts of observed shortening.

Dunbar, J. A. and D. S. Sawyer (1987). "Implications of continental crust extension for plate reconstruction: An example from the Gulf of Mexico." Tectonics 6: 739-755.
	
Duncan, D. S. (1997). The Geologic and Paleoceanographic Evolution of the Serranilla Basin, Northern Nicaragua Rise, Caribbean Sea. St. Petersburg, FL, University of South Florida: 213.
	
Duncan, D. S., et al. (1999). "Tectonic controls on carbonate sequence formation in an active strike-slip setting: Serranilla Basin, northern Nicaraguan Rise, western Caribbean Sea." Marine Geology 160: 355-382.
	
Duncan, R. A. and R. B. Hargraves (1984). Plate tectonic evolution of the Caribbean region in the mantle reference frame. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Socienty of America. 162: 81-93.
	
Duncan, R. A., et al. (1994). "The Caribbean Cretaceous Basalt Province:  An Oceanic LIP." EOS (Fall Meeting Supplement) 75(44): 594.
	
Duplan, L. (1975). Etude photogeologique de la region sud de la Republique d'Haiti (Photo-geologic Study of the Region South of the Republic of Haiti). New York, United Nations Mineral Development Project: 37.
	
Dupré, W. R. (1970). Geology of the Zambrano Quadrangle, Honduras, Central America. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 128.
	
Duque, C. H. (1991). Contributions to the geology of the Pacific and the Caribbean coastal areas of northwestern Colombia and South America. Department of Geological & Geophysical Sciences. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University: 144.
	
Duque-Caro, H. (1972). "Ciclos tectonicos y sedimenlarios en el norte de Colombia y sus relaciones con la paleoecologia (Tectonic and sedimentary cycles in the north of Colombia and their relations to paleoecology)." Boletin Geologico, INGEOMINAS, Bogota (Colombia) 19(3): 1-23.
	
Duque-Caro, H. (1979). Major structural elements and evolution of northwestern Colombia. Geological and Geophysical Investigations of Continental Margins. J. S. Watkins, L. Montadert and P. W. Dickerson. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 29: 329-351.
	
Duque-Caro, H. (1979). "Relaciones entre biostratigraphia y la cronostratigraphy den la llamado Geosinclinal de Bolibar (Relations between biostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy in the Bolibar Geosyncline)." Instito Nacional Invest. Geol-Mineras (Colombia) Bolitin Geologia, Bogota 19: 25-68.
	
Duque-Caro, H. (1980). "Geotectonica y evolucion de la region noroccidental de Colombia (Geotectonics and evolution of the northwestern region of Colombia)." ingeominas, Boletin Geologico (Bogota, Colombia) 23: 4-37?
	
Duque-Caro, H. (1984). "Estilo estructural, diapirismo y episodios de acrecimiento del Terreno Sinu-San Jacinto en el noroccidente de Colombia (Structural style, diapirism, and accretion episodes of the Sinu-San Jacinto Terrane in the northwest of Colombia)." Boletin Geologico, INGEOMINAS, Bogota (Colombia) 27(22).
	
Duque-Caro, H. (1984). Structural style, diapirism, and accretionary episodes of the Sinu-San Jacinto terrane, southwestern Caribbean borderland. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 303-316.
	
Duque-Caro, H., Ed. (1987). Transactions of the 10th Caribbean Geological Conference, Cartagena Colombia, 14-20 August1983, INGEOMINAS, Bogota.
	
Duque-Caro, H., Ed. (1987). Transactions of the 10th Caribbean Geological Conference, Cartagena, Colombia, August 14-20, 1983. Bogota, Colombia, INGEOMINAS.
	
Duque-Caro, H. (1990). "The Choco block in the northwestern corner of South America: Structural, tectonostratigraphic, and paleogeographic implications." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 3: 71-84.
	
Duque-Caro, H. (1990). "Neogene stratigraphy, paleoceanography, and paleobiogeography in northwest South America and the evolution of the Panama Seaway." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, and Palaeoecology 77: 203-234.
	
Duque-Caro, H. (1991). Contributions to the Geology of the Pacific and the Caribbean Coastal Areas of Northwestern Colombia and South America), Princeton University: 144.
	
Durahm, J. W. (1985). "Movement of Caribbean plate and its importance for biostratigraphy in the Caribbean." Geology 13: 123-135.
	
Dürr, F. and G. Stober (1956). "Sucesión normal de los Estratos de Metapán (Normal succession of Metapán strata)." Anales del Servicio Geológico Nacional de El Salvador, Boletín(2): 44-54.
	
Dusenbury, A. N. (1960). "The stratigraphy of the Cretaceous Temblador Group of the Eastern Venezuela Basin." Association of Venezuelan Geolgoist and Mineral Petrologists Bulletin 3(9): 246-257.
	
Duval, B., et al. (1995). "Giant fields of the 80s associated with a subduction in South America." Oil and Gas Journal July 17: 67-71.
	
Duval, B., et al. (1995). "More on giant oil fields of northern South America." Oil and Gas Journal July 24: 61-64.
	
Dvorov, V. I., et al. (1991). "Hydrogeochemical conditions of contemporary sedimentogenesis and initial diagenesis in the Caribbean-Mexican Basin." Lithology and Mineral Resources (USSR) 25(5): 421-434.
	
Dyer, B. L. and P. Cosgrave (1990). Penal/Barrackpore Field - West Indies, South Trinidad Basin, Trinidad. Structural Traps VII. E. A. Beaumont and N. H. Foster. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. VII: 139-157.
	
Dyer, B. L. and P. Cosgrove (1992). Penal/Barrackpore Field; West Indies, South Trinidad Basin, Trinidad. Structural Traps; VII. E. A. Beaumont and N. H. Foster. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 25: 139-157.
	
Earle, A. (1990). Landslides in the Rio Minho Watershed in Central Jamaica, University of the West Indies: ?
	
Ebeniro, J. O., et al. (1988). "Sedimentary and crustal structure of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico." Journal of Geophysical Research 93: 9075-9092.
	
Ebeniro, J. O. and P. O'Brien, Jr. (1984). Crustal Structure of the South Florida Bank Derived From Ocean Bottom sSeismometer Refraction Profiles, The University of Texas at Austin Institute for Geophysics: 86.
	
Eberle, W., et al. (1982). The geology of the Cordillera Septentrional (Dominican-Republic). Caribbean Geological Conference, 9th, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic. 2: 619-632.
	
Eberli, G. P., et al. (2002). The chronostratigraphic significance of seismic reflections along the Bahamas Transect. Carbonate margin development (Bahama Transect, ODP Leg 166). J. J. G. Reijmer. Amsterdam, Netherlands, Elsevier. 185: 1-17.
	Continuous cores drilled during the Bahamas Drilling Project (BDP) and the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 166 along a transect from the top of Great Bahama Bank to the basin in the Straits of Florida provide a unique data set to test the assumption in seismic stratigraphy that seismic reflections are time lines and, thus, have a chronostratigraphic significance. Seismic reflections that are identified as seismic sequence boundaries (SSBs) were dated by means of biostratigraphy in the five ODP sites and by a combination of biostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy and Sr isotope stratigraphy in the two BDP sites. The seismic reflection horizons are carried across a variety of facies belts from shallow-water carbonates over slope carbonates to drift deposits in the Straits of Florida. Within this system 17 SSBs were identified and dated. Despite the fact that the seismic reflections cross several facies belts, their ages remain remarkably constant. The average offset in all sites is 0.38 Myr. In no cases do the seismic reflections cut across time lines. The age differences are the combined result of the biostratigraphic sampling frequency, the spacing of marker species that required extrapolation of ages, and the resolution of the seismic data. In addition, uncertainties of age determination in the proximal sites where age-diagnostic fauna are rare add to the age differences between sites. Therefore, it can be concluded that the seismic reflections, which mark the SSBs along the Bahamas Transect, are time lines and can be used as stratigraphic markers. This finding implies that depositional surfaces are preferentially imaged by reflected seismic waves and that an impedance contrast exists across these surfaces. Facies successions across the sequence boundaries indicate that the sequence boundaries coincide with the change of deposition from times of high to low sea level. In the carbonate setting of Great Bahama Bank, sea-level changes produce changes in sediment composition, sedimentation rate and diagenesis from the platform top to the basin. The combination of these factors generates differences in sonic velocity and, thus, in impedance that cause the seismic reflection. The impedance contrasts decrease from the proximal to the distal sites, which is reflected in the seismic data by a decrease of the seismic amplitude in the basinal area.

Eberli, G. P. and R. N. Ginsburg (1987). "Segmentation and coalescence of Cenozoic carbonate platforms in northwestern Great Bahama Bank." Geology 15: 75-79.
	
Eberli, G. P. and R. N. Ginsburg (1989). Cenozoic progradation of northwestern Great Bahama Bank, a record of lateral platform growth and sea-level fluctuations. Controls on Carbonate Platform and Basin Development: Based on a Symposium Sponsored by the Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists. P. D. Crevello, J. L. Wilson, J. F. Sarg and J. F. Read. Tulsa, OK, Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists. 44: 339-351.
	
Echandi-Echeverría, E. (1981). Volcanic Units from the Northern Slope of the Río Virilla Basin. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 123.
	
Echavarria, F. A. (1985). "Algunas consideraciones sobre la estratigrafia de Loma Duveaux en San Cristobal (Some considerations on the stratigraphy of Loma Duveaux in San Cristobal)." Caribaea 1: 16-23.
	
Echevarría, B., et al. (1988). "Acerca de la composición de los sedimentos del Paleoceno-Eoceno Inferior al sur de la falla Pinar (About the composition of the sediments of the Paleocene-Lower Eocene to the south of Pinar fault)." Serie Geológica CIDP 4: 77-89.
	
Echevarria, B., et al. (1986). "Petrography and geochemistry of vulcanites in the region Guáimaro-Las Tunas (Cuba)." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(11): 27-35.
	
Echevarria, B., et al. (1986). "Preliminary data on the Cretaceous volcanic arc in the region Rio Jobabo - Ciudad Las Tunas." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(11): 37-48.
	
Echevarria, G. (1976). "The production of oil in Cuba." La Mineria en Cuba 2( 3): 73-75.
	
Echevarría, G. and M. Veliev (1967). "La perforación de los pozos profundos Frances 5 y Fragoso 1 (The perforation of deep wells Frances 5 and Fragoso 1)." Revista Tecnológica 1: 49-54.
	
Echevarria, H., et al. (1974). "New data on the crustal structure of western Cuba." International Geologic Review???: 59-61.
	
Echevarria-Rodriguez, G., et al. (1991). "Oil and gas exploration in Cuba." Journal of Petroleum Geology 14(3): 259-274.
	
Edgar, N. T. (1968). Seismic Refraction and Reflection in the Caribbean Sea. Department of Geological Sciences. New York, Columbia University: 170.
	
Edgar, N. T., et al. (1987). Tectonics panel report. Caribbean geological evolution (Report of a workshop to define Caribbean geological problems, needed investigations, and initiatives for ocean drilling). R. C. Speed, Joint Oceanographic Institutions: 34-54.
	
Edgar, N. T. and W. P. Dillon (1992). "Comment on "SeaMARC II mapping of transform faults in the Cayman Trough, Caribbean Sea" by E. Rosencrantz and P. Mann"." Geology 20: 382-384.
	
Edgar, N. T. and W. P. Dillon (1992). "SeaMarc II mapping of transform faults in the Cayman Trough, Caribbean Sea:  Comment." Geology 20(4): 382-383.
	
Edgar, N. T., et al. (1990). Structure and spreading history of the central Cayman Trough. Transactions of the Twelth Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, U.S.V.I, August 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper: 33-42.
	
Edgar, N. T., et al. (1991). GLORIA Sidescan-sonar Imagery and Geologic Interpretation of the central Cayman Trough, Northwestern Caribbean Sea, U.S. Geological Survey.
	
Edgar, N. T., et al. (1971). "Seismic refraction and reflection in Caribbean Sea." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 55(6): 833-870.
	
Edgar, N. T., et al. (1973). Sedimentary hiatuses in the Venezuelan Basin. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. N. T. Edgar, J. B. Saunders and et al. Washington D. C., U. S. Government Printing Office. 15: 1051-1062.
	
Edgar, N. T. and J. B. Saunders (1971). Deep sea drilling project - Leg 15.
	
Edgar, N. T., et al. (1973). Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. Washington, D. C., U.S. Government Printing Office.
	
Edgar, T. (1987). Site proposals; Cayman Trough, Venezuela Basin, Puerto Rico Trench. Caribbean geological evolution (Report of a workshop to define Caribbean geological problems, needed investigations, and initiatives for ocean drilling). R. C. Speed, Joint Oceanographic Institutions: 139-141.
	
Edgar, T. (1991). Structure and geologic development of the Cibao valley, northern Hispaniola. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 281-299.
	
Edgar, T., et al. (1988). Gloria survey of the Cayman Trough: A preliminary report. Transactions of the 11th Caribbean Geological Conference, Barbados: 31:31-31:38.
	
Edinger, E. N. (1991). Mass Extinction of Caribbean Corals at the Oligocene-Miocene Boundary:  Paleoecology, Paleoceanography, Paleobiogeography. Department of Geology. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, McMaster University: 263.
	
Edinger, E. N. and M. J. Risk (1994). "Oligocene Miocene extinction and geographic restriction of Caribbean corals - roles of turbidity, temperature, and nutrients." Palaios 9(6): 576-598.
	
Edwards, R., et al. (1987). "Precise timing of the last interglacial period from mass spectrometric determination of thorium-230 in corals." Science 236: 1547-1553.
	
Edwards, R. L. (1988). High Precision Thorium-230 Ages of Corals and the Timing of Sea Level Fluctuations in the Late Quaternary. California Institute of Technology, Department of Geologic and Planetary Science. Pasadena, CA: 352.
	
Edwards, R. L., et al. (1987). "U-238-U234-Th-230-Th-232 systematics and the precise measurement of time over the last 500,000 years." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 81: 175-192.
	
EEZ SCAN 85 Scientific Staff (1987). "Atlas of the US Exclusive Economic Zone, eastern Caribbean." US Geologic Survey Miscellaneous Investigation Series I-1864-B: 58.
	
EEZ SCAN 85 Scientific Staff (1987). Atlas of the US Exclusive Economic Zone, Gulf of Mexico and eastern Caribbean areas.
	
EEZ Scan Scientific Staff (1989). Atlas of the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, Gulf of Mexico and Eastern Caribbean Areas, U.S.Geologic Survey.
	
Ego, F. and M. Sébrier (1995). "Is the Cauca-Patia and Romeral fault system left or rightlateral?" Geophysical Research Letters 22(1): 33-36.
	
Ego, F., et al. (1993). "Quaternary state of stress in the northern Andes and the restraining bend model for the Ecuadorian Andes, (eds.), Second ISAG, 89-92
Oxford (UK)." Tectonophysics 259(1-3): 101-116.
	
Eguipko, O., et al. (1975). "Metamorphic zonation and other geological aspects of the Isle of Pines." La Mineria en Cuba 1(1): 4-10.
	
Eguipko, O. and M. Perez (1976). "Brief petrographic and petrochemical characteristics of the main types of magmatic rocks in the central part of the Sierra Maestra." Centr. Invest. Geol., M. M. G., Serie. Geol. 1: ?
	
Eguipko, O., et al. (1984). "Principales particularidades petroquimicas de los granitoides del eugeosinclinal cubano y sus formaciones (Principal petrochemical pecularities of granites from the Cuban eugeosyncline and their formation)." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(9): 63-73.
	
Einlayson, D. M., et al. (1977). "Crxxustal structures in the region of the Papuan ultramafic belt." Physics of Earth and Planetary Interiors 14: 13-29.
	
Electroconsult and Direccíon General de Minería (1983). Estudio de Prefactibilidad del Area Geotermica Yayas-Constanza (Prefactibility Study of theYayas-Constanza  Geothermal Area), Direccíon General de Minería, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic: 11.
	
Elias Herrera, M. and F. OrtegaGutierrez (1998). "The Early Cretaceous Arperos oceanic basin (western Mexico). Geochemical evidence for an aseismic ridge formed near a spreading center - Comment." Tectonophysics 292 (3-4): 321-326.
	
Elias Herrera, M., et al. (2000). "Geologic and geochronologic data from the Guerrero terrane in the Tejupilco area, southern Mexico: New constraints on its tectonic interpretation." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13(4-5): 355-375.
	
EliasHerrera, M. and F. OrtegaGutierrez (2002). "Caltepec fault zone: An Early Permian dextral transpressional boundary between the Proterozoic Oaxacan and Paleozoic Acatlan complexes, southern Mexico, and regional tectonic implications - art. no. 1013." Tectonics 21(3): 1013.
	
Elias-Herrera, M., et al. (2007). The Caltepec fault zone; exposed roots of a long-lived tectonic boundary between two continental terranes of southern Mexico. Geology of Mexico; celebrating the centenary of the Geological Society of Mexico. S. A. Alaniz-Alvarez and A. F. Nieto-Samaniego. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 422: 301-316.
	The Caltepec shear zone is a dextral transpressional tectonic boundary between the Oaxacan and Acatlan Complexes, which are crystalline basements of the Zapoteco and Mixteco terranes in southern Mexico, respectively. The terrane boundary (2-6 km wide) reveals protracted and polyphase tectonic activity from at least Early Permian to the present. The major tectonothermal event in the Caltepec fault zone was related to the oblique collision of the metamorphic complexes during the amalgamation of Pangea. An anatectic leucosome and the resulting syntectonic granite (Cozahuico Granite) in the fault zone yielded U-Pb zircon ages of 275.6+ or -1.0 Ma and 270.4+ or -2.6 Ma, respectively. The initial (super 87) Sr/ (super 86) Sr ratios (0.70435-0.70686) and Sm-Nd model ages (T (sub DM) ) (1.0-1.6 Ga) for the Cozahuico Granite and leucosome indicate a magmatic mixture that originated from melted Proterozoic crust and a component of depleted mantle. The Leonardian age of the cover (Matzitzi Formation) and a (super 40) Ar/ (super 39) Ar cooling age (muscovite) of 268.59+ or -1.27 Ma for mylonitic mica schist at the base of the thrust imply high cooling rates ( approximately 180 degrees C/Ma) and uplift during the Permian. The adjacent sedimentological record indicates intense tectonic reactivation during Early Cretaceous, Paleogene, and Neogene along the long-lived Caltepec fault zone, alternating with periods of relative tectonic quiescence during Triassic, Jurassic, and Mid-Cretaceous times. The trend of the Caltepec fault zone parallel to the Oaxaca fault, 50 km to the east, is interpreted as part of a synchronous and dynamically coupled tectonic system that has been releasing tectonic stresses associated with the rupture of Pangea and the evolution of the Pacific margin of southern Mexico from Jurassic to Holocene times.

Elizondo-Méndez, J. A. (1979). Preliminary Hydrogeological Study of the Río Navarro Basin, Cartago Province. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 111.
	
Ellis, G. M. (1980). Aportes geológicos de la exploración petrolera en la República Dominicana (Geologic contributions to the petroleum exploration in the Dominican-Republic). Transactions, Caribbean Geological Conference, 9th, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic. 1: 333-338.
	
Elming, S. A. and T. Rasmussen (1997). "Results of magnetotelluric and gravimetric measurements in western Nicaragua, central America." Geophysical Journal International 128(3): 647-658.
	
Elming, S.-A., et al. (2001). "A palaeomagnetic study and age determinations of Tertiary rocks in Nicaragua, Central America." Geophysical Journal International 147: 294-309.
	
Elming, S.-A., et al. (2001). "A paleomagnetic study and age determinations of Tertiary rocks in Nicaragua, Central America."  147(2): 294-309.
	
Elthon, D., et al. (1995). "Compositional variations of basaltic glasses from the Mid-Cayman Rise spreading center." Journal of Geophysical Research 100: 12497-12512.
	
Elthon, D., et al. (1995). "Compositional variations of basaltic glasses from the Mid-Cayman Rise spreading center." Journal  of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 100(B7): 12497-12512.
	
Elthon, D., et al. (1996). "Compositional variations of basaltic glasses from the Mid-Cayman Rise spreading center (vol 100, pg 12497, 1995)." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 101(B8): 17577-17579.
	
Elvir, A. R. (1974). Mapa Geológico de la República de Honduras (Geologic Map of the Republic of Honduras), Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Elvir, A. R. (1976). Sintesis de la geología de Honduras (Synthesis of the geology of Honduras). Informe y trabajos técnicos presentados en la IV Reunión de Geólogos de América Central. V: 1-4.
	
Emery, K. O. and J. Milliman (1980?). "Shallow water limestones from slope off Grand Cayman Island." Journal of Geology?: ?
	
Emery, K. O. and J. D. Milliman (1980). "Shallow water limestones from slopes of Grand Cayman Island." Journal of Geology 88: 483-488.
	
Emmet, P. A. (1983). Geology of the Agalteca Quadrangle, Honduras, Central America. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 201.
	
Emmet, P. A. (1986). "Major structures and base metal potential of central and western Honduras clarified by radar analysis and new geologic compilation." Geological Society of America Abstracts 18: 594.
	
Emmet, P. A. and W. S. Logan (1983). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, Agalteca sheet (Geologic Map of Honduras, Agalteca sheet), Instituto Geográfico.
	
Empresa Colombiana de Petroleos (1983). Sedimentology and Depositional Systems of Las Monas Area, Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia, Colombian Cities Service Petroleum Company: ?
	
Empresa Colombiana de Petroleos (1984). Mapa Geologico, Area Infantas-Lisama, Primer Congreso Colombiano de Petroleo.
	
Empresa Nacional Adaro de Investigaciones Mineras (1971). Informe sobre la Campania de Sondeos en la Concesion area "Yupo", Jarabacoa (Report on the Sondeos Campania in the "Yupo" Concession area). Madrid, Enadim, SA.
	
Empresa Nacional Adaro de Investigaciones Mineras (1975). Trabajos preliminares de investigacion Minera en el area de Monte Plate y Sabana Grande de Poya (Preliminary Mining Investigation Work  in the Area of Monte Plate and Sabana Grande de Poya). Madrid, Enadim, SA.
	
Empresa Nacional Adaro de Investigaciones Mineras (1977). Estudio de prefactibilidad sobre el yacimiento "Yupo," Jarabacoa Republica Dominica (Prefactibility Study on the "Yupo" Deposit, Jarabacoa, Dominican Republic). Madrid, Enadim, SA.
	
Engels, B. (1964). "Geologische problematik und structuranalyse Nikaraguas." Geologische Rundschau 54: 758-795.
	
Epp, D., et al. (1970). "Heat flow in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico." Journal of Geophysical Research 75(29): 5155-5169.
	
Eppler, D., et al. (1987). Geology of the Azacualpa geothermal site, Departamento de Comayagua, Honduras, Central America.
	
Eppler, D., et al. (1986). Reconnaissance evaluation of Honduran geothermal sites, Los Alamos National Laboratory.
	
Erbacher, J., et al. (2004). "Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program; Demerara Rise; equatorial Cretaceous and Paleogene paleoceanographic transect, western Atlantic; covering Leg 207 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution." Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Part A: Initial Reports 207: 89.
	A principal objective of Leg 207 was to recover relatively expanded, shallowly buried Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments from Demerara Rise off Suriname, South America, that could be used for paleoceanographic study of the tropical Atlantic. This period of the Earth's history involved episodes of ocean anoxia, rapid climate change, mass extinction, and opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Gateway. Five sites were drilled in a depth transect from 3200 to 1900 meters below sea level (mbsl) (modern water depth), which resulted in recovery of multiple sequences of Cenomanian-Turonian black shales, Campanian-Maastrichtian chalk, and Paleocene, lower Eocene, and middle Eocene chalk. In aggregate, the recovered sections form a continuous record of tropical sedimentation from the late early Cenomanian ( approximately 98 Ma) to the Santonian ( approximately 83.5 Ma) and from the late Campanian ( approximately 76 Ma) to the late middle Eocene ( approximately 38 Ma). The oldest sedimentary rocks recovered during Leg 207 are lower and middle Albian claystones (Site 1258) and the youngest are Pliocene-Pleistocene clay-rich nannofossil oozes (Site 1261). In total, approximately 650 m of black shales were recovered. Critical intervals recovered include multiple copies of oceanic anoxic events (OAEs) 2 and 3. OAEs result from major shifts in ocean circulation patterns and represent significant perturbations in the global carbon cycle, with massive deposition of organic carbon in marine environments. They are hypothesized to have played a major role in the evolution of Earth's climatic and biotic history. The entire sequence of black shale sediments has a cyclical overprint of organic matter-rich black shale alternating with laminated foraminiferal packstone and occasional glauconitic bioturbated intervals. These alternations reflect varying levels of bottom water dysoxia and surface water productivity and may show Milankovitch periodicities. Interstitial water chemical analyses show that approximately 90 m.y. after deposition of the black shales these sediments continue to act as a bioreactor that dominates organic matter degradation via sulfate reduction and methanogenesis. The other prominent feature seen in the Leg 207 pore water is the presence of a brine at three sites characterized by chloride concentrations >60% higher than standard seawater. Data suggest that the shales act as an aquifer for the brines at these sites. Six copies of the Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary were recovered from three sites. Each of these cores contains a 1.7- to 1.9-cm-thick graded spherule ejecta layer, presumably resulting from fallout of the meteorite impact and representing the first discrete ejecta layer found on the South American craton. The interval is accompanied by the disappearance of many species of microfossils and a bloom in new species following the event. Strong sediment physical property contrasts around the K/T boundary make this event a prominent reflection horizon in seismic profile that is correlated from site to site and throughout the study area. The Paleocene/Eocene (P/E) boundary was recovered at all five sites, with 10 cores spanning the boundary interval. The P/E boundary was a period of significant and rapid global warming (5 degrees -7 degrees at the poles), mass extinction in oceanic microorganisms, and widespread shoaling of the carbonate compensation depth. The entire episode of global warming is estimated to have lasted approximately 84 k.y., whereas noticeably light 13C in marine carbonates persisted for approximately 220 k.y. A dark green clay-rich bed that is in sharp contact with underlying chalk represents the P/E boundary at all the sites. Site 1260 has distinct lamination from just below to approximately 10 cm above the boundary. Magnetic susceptibility measurements suggest that the clay-rich part of the boundary sequence ranges from 1 to 2 m thick. All sites display pronounced cyclicity in physical property measurements and sediment color. The pervasive cyclicity in physical property records offers the possibility not only of refining the chronology around critical intervals but also crosschecking results between sites and understanding past climate forcing mechanisms.

Erdlac, R. J., Jr. and T. H. Anderson (1982). "The Chixoy-Polochic fault and its associated fractures in western Guatemala." Geological Society of America Bulletin 93: 57-67.
	
Erickson, A. J., et al. (1972). "Heat flow and continuous seismic profiles in the Cayman Trough and Yucatan Basin." Geological Society of America Bulletin 83: 1241-1260.
	
Erickson, S. N. and R. D. Jarrard (1999). "Porosity-formation factor and porosity-velocity relationships in Barbados prism." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 104(B7): 15391-15407.
	
Erikson, J. (1992). Northeastern Venezuela's Jurassic through Eocene passive margin, Hispaniola's Neogene Cibao Basin and their histories and causes of evolution. Dartmouth, New Hampshire, Dartmouth College.
	
Erikson, J. P. (1994). A Lower Cretaceous shelf and delta in the eastern Venezuela Basin. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 174-189.
	
Erikson, J. P. and J. L. Pindell (1993). "Analysis of subsidence in northeastern Venezuela as a discriminator of tectonic models for northern South America." Geology 21: 945-948.
	
Erikson, J. P. and J. L. Pindell (1998). Cretaceous through Eocene sedimentation and paleogeography of a passive margin in northeastern Venezuela. Paleogeographic Evolution and Non-glacial Eustacy: North America. J. L. Pindell and C. Drake. Tulsa OK, Society for Sedimentary Geology. 58: 217-259.
	
Erikson, J. P. and J. L. pindell (1998). Sequence stratigraphy and relative sea-level history of the Cretaceous to Eocene passive margin of northeastern Venezuela and the possible tectonic and eustatic causes of stratigraphic development. Paleogeographic Evolution and Non-glacial Eustacy: North America. J. L. Pindell and C. Drake. Tulsa OK, Society for Sedimentary Geology. 58: 261-281.
	
Erikson, J. P. and J. L. Pindell (in press). Cretaceous-Eocene passive margin relative sea level history, sequence stratigraphy, and the tectonic eustatic causes of stratigraphic development in northeastern Venezuela,, SEPM.
	
Erikson, J. P., et al. (1998). "Neogene sedimentation and tectonics in the Cibao basin and northern Hispaniola: An example of basin evolution near a strike-slip-dominated plate boundary." Journal of Geology 106(4): 473-494.
	
Erikson, J. P., et al. (1990). "Mid-Eocene-early Oligocene sinistral transcurrent faulting in Puerto Rico associated with formation of the northern Caribbean Plate boundary zone." Journal of Geology 98(3): 365-384.
	
Erlich, R. N., and S. F. Barrett, 1994, Petroleum geology of the eastern Venezuela fold belts: AAPG Memoir 55, p. 341-362. (Erlich, R. N., and S. F. Barrett, 1994, Petroleum geology of the eastern Venezuela fold belts: AAPG Memoir 55, p. 341-362.). "Erlich, R. N., and S. F. Barrett, 1994, Petroleum geology of the eastern Venezuela fold belts: AAPG Memoir 55, p. 341-362." Erlich, R. N. (Amoco Production Company, Houston, TX, United States), Barrett, S. F., Petroleum geology of the eastern Venezuela foreland basinMacqueen, Roger W. (editor) (Geological Survey of Canada, Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology, Calgary, AB, Canada), Leckie, Dale A. (editor), Foreland basins and fold belts, AAPG Memoir, 55, p. 341-362, sects., strat. cols., sketch maps, 59 refs, 1992. ISBN: 0-89181-334-9.
	
Erlich, R. N., et al. (1996). "Palaeoceanography of organic-rich rocks of the Loma Chumico Formation of Costa Rica, Late Cretaceous, eastern Pacific." Sedimentology 43(4): 691-718.
	
Erlich, R. N. and S. F. Barrett (1990). "Cenozoic plate tectonic history of the northern Venezuela-Trinidad area." Tectonics 9: 161-184.
	
Erlich, R. N. and S. F. Barrett (1992). Petroleum geology of the eastern Venezuela foreland basin. Foreland basins and fold belts. R. W. MacQueen and D. A. Leckie. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 55: 341-362.
	
Erlich, R. N., et al. (1993). "Biostratigraphy, depositional environments, and diagenesis of the Tamana Formation, Trinidad:  A tectonic marker horizon." Sedimentology 40(4): 743-768.
	
Erlich, R. N., et al. (1993). "Biostratigraphy, depostional environments, and diagenesis of the Tamana Formation, Trinidad:  A tectonic marker horizon." Sedimentology 40: 743-768.
	
Erlich, R. N., et al. (2000). "Birth and death of the Late Cretaceous ''La Luna Sea'', and origin of the Tres Esquinas phosphorites." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13(1-2): 21-45.
	
Escalante, G. (1990). The geology of southern Central America and western Colombia. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 201-230.
	
Escalona, A. (2003). Regional tectonics, sequence stratigraphy and reservoir properties of Eocene clastic sedimentation, Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, University of Texas at Austin.
	
Escalona, A. (2006). Petrophysical and seismic properties of lower Eocene clastic rocks in the central Maracaibo Basin. 3-D anatomy of a supergiant; Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. P. Mann and A. Escalona. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 90(4): 679-696.
	High-resolution, well-log cross sections are used to map the continuity of hydrocarbon-bearing sandstone reservoirs in the Centro Lago fields, central Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. Because most sandstone reservoirs are below the limit of seismic resolution, reservoir mapping relies on detailed well-log correlations. Seismic data are used mainly to define the structural framework. A feasibility analysis based on the correlation of seismic data and petrophysical properties of Eocene clastic rocks was conducted to demonstrate that lithology and fluid content can be differentiated by acoustic impedance known from well-log data. However, low vertical resolution of the three-dimensional seismic data made available for this study (25 Hz dominant frequency) is not adequate to constrain the lateral and vertical continuity of the Eocene reservoirs. The main sandstone reservoirs in lower Eocene clastic rocks of the Centro Lago fields are found in distributary channels and tidal sand-bar facies. These reservoirs provide good-quality fluid-flow units. Channel complexes and sand bars are concentrated along the crest of a north-northeast-trending anticline bounded by parallel left-lateral strike-slip faults. Reservoirs are generally compartmentalized by transverse northwest-southeast-striking faults that intersect the main anticlinal axis. Detailed high-resolution well-log cross sections and mapping, integrated with the structural framework interpreted from the seismic data, indicate the presence of untested oil plays in the Centro Lago fields. These new plays are located along the flanks of the main anticline and are found in Eocene tidal bars in the central and northern areas of the Centro Lago fields.

Escalona, A. and P. Mann (2003). Paleogene depocenter along the NE margin of the Maracaibo Basin: Structure along an exhumed Eocene age lateral ramp fault in western Venezuela. AAPG Annual Meeting Expanded Abstracts, Salt Lake city, The American Association of Petroleum Geologists.
	
Escalona, A. and P. Mann (2003). "Three-dimensional structural architecture and evolution of the Eocene pull-apart basin, central Maracaibo basin, Venezuela." Marine and Petroleum Geology 20(2): 141-161.
	
Escalona, A. and P. Mann (2006). An overview of the petroleum system of Maracaibo Basin. 3-D anatomy of a supergiant; Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. P. Mann and A. Escalona. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 90(4): 657-678.
	The geologically complex Maracaibo Basin in northwestern Venezuela is one of the most prolific hydrocarbon basins in the world. Having a basinal area of 50,000 km (super 2) (19,300 mi (super 2) ), the basin has produced more than 30 billion bbl of oil, with estimated recoverable oil reserves of more than 44 billion bbl. The central elements of the petroleum system of the basin include (1) a world-class source rock (Upper Cretaceous La Luna Formation), deposited on a shelf-to-slope environment under anoxic conditions and modified by intermittent oxygenated periods and tectonic events; (2) high-quality clastic reservoir rocks deposited in Eocene and Miocene fluviodeltaic settings; (3) two main periods of rapid tectonic subsidence responsible for two pulses of voluminous hydrocarbon generation, first, during Paleogene Caribbean-South American oblique plate collision and, second, during the Neogene uplift of the Sierra de Perija-Merida Andes; and (4) lateral and vertical migration of oil along strike-slip, normal, and inverted faults, as well as a regional unconformity of late Eocene-Oligocene age. The maturation, migration, and trapping of hydrocarbons were closely controlled by the tectonic evolution of the Maracaibo Basin. During the Paleogene, the development of a foredeep along the northeastern margin of the basin and the strike-slip reactivation of the rift-related Jurassic faults on the Maracaibo platform controlled the early structural setting of the source and reservoir rocks. Hydrocarbons migrated updip from source rocks beneath the north-northeastern margin of the basin along north-south strike-slip faults and into overlying Eocene clastic reservoirs in the south-central parts of the basin. The second period of the Maracaibo Basin petroleum system developed during subaerial exposure of most of the Maracaibo Basin during Oligocene-Miocene uplift of the adjacent Sierra de Perija and Merida Andes. Uplift of mountain ranges surrounding the basin folded and depressed the interior of the basin to form the extensive Maracaibo syncline. Because of the formation of the Maracaibo syncline, oil generation began in the central and southern parts of the synclinal basin and migrated northward. Hydrocarbons migrated up the flanks of the Maracaibo syncline along reactivated strike-slip faults and into Miocene rocks adjacent to the uplifted mountain ranges. Escaping oil has formed numerous surface seeps along the edges of the Maracaibo Basin.

Escalona, A. and P. Mann (2006). Sequence-stratigraphic analysis of Eocene clastic foreland basin deposits in central Lake Maracaibo using high-resolution well correlation and 3-D seismic data. 3-D anatomy of a supergiant; Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. P. Mann and A. Escalona. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 90(4): 581-623.
	Eocene clastic rocks of the Maracaibo Basin were deposited in an asymmetrical foreland basin formed during the oblique Paleogene collision between the Caribbean and South American plates. In this study, we use more than 300 wells and 2000 km (super 2) (772 mi (super 2) ) of seismic data in the central Maracaibo Basin to produce a detailed sequence-stratigraphic interpretation of the Eocene Maracaibo foreland basin. The base of the Eocene stratigraphic succession in the central Maracaibo area is characterized by an approximately 250-m (820-ft)-thick, aggradational succession of fluviodeltaic sandstone overlain by an approximately 600-m (1968-ft)-thick retrogradational succession of shallow-marine shale and sandstone containing minor progradational units. The upper part of the foreland basin sequence is marked by an approximately 100-m (328-ft)-thick aggradational succession of fluviodeltaic sandstone. In the approximately 1000-m (3280-ft)-thick Eocene section, we interpreted 17 parasequence sets, 6 genetic sequences, and 1 depositional sequence. Only one classic sequence boundary was interpreted within the Eocene section that marks the boundary between the retrogradational shallow-marine section and the overlying aggradational fluviodeltaic succession. Based on the stratigraphic architecture and thickening trends of several of the parasequence sets, we conclude that the main source of clastic sedimentation was located on the South America craton south of the Maracaibo Basin, instead of along the thrusted, north-northeastern margin of the basin as proposed by previous workers. A lack of recognition of classic sequence boundaries suggests that Eocene clastic rocks of the central Maracaibo foreland basin were not subaerially exposed during most of the Eocene, and that their stratigraphic architecture was controlled by tectonic subsidence related to thrusting along the northeastern edge of the foreland basin. Eustasy was not an important control on the stratigraphic evolution of the foreland basin until its middle Eocene aggradational period that marked the end of foreland basin subsidence. Well logs and three-dimensional seismic data show that depositional environments on the Eocene delta plain and shelf of the central Maracaibo foreland basin were dominated by fluvial and tidal processes that are similar to modern depositional processes of the Orinoco delta in eastern Venezuela.

Escalona, A. and P. Mann (2006). Tectonic controls of the right-lateral Burro Negro tear fault on Paleogene structure and stratigraphy, northeastern Maracaibo Basin. 3-D anatomy of a supergiant; Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. P. Mann and A. Escalona. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 90(4): 479-504.
	The northeastern Maracaibo Basin in western Venezuela was deformed by Paleogene thrusting and an associated tear fault (Burro Negro right-lateral strike-slip fault zone), related to Paleogene oblique collision between the Caribbean and South American plates. Two different tectonic models have been previously proposed for the thick Paleogene depocenter located along the northeastern margin of the Maracaibo Basin. The first model proposes that the depocenter is a foreland basin controlled by southwestward-directed overthrusting during a late Paleocene-middle Eocene oblique collision between the Caribbean and South American plates. The second model, supported by data presented in this study, proposes that the asymmetric Paleogene Maracaibo sedimentary wedge was controlled by strike-slip displacement along a right-lateral tear fault, separating southeast-directed thrust sheets to the east (Lara nappes) from a more stable platform area to the west (Maracaibo Basin). Regional seismic lines recorded to 5 s two-way traveltime reveal the structure of the asymmetric Paleogene depocenter in the northeastern part of the Maracaibo Basin. The approximately 100-km (62-mi)-long Burro Negro fault is a right-lateral strike-slip fault separating less deformed, inner- to outer-shelf rocks of the western Maracaibo Basin from highly deformed, deep-marine rocks of the eastern Maracaibo Basin. Seismic lines northeast of the Burro Negro fault zone show elongate, subsurface basins bounded by partially inverted reverse and strike-slip faults filled with about 3 km (1.8 mi) of Oligocene and Miocene clastic marine sedimentary rocks. Structural highs of Eocene rocks are characterized at depth on seismic reflection lines by chaotic seismic reflections that underlie the more coherently stratified Oligocene and Miocene subbasins. We interpret these structural highs as steeply dipping fault zones and shale diapirs activated during Eocene-Oligocene oblique plate convergence. The geology and overall structural configuration of the northeastern Maracaibo Basin and the Burro Negro fault zone support its origin as a right-lateral tear fault. In our model, the Burro Negro fault zone accommodated southeastward migration of the thrust front in the deep-water area east of the fault in the present-day Falcon region. The Paleogene clastic wedge of the Maracaibo Basin exhibits many common features of a classic foreland basin, including onlap onto an arch or forebulge located near the center of the present-day Lake Maracaibo. This paleogeographic coincidence of the Burro Negro fault zone and the Maracaibo shelf edge suggests that the paleotrend of the South American passive margin prior to collision was serrated in map view. West-to-east migration of the Caribbean-South America oblique collision formed progressively younger, parallel tear faults to the east of the Maracaibo Basin that may have formed by the same tectonic process as the Burro Negro fault zone.

Escalona, A. a. M., C. (1998). "3D characterization of the upper member C2X, east flank of the north dome, Centro Lago field, Lake Maracaibo." The Leading Edge 17(12): 1748-1752.
	
Escamilla, J. H., et al. (1994). Upper Cretaceous sequence stratigraphy in the subsurface of Barinas. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 29-39.
	
Escuder Viruete, J., et al. (2007). "Magmatic relationships and ages between adakites, magnesian andesites and Nb-enriched basalt-andesites from Hispaniola: Record of a major change in the Caribbean island arc magma sources." Lithos 99(3-4): 151-177.
	Located in the Cordillera Central of the Dominican Republic, the Late Cretaceous Tireo Fm (TF) records a major change of the magma sources in the previous termCaribbeannext term island arc. It comprises a > 3 km thick sequence of arc-related volcanic and volcano-sedimentary rocks with variable geochemical characteristics. Combined detailed mapping, stratigraphy, geochemistry and U–Pb/Ar–Ar geochronology show that the volcanic rocks of the Tireo Fm include two main volcanic sequences. The lower volcanic sequence is dominated by monotonous submarine vitric–lithic tuffs and volcanic breccias of andesite to basaltic andesite, with minor interbedded flows of basalts and andesites. Fossil and (U–Pb and 40Ar–39Ar) geochronological data show that arc magmatism in the lower sequence began to accumulate before not, vert, similar 90 Ma, from the Aptian to Turonian. These rocks constitute an island arc tholeiitic suite, derived from melting by fluxing of a mantle wedge with subduction-related hydrous fluids. The upper volcanic sequence is characterized by a spatial and temporal association of adakites, high-Mg andesites, and Nb-enriched basalts, which collectivelly define a shift in the composition of the subduction-related erupted lavas. A dacitic to rhyolitic explosive volcanism with subaerial and episodic aerial eruptions, and sub-volcanic emplacements of domes, characterize mainly this stratigraphic interval. The onset of this volcanism took place at Turonian–Coniacian boundary and continued in the Santonian to Lower Campanian, with minor events in the Late Campanian. Adakites represent melts of the subducting slab, magnesian andesites the product of hybridization of adakite liquids with mantle peridotite, and Nb-enriched basalts melts of the residue from hybridization. We propose a model of oblique ridge subduction at not, vert, similar 90 Ma and possibly subsequent slab window formation, as principal cause of magmatic variations recorded in the previous termCaribbeannext term island arc, above a southwestern-dipping subduction zone.

Escuder-Viruete, J., et al. (2007 ). "Plume mantle source heterogeneity through time: Insights from the Duarte Complex, Hispaniola, northeastern Caribbean." Journal of Geophysical Research 112(B04203).
	Located in the Cordillera Central of Hispaniola, the Duarte Complex offers an opportunity to study an on-land fragment of the Caribbean-Colombian oceanic plateau. Geochemical, Sr-Nd isotope, and 40Ar-39Ar radiometric age data combined with detailed mapping have shown that the Duarte Complex includes two lithostratigraphic units, composed of four geochemical groups of metavolcanic rocks: Group Ia, low-Ti high-Mg basalts, and group Ib, high-Ti picrites and primitive high-Mg basalts, occur interlayered in the lowermost levels of the lower unit; group II, light rare earth element (LREE)-enriched picrites, ferropicrites and high-Mg basalts, forms the main lava sequence of the lower unit; and group III, LREE-enriched Fe-Ti basalts, is present exclusively in the upper unit. Nd isotope and incompatible trace element patterns are diverse in the Duarte Complex metavolcanics and are consistent with mantle sources related to a heterogeneous plume. Mantle melt modeling suggests that an early, extensive melting (10–20%) of shallow mantle resulted in the formation of relatively depleted group I and II magmas, whereas the late, more enriched group III magmas were the product of deeper, low-degree (<3%) melting of a heterogeneous plume. Therefore plume mantle sources were more enriched and deeper through time. Foliated amphibolites of the Duarte Complex yield 40Ar-39Ar hornblende plateau ages of 93.9 ± 1.4 and 95.8 ± 1.9 Ma (Cenomanian, 99.6–93.5 Ma) that demonstrate an older age of the protholiths, probably Albian (>96 Ma). Hence an Early Cretaceous phase of the Caribbean-Colombian oceanic plateau construction is recorded in Hispaniola.

Esker, D., et al. (1998). "The structural and sedimentological controls on the reoccupation of quaternary incised valleys, Belize southern lagoon." AAPG Bull Amer Assn Petrol G 82(11): 2075-2109.
	
Esker, G. C., III (1969). "Planktonic foraminifera from St. Ann's Great River Valley, Jamaica." Micropaleontology 15: 210-220.
	
Espaillat, J., et al. (1990). "Petrography and geochemistry of mafic rocks of the Peralvillo Formation in the Sabana Potrero area, central Dominican Republic." Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Virgin Islands: 190-199.
	
Espinosa, A. F., Ed. (1976). The Guatemalan earthquake of February 4, 1976, a preliminary report. Professional Paper, U.S. Geological Survey.
	
Espinosa, S. (1996). "Probabilistic macroseismic hazard assessment for Nicaragua (preliminary results)." Natural Hazards 13(2): 179-202.
	
Espinosa. A., E. A. (1984). The Quaternary History of the Unare Shelf South of Cariaco Trench, Venezuela. Boston, Boston College: 71.
	
Esso Exploration and Production Panama Inc. (1971). Mapa de Ubicacion de Rutas y Muestras de Rocas (Location Map of Routes and Rock Samples). Panama, Esso Exploration and Production Panama, Inc.
	
Estes, R. and A. Baez (1985). Herpetofaunas of northern South America during the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic:  Evidence for interchange? The Great American Biotic Interchange. F. G. Stehli and S. D. Webb. New York-London, Plenum Press. 139-197.
	
Estoque, M. A., et al. (1985). "Effects of El Niño on Panama Rainfall." Geofisica International 24(3): 355-381.
	
Estrada del Llano, A. (1986). Geologic-Geotechnical Study of the San Blas Landslip, Río Reventado, Cartago Province, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica.
	
Estrada, J. J. (1995). Paleomagnetism and Accretion Events in the Northern Andes. Binghamton, New York, State University of New York at Binghamton: 172.
	
Estrada-Barrios, F. J. (1985). Geologic-geotechnical Study for the Construction of the Santa Rosa Dam, Tilarán, Guanacaste Province. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 108.
	
Etayo-Serna, F. and et al. (1983). Mapa de Terrenos Geologicos de Colombia (Map of Geologic Terranes of Colombia).
	
Etayo-Serna, F., et al. (1983). The Mid-Albian sedimentary record in the northern end of the Western Cordillera, Colombia, and its implications in plate tectonics. Caribbean Geologic Conference, X. Cartagena, Colombia: ??
	
Etayo-Serna, F. and F. Laverde-M (1985). Sintesis estratigrafica:  Propuesta de estandarizacion nomenclatural para las unidades del Cretacico Inferior de la region de Santander y Boyaca occidental (Stratigraphic synthesis:  Proposal of nomenclatural standarization for the units of the Lower Cretaceous of the region of Santander and western Boyaca). Proyecto Cretacico, Contribuciones. F. Etayo-Serna and F. Laverde-M. Bogota, Colombia, Publicaciones Geologicas Especiales del Ingeominas. 16, XXVII: 2.
	
Etayo-Serna, F., et al. (1976). "Contornos sucesivos del mar Cretaceo en Colombia (Successive contours of the Cretaceous sea in Colombia)." Memorias del I Congreso Colombiano de Geologia, Bogota (Colombia): 217-252.
	
Etayo-Serna, F. and G. I. Rodriguez-S. (1985). Edad de la Formacion Los Santos (Age of the Los Santos Formation). Proyecto Cretacico Contribuciones. Bogota, Colombia, Publicaciones Geologicas Especiales del Ingeominas. 16, XXVI: 13.
	
Eva, A. (1980). "Petroleum potential of Jamaica: A case study of part of an ancient island arc." United Nations ESCAP: CCOP/SOPAC Technical Bulletin 3: 143-151.
	
Eva, A. N. (1977). The palaeoecology and sedimentology of middle Eocene larger foraminifera in Jamaica. First International Symposium on Benthonic Foraminifera of  Continental Margins. C. T. Schafer and B. R. Pelletier. Halifax, N.S., Maritime Sediments. 1: 467-475.
	
Eva, A. N., et al. (1989). "Four-phase tectonostratigraphic development of the southern Caribbean." Marine and Petroleum Geology 6(1): 9-21.
	
Eva, A. N. and N. McFarlane (1985). Tertiary to early Quaternary carbonate facies relationships in Jamaica. Fourth Latin American Geological Conference Port-of-Spain, Trinidad. 1: 210-219.
	
Evans, C. C. (1986). Facies Evolution in a Neogene Transpressional Basin, Cibao Valley, Dominican-Republic. Department of Geological Sciences. Coral Gables, Florida, University of Miami: 103.
	
Evans, C. C. (1986). A Field Guide to the Mixed Reefs and Siliciclastics of the Neogene Yaque Group, Cibao Valley, Dominican Republic. Fisher island Station, University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science.
	
Everett, J. R. (1970). Geology of the Comayagua Quadrangle, Honduras, Central America. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 152.
	
Everett, J. R. (1970). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, Comayagua sheet (Geologic map of Honduras, Comayagua sheet), Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Everett, J. R. and R. H. Fakundiny (1976). Structural geology of El Rosario and Comayagua quadrangles, Honduras, Central America. Informe y trabajos técnicos presentados en la IV Reunión de Geólogos de América Central. V: 31-42.
	
Ewing, J., et al. (1968). Structure of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. The Sea. A. E. Maxwell. New York, John Wiley. 4, part II: 321-358.
	
Ewing, J. I., et al. (1960). "Geophysical measurements in the western Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico." Journal of Geophysical Research 65: 4087-4126.
	
Ewing, J. I., et al. (1970). Structure of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. The Sea. A. E. Maxwell. New York, Wiley-Interscience. 4 , Part II: 321-358.
	
Ewing, J. I. and B. C. Heezen (1955). Puerto Rico Trench topographic and geophysical data. Crust of the Earth (A Symposium): Geological Society of America Special Paper 62. A. Poldervaart. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 62: 255-267.
	
Ewing, J. I., et al. (1957). "Geophysical investigations in the eastern Caribbean: Trinidad Shelf, Tobago Trough, Barbados Ridge, Atlantic Ocean." Geological Society of America Bulletin 68(7): 897-912.
	
Ewing, J. I., et al. (1968). Sediment distribution in the Caribbean Sea. Transcripts of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Trinidad. 4: 317-323.
	
Ewing, J. I., et al. (1967). Sediments of the Caribbean. Studies in Tropical Oceanography. I. f. M. Sciences. Miami, FL, University of Miami. 5: 88-102.
	
Ewing, M., et al. (1966). The sediments and topography of the Puerto Rico trench and outer ridge. Transactions, 4th Caribbean Geologic Conference: 325-334.
	
Ewing, M., et al. (1968). The sediments and topography of the Puerto Rico Trench and Outer Ridge. Transcripts Fourth Caribbean Geologic Conference, Trinidad: 325-334.
	
Ewing, M. and J. L. Worzel (1954). "Gravity anomalies and the structure of the West Indies, pt I." Geological Society of America Bulletin 65: 165-173.
	
Exploration Consultants (Oxfordshire-UK) (1987). Review of Petroleum Potential of N.E. Caribbean, ?
	
Exploration Consultants (Oxfordshire-UK) (1987). Review of Petroleum Potential of S.E. Caribbean, ?
	
Fabre, A. (1983). La subsidencia de la Cuenca del Cocuy (Cordillera Oriental Colombiana) durante el Cretaceo y el Terciario Inferior (The subsidence of the Cocuy Basin (Colombian Eastern Cordillera) during the Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary)). Geologia Norandina, Bogota (Colombia). Bogota, Colombia. 8: 21-27, 49-61.
	
Fabre, A. (1985). Dinamica de la sedimentacion Cretacica en la region de la Sierra Nevada del Cocuy (Cordillera Oriental de Colombia) (Dynamics of the Cretaceous sedimentation in the region of Sierra Nevada del Cocuy (Eastern Cordillera of Colombia)). Proyecto Cretacico Contribuciones. F. Etayo-Sema and F. Laverde-M. Bogota, Colombia, Publicaciones Geologicas Especiales del Ingeominas. 16, XIX: 20.
	
Fahlquist, D. A., et al. (1972). Seismic reflection profiles in the Yucatan Channel. Transcripts Sixth Caribbean Geologic Conference, Margarita, Venezuela. 6: 367-371.
	
Fahlquist, D. A. and D. K. Davies (1971). "Fault-block origin of the western Cayman Ridge, Caribbean Sea." Deep Sea Research 18: 243-253.
	
Fairhead, J. D. and S. Maus (2003). "CHAMP satellite and terrestrial magnetic data help define the tectonic model for South America and resolve the lingering problem of the pre-break-up fit of the South Atlantic Ocean." Leading Edge 22(8): 779-783.
	
Fakundiny, R. H. (1970). Geology of the El Rosario Quadrangle, Honduras, Central America. Austin, TX, University of Texas: 234.
	
Fakundiny, R. H. (1971). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, El Rosario Sheet (Geological Map of Honduras, El Rosario Sheet). Tegucigalpa, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Fakundiny, R. H. and J. R. Everett (1976). Metamorphic and intrusive rocks of the El Rosario and Comayagua quadrangles, Central Honduras. Informe y trabajos técnicos presentados en la IV Reunión de Geólogos de América Central. ??? ???, ??? no. V: 71-77.
	
Fakundiny, R. H. and J. R. Everett (1976). "Re-examination of Mesozoic stratigraphy of the El Rosario and Comayagua quadrangles, Central Honduras." Publ. Gol. del ICAITI 5: 5-17.
	
Fakundiny, R. H. and J. R. Everett (1976). "Re-examination of the stratigraphy of the El Rosario and Comayagua quadrangles, Honduras." Publicaciones Geologicas del ICAITI 5: 31-42.
	
Fan, G.-W., et al. (1993). "The seismic source parameters of the 1991 Costa Rica aftershock sequence:  Evidence for a transcurrent plate boundary." Journal of Geophysical Research 98: 15759-15778.
	
Farfan, P. and Y. Bally (1991). An outline of the geology of Samaan Fieid, Trinidad, West Indies. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Farley, M. B. (1987). "Palynomorphs from surface waters of the eastern and central Caribbean Sea." Micropaleontology 33(3): 254-262.
	
Farmer, C. L. and E. R. Shaw (2003). "Red Mango and Iron Horse discoveries; Columbus Basin, Trinidad." Bulletin of the Houston Geological Society 46(1): 23.
	
Farrelly, J. J. (1987). Depositional Setting and Evolution of the Pliocene-basal Pleistocene Section of Southeast Trinidad, West Indies. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas: 141.
	
F-Auer, W. (1948). Geological Nomenclature of Cuba. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: ???
	
F-Auer, W. (1948). Geology of Cuba and its Regional Interpretation. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 53.
	
F-Auer, W. (1950). Final report of core hole project on GA 15, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Feigenson, M. (1978). Petrology and strontium isotope geochemistry of the Loma de Cabrera batholith, Dominican Republic, George Washington University: 143.
	
Feigenson, M. D. and M. J. Carr (1986). "Positively correlated Nd and Sr isotope ratios of lavas from the Central American volcanic front." Geology 14: 79-82.
	
Feigenson, M. D. and M. J. Carr (1993). "The source of Central American lavas: Inferences from geochemical inverse modeling." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 113: 226-235.
	
Feigenson, M. D., et al. (2004). "Lead isotope composition of Central American volcanoes; influence of the Galapagos plume " Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 5(6).
	Lead isotopic analyses of lavas from Central America, both along and behind the volcanic arc, help to clarify source components in the mantle wedge. Analysis of previous Pb isotopic data had implied that little or no marine sediment lead was added to the Central American source region, as all samples fell within the MORB field, in contrast to other information (e.g., Ba/La, (super 10) Be, (super 87) Sr/ (super 86) Sr) that indicated a high subduction component. The data presented here include several analyses of local marine sediment, showing it to be exceptionally unradiogenic in Pb and thus permitting high sediment contributions to the mantle source region without significant changes in Pb isotopes. Combined Pb-Nd and Pb-Sr isotopic diagrams clearly illustrate the influence of crustal contamination for samples from Guatemala and Honduras, and of subducted sediment for all lavas of the volcanic front. Samples collected behind the volcanic front are derived from mixing between enriched and depleted mantle sources, and in central Costa Rica (extending to the back arc) overlap Pb, Sr and Nd isotope values for both Cocos Island and some components of the Galapagos hot spot. The restricted geographical occurrence of the enriched mantle signature in Central America, coupled with the persistence of the signal well into the back arc region, imply that these lavas are sampling Galapagos plume-influenced mantle. The presence of this plume component beneath southern Central America and extending to the northeast beneath the Caribbean confirms a Galapagos hot spot origin for this part of Caribbean Plate. 

Feininger, T. (1970). "The Palestina Fault, Colombia." Geological Society of America Bulletin 81: 1201-1216.
	
Feininger, T., and Seguin, M. (1983). "Simple Bouguer gravity anomaly field and the inferred crustal structure of continental Ecuador." Geology 11: 40-44.
	
Feininger, T. and C. R. Bristow (1980). "Cretaceous and Paleogene geologic history of coastal Ecuador." Geologische Rundschau 69: 849-874.
	
Felder, B., et al. (1980). "Evaluation of the formations in Venezuela (Evaluación de formaciones en Venezuela)." 1-23.
	
Feliciano, J. (1985). Stratigraphic and structural analysis of the Middle to Late Tertiary sequence on the southwest coast of Puerto Rico. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico: 12 plus appendix.
	
Feliciano, J. (1993). Paleomagnetic study of mid-Tertiary rocks in the northeastern Caribbean: Investigations of suspected tectonic block rotations. New York, Syracuse University: 61.
	
Fenton, A., et al. (1984). Natural Resources Assessment and Development-A regional study of CARICOM territories, Enerplan Ltd.
	
Feo-Codecido, G., et al. (1984). Basement and Paleozoic rocks of the Venezuelan Llanos basins. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. R. B. Hargraves, R. Shagam and W. E. Bonini. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 175-187.
	
Feoktistov, V. P., et al. (1983). "Metallogeny of western Cuba." International Geologic Review 25: 309-318.
	
Ferencic, A. (1970). "Porphyry copper mineralization in Panama." Mineral. Deposita 5: 383-389.
	
Ferencic, A. (1971). "Metallogenic provinces and epochs in southern Central America." Mineral. Deposita 6: 77-88.
	
Ferencic, A., et al. (1971). Tectomagmatic and metallogenic relationships of the region Central Panama - Costa Rica. Transactions of the Fifth Caribbean Geologic Conference, Geologic Bulletin, ???, ???
	
Feriolli, M. P. and F. Audemard (1993). "The earthquake of churuguara of 24 November 1990 (El sismo de Churuguara del 24 de Noviembre de 1990)." Bol. IMME- UCV 80: 107-126.
	
Fernandez, A., et al. (1997). Mapa Geologico de Costa Rica, Ministerio del Ambiente y Energia Refinadora costarricense de petroleo.
	
Fernandez Arce, M. (1997). "Evaluation of a hypothetical east-west transcurrent fault system in Costa Rica (Evaluacion del hipotetico sistema de falla transcurrente este-oeste de Costa Rica)." Revista Geologica de America Central 19-20: 57-74.
	The following criteria were analysed in order to evaluate the existence of the hypothetic transcurrent faults system (FTCR) of Costa Rica in its central part: geologic setting, faulting, earthquakes distribution, focal mechanisms, deep transcurrence, and gravimetric data. The predominant faulting is the one with northwest orientation, secondly the faulting with the northeast orientation. This faulting is more abundant in the Talamanca Ridge rather than in the Central Volcanic Ridge. Faults oriented east-west, a necessary requirement for the existence of FTCR, are scarce. The distribution of epicenters indicates that in both ridges there are seismic sources. In the Central Volcanic Ridge earthquakes take place in spaces between volcanoes. In the Talamanca Ridge there are at least five very active seismic zones. Earthquakes with more than 5-degrees in magnitude occur in both ridges. Focal mechanisms are mainly normal. Transcurrent mechanisms suggest an active faulting oriented Northwest. There is no correlation between gravimetric lineament and the FTCR. To conclude, there is no geophysical evidence of the FTCR in the central part of Costa Rica.

Fernandez, F. and Passalacqua (1990). Processing and interpretation of gravimetric and magnetic data in the Eastern Venezuelan Basin (Procesamiento e interpretación de datos gravimétricos y magnéticos en la Cuenca Oriental de Venezuela). Reunión del V Congreso Venezolano Geofísico, Caracas, Oct.. 21-25.
	
Fernández, J., et al. (1992). "Edad de la secuencia caótica del área Martín Mesa, Provincia La Habana (Age of the chaotic sequence of the Martin Mesa area, La Habana Province)." Resúmenes III Evento científico, Filial Habana: 20.
	
Fernández, M. (1995). Seismic Analysis on the Central Part of Costa Rica and Evaluation of the Hypothetical System of Transcurrent Faults of Costa Rica (Analisis sismico en la parte central de Costa Rica y evaluación del hipotético sistema de falla transcurrente de Costa Rica). Mexico City, México., Univ. Nac. Auton. de Méx: 95.
	
Fernandez, M., et al. (2004). Seismograph networks and seismic observation in El Salvador and Central America. Natural hazards in El Salvador. W. I. Rose, J. J. Bommer, D. L. Lopez, M. J. Carr and J. J. Major, Geological Society of America. 375: 257-267.
	Central America is one of the most tectonically active areas in the world, and its high seismicity rate demands the establishment of seismic instrumentation to monitor earthquake occurrence. The first seismological equipment installed in the region dates from 1882. In El Salvador, seismological observations began in the late nineteenth century when 15 Wiechert seismographs arrived in the country. A network of 12 short-period telemetric seismic stations became fully operational in El Salvador in late 1984; this network currently consists of 18 seismographs. Earthquake monitoring in the other countries of the region by permanent networks has operated since the 1970s. In the 1990s, all the countries in the region acquired SEISLOG data acquisition systems and new equipment, including broadband stations, which were donated to improve their seismic networks. In 1998, the Central America Seismological Center (CASC) was established in Costa Rica, marking a new stage in seismological observation in the region. The goal of this center is to locate regional earthquakes and compile seismic databases to be used in the estimation of seismic hazard. This paper summarizes the progress on seismic monitoring in El Salvador and reviews the scientific achievements of the CASC after three years of operation.

Fernandez, M. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (2000). "An Oxfordian Ichthyosauria (Reptilia) from Vinales, Western Cuba: Paleobiogeographic Significance." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 20(1): 191-193.
	
Fernandez, M., et al. (2004). Tsunami hazards in El Salvador. Natural hazards in El Salvador. W. I. Rose, J. J. Bommer, D. L. Lopez, M. J. Carr and J. J. Major, Geological Society of America. 375: 435-444.
	A review of historical data for locally and regionally generated tsunamis indicates that 11 events have struck the coast of El Salvador between 1859 and 2002. Two of these tsunamis caused significant death and destruction. Five of the tsunamis were triggered locally, three regionally (from other countries of Central America), and three were triggered by distant earthquakes in the Aleutian, Chilean, and Colombian subduction zones. Nearly 200 fatalities have been caused by local tsunamis. Reported damages range from coastal flooding to the destruction of villages. Earthquakes of magnitude 7 or higher having epicenters offshore or onshore (close to the coastline) could trigger tsunamis that would impact the coastal areas of El Salvador. A preliminary estimation of tsunami hazard indicates that the entire Pacific coast of Central America is at risk from impact by tsunamis. In this paper, we illustrate the potential damage in El Salvador that could be caused by a distant tsunami with a numerical simulation of the 31 January 1906 Colombia tsunami.

Fernandez, S. (1988). Recent faulting on southeastern Puerto Rico. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico--Mayaguez: 20.
	
Fernández-Acre, M. (1990). Activity of Poás Volcano, Costa Rica: Seismic Analysis During the Period 1980-89. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 185.
	
Fernández-Aragonés, E. (1984). Geology and Hydrothermal Alteration at the Miravalles Geothermal Field, Guanacaste Province. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 92.
	
Fernández-Rodriguez, G., et al. (1988). "Estudio bioestratigráfico y ambientes de sedimentación del pozo Candelaria 1, en la provincia de Pinar del Río (Biostratigraphic and microfacies study of the Campanian-Maastrichtian parautochonous deposits of the Boca de Jaruco-Via Blanca area)." Serie Geológica del CIDP 2: 63-75.
	
Fernández-Solórzano, J. A. (1987). Geology of the Tucurrique Topographic Sheet (Scale 1:50,000, No. 3445-I). San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 205.
	
Fernandezturiel, J. L., et al. (1996). "Sediment mineralogy in the Bay of Havana (Cuba): Its relation to natural and anthropogenic processes." Sedimentary Geology 101(3-4): 269-274.
	
Ferrari, L. (2004). "Slab detachment control on mafic volcanic pulse and mantle heterogeneity in central Mexico." Geology Boulder 32(1): 77-80.
	Seismic tomography studies and plate reconstructions suggest that the Farallon slab broke off shortly before subduction ended off southern Baja California. However, the progress of detachment in time and space and its consequences on the volcanism of central Mexico have not so far been considered. Here I use the Neogene geologic record of central Mexico to propose a lateral propagation of slab detachment beneath the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt during the late Miocene. I suggest that the trace of the detachment is expressed by a short (2-3 m.y.), eastward-migrating pulse of mafic volcanism that took place from ca. 11.5 to ca. 6 Ma to the north of the Pliocene-Quaternary volcanic arc, as hot, subslab material flowing into the slab gap produced a transitory thermal anomaly in the mantle wedge. Slab detachment of the deeper and denser part of the plate was initiated in the southern Gulf of California area by the incoming of progressively younger oceanic lithosphere at the paleotrench that produced an increasing coupling between the Magdalena microplate and the overriding North American plate. The tear in the slab propagated eastward from the Gulf of California to the Gulf of Mexico, paralleling the southern Mexico trench system. The decrease in the Rivera-North America convergence rate between ca. 9 and 7 Ma appears to be related to the loss of slab pull after the detachment. Sparse oceanic-island-type basalts emplaced since the end of the Miocene in the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt are located above a trench-parallel slab window between the inferred detachment trace and the leading edge of the present slab, which has been detected seismically. In this context, the occurrence of these unusual intraplate magmas is easily explained by the infiltration of enriched asthenosphere into the subarc mantle.

Ferrari, L., et al. (2000). "Late Miocene volcanism and intra-arc tectonics during the early development of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt." Tectonophysics 318(1-4): 161-185.
	
Ferrari, L., et al. (2000). Late Miocene volcanism and intra-arc tectonics during the early development of the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt. The influence of plate interaction on post-Laramide magmatism and tectonics in Mexico. L. Ferrari, J. M. Stock and J. Urrutia Fucugauchi. 318: 161-185.
	The early stage of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (hereafter TMVB) is marked by widespread, mafic to intermediate, volcanism emplaced between 11 and 7 Ma from the Pacific coast to the longitude of Mexico City, to the north of the modern volcanic arc. Petrological and geochronological data support the hypothesis that this volcanism made up a unique late Miocenic central Mexican comagmatic province. Mafic lavas at the mouth of the Gulf of California and along the northwestern sector of the TMVB made up the Nayarit district, which includes calc-alkaline to transitional varieties. The central sector of the TMVB is characterized by two basaltic districts: the Jalisco-Guanajuato and the Queretaro-Hidalgo, which are distinguished from the westernmost ones by their lower Nb/La and generally lower HFSE/LILE values, as well as by spider diagrams characterized by larger negative spikes at Th, Ta, Nb, and Ti. The surface occurrence of the late Miocene basalts appears to be controlled by pre-existing zones of crustal weakness that channeled the mafic magmas. Field observations suggest that these structures have been reactivated in a transtensional fashion induced by differential tectonic motion of crustal blocks to the south and to the north of the TMVB. Starting from approximately 12 Ma the TMVB separates a northern tectonic domain, subject to the developing divergent Pacific-North America plate boundary, from a southern tectonic domain, characterized by oblique subduction of the Rivera and Cocos plates. Apparently, far field stresses related to these complex plate boundaries reactivated older suture zones, allowing rapid uprise of mantle-derived magmas. The subduction-related signature shown by Miocene mafic lavas of the Jalisco-Guanajuato district argues against the existence of mantle plumes beneath this sector of the North America plate. On the other hand, the occurrence in the western TMVB and in the Guadalajara region of a large volume of mafic magmas, which sometimes show characteristics transitional to Ocean Island Basalts, could be due to passive upwelling of the subslab asthenosphere that might have interacted with subduction-related magmas and continental lithosphere to produce the observed basaltic varieties. Subslab magmas may have flowed through slab-free areas along the northern and eastern edges of the subducting Rivera plate, which in the late Miocene was already detached from the Farallon plate remnants and diverging from the Cocos plate.

Ferrari, L., et al. (1999). "Space-time patterns of Cenozoic arc volcanism in central Mexico: From the Sierra Madre Occidental to the Mexican Volcanic Belt." Geology 27(4): 303-306.
	
Ferrari, L., et al. (2002). "Ignimbrite flare-up and deformation in the southern Sierra Madre Occidental, western Mexico: Implications for the late subduction history of the Farallon plate." Tectonics 21(4): U304-U327.
	
Ferrari, L., et al. (2001). "Generation of oceanic-island basalt-type volcanism in the western Trans-Mexican volcanic belt by slab rollback, asthenosphere infiltration, and variable flux melting." Geology 29(6): 507-510.
	
Ferrari, L. and J. RosasElguera (1999). "Alkalic (Ocean-island basalt type) and calc-alkalic volcanism in the Mexican volcanic belt: A case for plume-related magmatism and propagating rifting at an active margin?: Comment." Geology 27(11): 1055-1056.
	
Ferrari, L., et al. (2000). "Special Issue - The influence of plate interaction on post-Laramide magmatism and tectonics in Mexico - Introduction." Tectonophysics 318(1-4): VII-IX.
	
Ferrari, L., et al. (2007). Magmatism and tectonics of the Sierra Madre Occidental and its relation with the evolution of the western margin of North America. Geology of Mexico; celebrating the centenary of the Geological Society of Mexico. S. A. Alaniz-Alvarez and A. F. Nieto-Samaniego, Geological Society of America. 422: 1-39.
	The Sierra Madre Occidental is the result of Cretaceous-Cenozoic magmatic and tectonic episodes related to the subduction of the Farallon plate beneath North America and to the opening of the Gulf of California. The stratigraphy of the Sierra Madre Occidental consists of five main igneous complexes: (1) Late Cretaceous to Paleocene plutonic and volcanic rocks; (2) Eocene andesites and lesser rhyolites, traditionally grouped into the so-called Lower Volcanic Complex; (3) silicic ignimbrites mainly emplaced during two pulses in the Oligocene and Early Miocene, and grouped into the "Upper Volcanic Supergroup"; (4) transitional basaltic-andesitic lavas that erupted toward the end of, and after, each ignimbrite pulse, which have been correlated with the Southern Cordillera Basaltic Andesite Province of the southwestern United States; and (5) postsubduction volcanism consisting of alkaline basalts and ignimbrites emplaced in the Late Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene, directly related to the separation of Baja California from the Mexican mainland. The products of all these magmatic episodes, partially overlapping in space and time, cover a poorly exposed, heterogeneous basement with Precambrian to Paleozoic ages in the northern part (Sonora and Chihuahua) and Mesozoic ages beneath the rest of the Sierra Madre Occidental. The oldest intrusive rocks of the Lower Volcanic Complex (ca. 101 to ca. 89 Ma) in Sinaloa, and Maastrichtian volcanics of the Lower Volcanic Complex in central Chihuahua, were affected by moderate contractile deformation during the Laramide orogeny. In the final stages of this deformation cycle, during the Paleocene and Early Eocene, approximately E-W to ENE-WSW-trending extensional structures formed within the Lower Volcanic Complex, along which the world-class porphyry copper deposits of the Sierra Madre Occidental were emplaced. Extensional tectonics began as early as the Oligocene along the entire eastern half of the Sierra Madre Occidental, forming grabens bounded by high-angle normal faults, which have traditionally been referred to as the southern (or Mexican) Basin and Range Province. In the Early to Middle Miocene, extension migrated westward. In northern Sonora, the deformation was sufficiently intense to exhume lower crustal rocks, whereas in the rest of the Sierra Madre Occidental, crustal extension did not exceed 20%. By the Late Miocene, extension became focused in the westernmost part of the Sierra Madre Occidental, adjacent to the Gulf of California, where NNW-striking normal fault systems produced both ENE and WSW tilt domains separated by transverse accommodation zones. It is worth noting that most of the extension occurred when subduction of the Farallon plate was still active off Baja California. Geochemical data show that the Sierra Madre Occidental rocks form a typical calc-alkaline rhyolite suite with intermediate to high K and relatively low Fe contents. Late Eocene to Miocene volcanism is clearly bimodal, but silicic compositions are volumetrically dominant. Initial (super 87) Sr/ (super 86) Sr ratios mostly range between 0.7041 and 0.7070, and initial epsilon Nd values are generally intermediate between crust and mantle values (+2.3 and -3.2). Based on isotopic data of volcanic rocks and crustal xenoliths from a few sites in the Sierra Madre Occidental, contrasting models for the genesis of the silicic volcanism have been proposed. A considerable body of work led by Ken Cameron and others considered the mid-Tertiary Sierra Madre Occidental silicic magmas to have formed by fractional crystallization of mantle-derived mafic magmas with little (<15%) or no crustal involvement. In contrast, other workers have suggested the rhyolites, taken to the extreme case, could be entirely the result of partial melting of the crust in response to thermal and material input from basaltic underplating. Several lines of evidence suggest that Sierra Madre Occidental ignimbrite petrogenesis involved large-scale mixing and assimilation-fractional crystallization processes of crustal and mantle-derived melts. Geophysical data indicate that the crust in the unextended core of the northern Sierra Madre Occidental is approximately 55 km thick, but thins to approximately 40 km to the east. The anomalous thickness in the core of the Sierra Madre Occidental suggests that the lower crust was largely intruded by mafic magmas. In the westernmost Sierra Madre Occidental adjacent to the Gulf of California, crustal thickness is approximately 25 km, implying over 100% of extension. However, structures at the surface indicate no more than approximately 50% extension. The upper mantle beneath the Sierra Madre Occidental is characterized by a low velocity anomaly, typical of the asthenosphere, which also occurs beneath the Basin and Range Province of the western United States. The review of the magmatic and tectonic history presented in this work suggests that the Sierra Madre Occidental has been strongly i

Ferro, C. E. (2001). The Cenozoic tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Belize margin, the origin of the Belize barrier reef, and sequence stratigraphy of the late Quaternary mixed siliciclastic-carbonate system. Houston, TX, Rice University: 226.
	
Feuillet, N., et al. (2002). "Arc parallel extension and localization of volcanic complexes in Guadeloupe, Lesser Antilles - art. no. 2331." Journal of Geophysical Research   Solid Earth 107(B12): 2331.
	
Figge, K. (1966). "Die stratigraphische Stellung der metamorphen Gesteine NW-Nicaraguas." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte 4: 193-254.
	
Figueroa de Sanchez, L. and L. Hernandez (1990). Exploracion geofisica-geologica del area de Guarumen. Transactions 5th Venezuelan Geophysical Congress, ???, ???
	
Figueroa, L., et al. (1994). Analisis estructural-estratigrafico del area de Barinas norte (Cuenca de Barinas) y su importancia en la exploracion de hidro carburos (Structural-stratigraphic analysis of the north Barinas area -Barinas Basin- and its importance in hydrocarbons exploration). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 164-166.
	
Fillon, R. H. (2007). Mesozoic Gulf of Mexico basin evolution from a planetary perspective and petroleum system implications. Return to rifts, the next wave; fresh insights into the petroleum geology of global rift basins. S. I. Fraser, A. J. Fraser, M. R. Lentini and R. L. Gawthorpe. London, United Kingdom, Geological Society Publishing House for EAGE. Vol. 13: 105-126.
	The lack of a sharp boundary between North and South Atlantic stress fields recorded in the arcs of transform faults and ridge segments suggests a gradual merging of mantle stresses within a broad Central Atlantic plate boundary zone. The nature of descending slabs deep in the mantle beneath North and South America suggests that this intra-American plate boundary zone has existed since the Early Cretaceous, at which time it was located beneath the Gulf of Mexico Basin. Simple Euler sums of North and South America to Africa rotation poles validate the concept of merging stress fields, providing a geologically reasonable trajectory and rotation data for the Yucatan microplate with respect to Africa. The new Yucatan rotation geometry is consistent with initiation of back-arc spreading in the western Gulf of Mexico Basin during the Late Berriasian or Early Valanginian, c. 140 Ma, triggered by a strengthening South Atlantic stress field. Continued spreading and rotation of Yucatan likely persisted through the Late Albian, c. 100 Ma. These findings are supported by Early Cretaceous deposystem architecture, basin margin reef trends and source-rock distribution. Kinematic analysis predicts that most Gulf of Mexico seafloor (c. 60%) was created during the Cretaceous period of stable normal geomagnetic polarity, c. 125-83.5 Ma (the "Cretaceous Quiet Zone"). Salt-lubricated detachment faulting in the young Gulf of Mexico likely covered newly formed oceanic crust with large allochthons of Oxfordian-Valanginian strata.

Finch, R. C. (1972). Geology of the San Pedro Zacapa Quadrangle, Honduras, Central America. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 238.
	
Finch, R. C. (1979). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, San Pedro Zacapa sheet. Tegucigalpa, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Finch, R. C. (1981). "Mesozoic stratigraphy of central Honduras." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 65: 1320-1333.
	
Finch, R. C. (1985). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, Santa Bárbara Sheet. Tegucigalpa, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Finch, R. C. (1986). Catalog of known hot springs and thermal place names for Honduras. Los Alamos, NM, Los Alamos National Laboratory: 13.
	
Finch, R. C. and A. W. Ritchie (1990). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, Danlí Sheet. Tegucigalpa, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Finch, R. C. and A. W. Ritchie (1991). "The Guayape fault system, Honduras, Central America." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 4: 43-60.
	
Findlay, A. L. (1988). Cortes geologicos regionales en los Andes Venezolanos y sus implicaciones petroleras y estructurales (poster) (Regional geologic sections in the Venezuelan Andes and their petroleum and structural implications). Memoria del III Simposio Bolivariano. Caracas, Venezuela.
	
Finko, V. I., et al. (1967). "Sobre la edad de la corteza de intemperismo y las lateritas de Cuba (On the age of the crust of 'intemperismo' and the laterites of Cuba)." Revista Geologia (Academia Ciencias Cuba) 1(1): 27-47.
	
Fischer, K., M. (1984). Velocity modelling and earthquake relocation in the North East Caribbean. New York, New York, Columbia University.
	
Fischer, K. M. and W. R. McCann (1984). "Velocity modeling and earthquake relocation in the northeast Caribbean." Seismological Society of America Bulletin 74: 1249-1262.
	
Fischer, R. (1978). "Pared seudoaglutinada en una perforacion de Lithophaga (Rupiphaga) Hastasia  Olsson (bivalvia)." Brenesia 14-15: 259-266.
	
Fischer, R. (1980). "Recent tectonic movements of the Costa Rican Pacific coast." Tectonophysics 70: T25-T33.
	
Fischer, R. (1981). "Die Herauforderung des mittelamerikanischen Isthmus im Miozaen Costa Ricas (The Formation of the Central American Isthmus in the Costa Rica Miocene)." Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie, Teil 1(3): 210-221.
	
Fisher, D. M., et al. (1994). "Kinematics associated with late Cenozoic deformation in central Costa Rica: Western boundary of the Panama Microplate." Geology (Boulder) 22(3): 263-266.
	We present kinematic data for late Cenozoic deformation in central Costa Rica that marks the western margin of the Panama microplate (i.e., the Caribbean-Panama boundary). This boundary extends from the North Panama deformed belt, west through the Valle Central in Costa Rica, and then southwest along the East Nicoya Fracture Zone to intersect the Middle America Trench. Terrace correlation and basin asymmetry indicate a major change in tectonic evolution across the boundary, where three regional northeast-striking faults intersect the Pacific coast. Mesoscopic fault populations are consistent with transtension across these northeast striking faults and with transpression within the east-trending Valle Central. This late Tertiary and Quaternary transcurrent deformation links the North Panama deformed belt to the east with the Middle America Trench to the west. Earthquake focal mechanisms are consistent with mesoscopic fault data, suggesting that fault populations characterize the present-day stress field. This deformation marks the western extent of the Panama microplate, a fragment of volcanic arc that separated from the Caribbean Plate in the late Tertiary or early Quaternary and is currently advancing northward due to collisions with South America to the east and the indenting Cocos Ridge on the Cocos Plate to the south.

Fisher, R. L. (1961). "Middle America Trench: Topography and structure." Geological Society of America Bulletin 72: 703-720.
	
Fisher, S. P. and E. A. Pessagno (1965). "Upper Cretaceous strata of northwestern Panama." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 49: 433-444.
	
Fiske, R. S. (1980). "Volcano hazards: Lessons learned in the eastern Caribbean." Earthquakes and Volcanoes 12(4): 150-153.
	
Fithian, P. A. (1980). Distribution and Taxonomy of the Ostracoda of the Paria-Trinidad-Orinoco Shelf. Department of Geology and Geophysics. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University: 557.
	
Fitts, T. G. and K. M. Brown (1999). "Stress-induced smectite dehydration: ramifications for patterns of freshening and fluid expulsion in the N-Barbados accretionary wedge." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 172(1-2): 179-197.
	
Fletcher, R. R. (1994). Comparative Planktonic Foraminiferal Biostratigraphy of the Colombia Basin and Northeast Gulf of Mexico, University of Delaware: 639.
	
Fleugeman, R. F. (2002). Planktonic and benthic foraminifera from the Moore Town Shales (Paleocene) at the Fellowship Bridge Section, Portland, Jamaica. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 149-154.
	
Flinch, J. F., et al. (1999). Structure of the Gulf of Paria pull-apart Basin (Eastern Venezuela-Trinidad). Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 477-494.
	
Flint, D. E., et al. (1947). "Geology and chromite deposits of Camaguey district, Camaguey Province, Cuba." U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 954B: 39-63.
	
Flores, G. (1947). Corralillo - Motembo Area. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 8.
	
Flores, G. (1947). Motembo - Corralillo. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 18.
	
Flores, G. (1947). Rancho Veloz - Corralillo Area. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 7.
	
Flores, G. (1947). Sagua la Grande - Rancho Veloz Area. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 5.
	
Flores, G. (1948). Sagua la Grande Area. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Flores, G. (1948). Tentative Tectonic Interpretation of the Camajuani Formation. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Flores, G. (1949). Camaguey - Nuevitas Area. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 8.
	
Flores, G. (1949). Northwestern Camaguey Province. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 15.
	
Flores, G. (1949). Western Matanzas Province. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 16.
	
Flores, G. (1950). Final Report on Hicacos 1. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 22.
	
Flores, G. (1950). Proposed Structural Interpretation of Core Holes Results. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 6.
	
Flores, G. and R. S. Petty (?). Bi-weekly Geological Reports, Archivo de D.G.G.G., La Habana.
	
Flores García, R. and J. de Albear (1987). "Tectonic movement and the formation of olistostromes in Pinar del Rio (Western Cuba)." Boletin de Geociences 2(1): 84-92.
	
Flores García, R. and A. Pszczolkowski (1987). "Some current problems of tectonics of the Cordellera de Guaniguanico." Boletin de Geociences 2(1): 37-45.
	
Flores, R., et al. (1989). "El problema del emplazamiento de los macizos ultrabásicos de las sierras de Nipe y Cristal y su relación con la deposición del flysch terrígeno de la Formación Mícara (The problem of the emplacement of the ultrabasic masiffs of the mountains of Nipe and Cristal and their relation with the deposition of terrigenous flysch fo the Micara Formation)." Resúmenes y Programa, Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 94.
	
Flores, R., et al. (1982). "Characteristics of volcanogenetic sediments of the Zaza zone in Yumuri Valley." J. Ciencias, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de
Ciencias de Cuba???: 35-38.
	
Flores, R., et al. (1982). "Structure of Nappes in the Yumuri Valley." J. Ciencias, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de
Ciencias de Cuba: 39-42.
	
Flores-Rivera, J. A. (1986). Hydrogeologic Investigation of the Recharge Zone in Karsted Limestone of the El Cajón Hydroelectric project, Honduras, Central America. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 92.
	
Flores-Rodríguez, W. Z. (1976). Geologic Study of Sulfur Mineralization, Punta Gorda, Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 35.
	
Florez-Abín, E. (1978). Radiolarians of some formations of the Habana provinces. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica.
	
Florez-Albin, E. (1983). "Radiolarios de algunas formaciones del Cretacico-Paleogeno Inferior de Cuba occidental (Radiolarians of some Cretaceous-Paleogene formations of western Cuba)." Ciencias Tierra y Espacio 7: 3-36.
	
Florez-Albin, E. and G. Fernández (1985). "Biostratigraphy of the limit between Paleocene-Lower Eocene sediments (Alkazar and Capdevila Formations) in Havana City Province." Revista Tecnológica 15(1): 8-18.
	
Flotte, N., et al. (2008). "The Rio Bravo fault, a major late Oligocene left-lateral shear zone  " Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 179: 147-160.
	It has generally been assumed that the last major compressive deformation in the Sierra Madre Oriental (Mexico) took place during the Laramide orogenesis (Upper Cretaceous – Early Eocene). We have studied the N120° Rio Bravo fault zone probably inherited from the Jurassic opening of the gulf of Mexico. This fault zone is located along the international boundary between United States and Mexico. We demonstrate that it was active mainly during the Oligocene. In the Ojinaga area (Chihuahua), the Sierra Madre Occidental, Oligocene volcanic sequences overlying conformably the sedimentary Upper Cretaceous sequence, are both tightly folded before 30 Ma. We think this folding is associated with motion of a major left-lateral fault, the Rio Bravo left lateral fault. These left-lateral fault system affects also the Sabinas fold-belt and extends below the Burgos bassin. This deformation is also imaged by gravimetric data and the offsets the Palaeocene-Eocene oil fields that are displaced left laterally. We propose that during the Oligocene, this ~1000 km long left-lateral shear zone that might be called the Rio Bravo fault was active during the Oligocene with a total offset of 40–60 km.

Flüh, H. E., et al. (1981). "Seismic refraction observations in northwestern Colombia at latitude 5.5°N." Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie, Teil 1, Allgemeine, angewandte, regionale und historisch Geologie 1(3/4): 231-242.
	
Focke, J. W. (1977). Field trip to Boca Wandomi, Curaçao. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdam - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 100-101.
	
Foley, D. C. and D. R. Burggraf (1994). Global distribution of northern Subandean source rock equivalents. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 379-386.
	
Folger, D. W., et al. (1990). Map showing free-air gravity anomalies in parts of the western Caribbean Sea, U.S. Geological Survey.
	
Folger, D. W., et al. (1990). Map Showing Free-air Gravity Anomalies Off the Coasts of Venezuela and Trinidad-and-Tobago. Miscellaneous Field Studies Map, U.S. Geologic Survey.
	
Folinsbee, R. A. (1972). The Gravity Field and Plate Boundaries in Venezuela. Cambridge, MA, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution: 160.
	
Folk, R. L., et al. (1973). "Black phytokarst from Hell, Cayman Islands, British West Indies." Geological Society of America Bulletin 84: 2351-2360.
	
Fonseca, E. (1988). "Geochemistry of the ophiolite association in Pinar del Rio province." Revista Tecnológica 18(4): 3-16.
	
Fonseca, E., et al. (1990). "Geoquímica de la asociación ofiolítica de Cuba (Geochemistry of the ophiolitic association of Cuba)." Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989: 51-58.
	
Fonseca, E., et al. (1988). "Nuevos datos acerca de la relación entre las vulcanitas de la asociación ofiolítica y la parte inferior del arco volcánico (New data on the relation between volcnaics of the ophiolitic association and the lower part of the volcanic arc)." Serie Geológica  del Centro de Investigaciones y Desarrollo del Petroleo 2: 3-12.
	
Fonseca, E., et al. (1989). "Presencia de efusivos ofiolíticos y de boninitas en las provincias de La Habana y Matanzas (Presence of ophiolitic effusives and of "boninitas" in the provinces of La Habana and Matanzas)." Boletín Técnico, Geología , Ministerio de Industria Básic 1: 1-9.
	
Fonseca, E., et al. (1984). "Particulars of the structure of ophiolites in Cuba." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(9): 31-45.
	
Fontas, P., et al. (1984). "Interpretation morphostructurale de la deformation active au front de la Ride de Barbade (est-Caraibe): analyse cartographique de bathymatries SeaBeam (Morphostructural interpretation of active deformation in front of the Barbados Ridge (east Caribbean): analysed from SeaBeam bathymetry)." Bull. Inst. Geol. Bassin d'Aquitaine, Bordeaux 36: 51-65.
	
Ford, J. P., et al. (1980). Seasat views North America, the Caribbean, and Western Europe with imaging radar. Pasadena, CA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory Publication: 139.
	
Forero, A. (1990). "The basement of the eastern Cordillera, Colombia: An allochtonous terrane in northwestern South America." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 3: 141-151.
	
Forero-Esguerra, O. (1974). The Eocene of Northwestern South America. Department of Geosciences. Tulsa, OK, University of Tulsa: 81.
	
Formell-Cortina, F. (1979). "Morphogenic classification of the weathered nickeliferous deposits in the ultrabasic rocks of Cuba." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(1): 33-49.
	
Forsthoff, G. M. (1981). Composition, Source and Dispersal of the Muertos Trench Turbidites:  Northeastern Caribbean Sea. Department of Geology & Geophysics. New Orleans, LA, University of New Orleans: 119.
	
Foshag, W. F. (1955). "Chalchihuitl: A study in jade." American Mineralogy 40: 1062-1070.
	
Foster, A. B. (1986). "Neogene Paleontology in the Northern Dominican Republic: 3. The Family Poritidae (Anthozoa: Scleractinia)." Bulletin of American Paleontology 90(325): 81.
	
Foster, A. B. (1986). "Neogene paleontology in the northern Dominican-Republic. 3.  The family Pontidae (Anthozoa: Scleractinia)." Bulletins of American Paleontology 90: 47-123.
	
Foster, A. B. (1987). "Neogene paleontology in the northem Dominican-Republic. 4. The genus Stephanocoenia (Anthozoa: Scleractinia: Astrocoeniidae)." Bulletins of American Paleontology 93: 5-22.
	
Fourcade, E., et al. (1999). "Cretaceous stratigraphy and paleoenvironments of the Southern Peten Basin, Guatemala." Cretaceous Research 20(6): 793-811.
	
Fourcade, E., et al. (1998). "Age of the Guatemala breccias around the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary: relationships with the asteroid impact on the Yucatan." Comptes Rendus de L Academie Des Sciences Serie II Fascicule A - Sciences de La Terre et Des Planetes 327(1): 47-53.
	
Fowler, M. L. (1972). Distribution of Magnesium and Strontium in the Skeletons of Modern Regular Echinoids From the United States Coast and Caribbean Sea. Department of Geological Sciences. Bloomington, IN, Indiana University: ?
	
Fox, P. J. (1972). The Geology of Some Atlantic Fracture Zones, Caribbean Escarpment and the Nature of the Oceanic Basement and Crust. Columbia Univerisy, Department of Geological Sciences. Palisades, NY: 359.
	
Fox, P. J. (1972). The Geology of Some Atlantic Fracture Zones, Caribbean Escarpments and the nature of the Oceanic Basement and Crust, Columbia University.
	
Fox, P. J., and Heezen, B. C. (1985). Geology of the Caribbean crust. The Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. A. E. M. Nairn and F. G. Stehli. New York, Plenum. 3: 421-466.
	
Fox, P. J. and B. C. Heezen (1975). Geology of the Caribbean crust. The Ocean Basins and Margins, 3, The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. A. E. M. Nairn and F. G. Stehli. 3: 421-466.
	
Fox, P. J., et al. (1970). "The geology of the Caribbean crust, I: Beata Ridge." Tectonophysics 10: 495-513.
	
Fox, P. J., et al. (1971). "The geology of the Caribbean crust: Tertiary sediments, granitic and basic rocks from the Aves Ridge." Tectonophysics 12: 89-109.
	
Fox, P. J. and A. M. C. Sengör (1978). "Buoyant ocean floor and the evolution of the Caribbean." Journal of Geophysical Research 83(B8): 3949-3954.
	
Foye, W. G. (1918). "Notes on a collection of rocks from Honduras, Central America." Journal of Geology 26: 524-531.
	
Francis, A. H. (2005). Deformation history of the Maya and Chortis blocks: Insight to the evolution of the Motagua fault zone, Guatemala, Rice University: 149.
	Structural analysis of units astride the Motagua fault zone, the boundary between the North American and Caribbean plates in Guatemala, is critical to understanding the tectonic evolution of the northwestern Caribbean region. Existing models consider minimal geochronological data and are based on little structural data. Furthermore, published studies of the region predate concepts of microstructures and kinematic indicators. This study integrates classical structural analysis, contemporary techniques, and geochronological data to constrain a tectonic model for the Maya and Chords blocks. Four ductile phases in the Maya block and five in the Chortis block signal two separate tectonic collisions, as progression of structures and strain fields of Maya and Chortis is not correlative. Evidence is presented for collision of Chords and southwestern Mexico at &sim;120Ma and for Maya and the Nicaraguan Rise at &sim;70Ma. Four brittle phases in both blocks reflect recent deformation following translation of Chords to its current position.

Francis, P., et al. (1977). "Strontium isotope data for Recent andesites in Ecuador and north Chile." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 37: 197-202.
	
Franco, G., L. and A. de la Torre (1980). "The southern coastal deposits of the Isle of Youth (Isle of Pines), Cuba." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(2): 3-13.
	
Franco, G. L. (1983). Considerations about the Oligo-Miocene deposits of Guantanamo. Contribucion a la Geologia de Cuba Oriental (Contributions on the Geology of Eastern Cuba). Anonymous. La Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 138-143.
	
Franco, G. L. (1983). Geologic column of the Tertiary of the Golfo de Guacanayabo. Contribucion a la Geologia de Cuba Oriental (Contributions on the Geology of Eastern Cuba). Anonymous. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 127-133.
	
Franco, G. L. (1983). Observations on the Neogene-Quaternary of the far eastern edge of Cuba. Contribucion a la Geologia de Cuba Oriental (Contributions on the Geology of Eastern Cuba). Anonymous. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 144-162.
	
Franco, G. L. (1985). "Tectono-environmental classification of Neogene deposits in eastern Cuba." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(10): 57-67.
	
Franco, G. L. (1986). "Scheme of the history of sedimentation during the Neogene in eastern Cuba." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(11): 81-91.
	
Franco, G. L. and G. Radócz (1983). Concerning Recent marine sediments. Contribucion a la Geologia de Cuba Oriental (Contributions on the Geology of Eastern Cuba). Anonymous. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 163-168.
	
Francois, D. K. (1980). The Tectonics of the Caribbean Plate. Department of Geosciences. University Park, PA, Pennsylvania State University: ???
	
Frank, E. F. and R. Benson (1998). "Vertebrate paleontology of Isla de Mona, Puerto Rico." Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 60(2): 103-106.
	
Frank, E. F., et al. (1998). "Geology of Isla de Mona, Puerto Rico." Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 60(2): 69-72.
	
Frank, E. F., et al. (1998). "Geology of Isla de Mona, Puerto Rico
Isla de Mona." Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 60(2): 69-72.
	
Frank, T. D., et al. (2000). Geochemistry of Miocene sediments, sites 1006 and 1007, leeward margin, Great Bahama Bank. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. G. Lowe. 166: 137-143.
	Total carbon and carbonate contents, quantitative carbonate mineralogy, trace metal concentrations, and stable isotope compositions were determined on a suite of samples from the Miocene sections at Sites 1006 and 1007. The Miocene section at Site 1007, located at the toe-of-slope, contains a relatively high proportion of bank-derived components and becomes fully lithified at a depth of approximately 300 meters below seafloor (mbsf). By contrast, Miocene sediments at Site 1006, situated in Neogene drift deposits in the Straits of Florida and composed primarily of pelagic carbonates, do not become fully lithified until a depth of approximately 675 mbsf. Diagenetic and compositional contrasts between Sites 1006 and 1007 are reflected in geochemical data derived from sediment samples from each site.

Franke, M. (1994). Seismotektonik und seismische Gefahrdung in nordost-Venezuela abgeleitet von mikroseismischen messungen. Hamburg, Germany, Institut fur Geophysik, University of Hamburg: 121.
	
Frankel, A. (1982). "A composite focal mechanism for microearthquakes along the northeastern border of the Caribbean plate." Geophysical Research Letters 9: 511-514.
	
Frankel, A., et al. (1980). "Observations from a seismic network in the Virgin Islands region: Tectonic structures and earthquake swarms." Journal of Geophysical Research 85: 2669- 2678.
	
Frankel, A. D. (1982). Earthquake Source Parameters and Seismic Attenuation in the Northeastern Caribbean. Department of Geological Sciences. Palisades, NY, Columbia University: 163.
	
Franklin Institute (Philadelphia, P. R. L. (1972). Bibliography on Marine Geology and Geophysics. Rockville, Md, National Oceanographic Data Center.
	
Freeland, G. L. and R. S. Dietz (1971). "Plate tectonic evolution of Caribbean-Gulf of Mexico region." Nature 232: 20-23.
	
Freeland, G. L. and R. S. Dietz (1972). Plate tectonic evolution of the Caribbean-Gulf of Mexico region. Transactions of the 6th Caribbean Geologic Conference, Margarita, Venezuela. C. Petzal, Unknown: 259-264.
	
Frey, M., et al. (1988). "The mineralogy and metamorphic geology of low-grade metasediments, Northern Range, Trinidad." Journal of the Geological Society of London 145(4): 563-575.
	
Freydier, C., et al. (2000). "The Early Cretaceous Arperos basin: An oceanic domain dividing the Guerrero arc from nuclear Mexico evidenced by the geochemistry of the lavas and sediments." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 13(4-5): 325-336.
	
Freydier, C., et al. (1995). "The mafic igneous assemblages from Porohui (Sinaloa, north-western Mexico): Remnants of the geodynamic evolution of the Cordillera during the Late Mesozoic and Tertiary." Comptes Rendus de L Academie Des Sciences Serie II Fascicule A - Sciences de La Terre et Des Planetes 321(6): 529-536.
	
Freydier, C., et al. (1996). "The Early Cretaceous Arperos oceanic basin (western Mexico). Geochemical evidence for an aseismic ridge formed near a spreading center." Tectonophysics 259(4): 343-367.
	
Freymueller, J. T. (1991). CASA-Central and South America GPS Geodesy:  Crustal Motions Determined from 1988 and 1990 Epoch Measurements in Colombia, Costa Rica, and Ecuador. South Carolina, Colombia University of South Carolina: 172.
	
Freymueller, J. T., et al. (1993). "Plate motions in the north Andean region." Journal of Geophysical Research 98(B12): 21853-21863.
	
Friedman, G. M. (1996). "Yucatan subsurface stratigraphy: Implications and constraints for the Chicxulub impact: Discussion." Carbonates and Evaporites 11(1): 141-142.
	
Fries, C., Jr., et al. (1962). Rocas precámbricas de edad grenvilliana de la parte central de Oaxaca en el sur de México (PreCambrian rocks of Grenville age in central Oaxaca, southern Mexico). Estudios Geocronológocos de Rocas Méxicanas. C. J. Fries, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Geología. 64: 45-63.
	
Frisch, W., et al. (1992). "Origin of the Central American ophiolites;  Evidence from paleomagnetic results." Geological Society of America Bulletin 104: 1301-1314.
	
Frost, C. D. and A. W. Snoke (1989). "Tobago, West Indies, a fragment of a Mesozoic oceanic island arc: Petrochemical evidence." Jounnal of the Geological Society of London 146: 953-965.
	
Frost, S. H. (1972). "Evolution of Cenozoic Caribbean coral faunas." Conference Geol. del Caribe 6: 461-464.
	
Frost, S. H. (1977). Miocene to Holocene evolution of Caribbean Province reef building corals. Third International Coral Reef Symposium, University of Miami, Florida.
	
Frost, S. H. (1977). Oligocene reef coral biogeography, Caribbean and western Tethys. Second Fossil Corals and Coral Reef Symposium, Paris, France.
	
Frost, S. H., et al. (1983). Oligocene Rreef Tract Development, Southwestern Puerto Rico. Miami, FL, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science.
	
Frost, S. H. and R. L. Langenheim (1974). Cenozoic Reef Biofacies: Tertiary Larger Foraminifera and Scleractinian Corals from Chiapas, Mexico. DeKalb, Illinois, Northern Illinois University Press.
	
Frost, S. H. and M. P. Weiss (1979). "Patch reef communities and succession in the Oligocene of Antigua, West Indies." Geological Society of America Bulletin 90: 612-616.
	
Funk, J. O. (2007). Cenozoic Tectonics of the Nicaraguan Depression, Nicaragua, and Median Trough, El Salvador, Based on Seismic Reflection Profiling and Remote Sensing Data,. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 188.
	Lakes Nicaragua and Managua are the two largest lakes in Central America and cover a combined area of ~9000 km2 of the presently active Central America volcanic front (CAVF). As part of the Subduction Factory focus area of the U.S. National Science “Margins” program, we acquired ~1925 km of shallow geophysical data over Lakes Nicaragua and Managua in May, 2006, to establish their late Quaternary structural and stratigraphic history and to better constrain regional models for active tectonics in western Nicaragua and El Salvador. In order to investigate regional, upper crustal deformation resulting from forearc sliver transport and/or slab rollback of the Cocos plate, I took a multidisciplinary approach by integrating these new data with: relocated earthquake epicenters; earthquake focal mechanisms; high-resolution digital topography from the NASA Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM); published global positioning system (GPS) vectors showing recent plate motions; onland geologic maps showing bedrock geology; previous maps of lake bathymetry and bottom sediment types; a previously unpublished, regional aeromagnetic data set; and multichannel seismic reflection profiles from the Gulf of Fonseca and Pacific Ocean. Both lakes and the Gulf of Fonseca occupy the Nicaraguan depression, which is an elongate, asymmetrical, 40-100-km-wide depression extending 342 km across the length of Nicaragua, across the 57-km-wide Gulf of Fonseca, and 225 km into the neighboring country of El Salvador where it is called the Median trough. Profiles across the Nicaraguan depression using subbottom profiles and high-resolution SRTM topographic data indicate that the basin structure is a highly asymmetrical half-graben bounded to the southwest by northeast-dipping faults with basement shallowing to the northeast. Depth to basement in the lakes area is uncertain due to the lack of deep-penetration multichannel seismic data and exploration wells. Depth to basement in the Gulf of Fonseca is also not known but does contain an overlying asymmetrical wedge of low-velocity sediments based on multichannel seismic velocity models.  
New multichannel seismic, subbottom profiler, and bottom core data from the 2006 NicLakes study have improved bathymetric, bottom sediment, and recent fault maps for both lakes that can be compared to previous, speculative models for the lake’s geology and tectonics. Previous work using only subaerial observations from the Nicaraguan depression - Median trough have proposed three different models for the formation of the depression and its active, seismogenic transverse faults: 1) Neogene normal faulting parallel to the length of the depression induced by slab rollback of the underlying subducted slab of the Cocos plate beneath Nicaragua and El Salvador; the zone of extension is proposed to have migrated from the northeast to the southwest from  Miocene to the present; 2) Neogene to present right-lateral strike-slip faulting parallel to the volcanic front and offset locally by pull-apart basins, or centers of fault-bounded extension 3) Negoene to present right-lateral strike-slip faulting parallel to the volcanic front that is accommodated by left-lateral transverse or “bookshelf faults” at high angle to the volcanic front. The 2006 data set combined with the many preexisting data sets listed above have been integrated into three regional structural cross sections. These sections show the asymmetrical half-graben structure for the Nicaraguan depression-Median trough. The area of greatest subsidence and footwall uplift is in the Lake Nicaragua area; in the southeast; the area of least subsidence/footwall uplift is in the Gulf of Fonseca in the northwest. I interpret this structural pattern as a time-transgressive basin opening with the oldest extension pre-Miocene) starting in the southeast and migrating to the northwest. GPS data indicates that this earlier phase of intra-arc rifting is now being modified by arc parallel shear related to the northwestward transport of the Central American forearc sliver.

Funnell, B. M. and A. G. Smith (1968). "Opening of the Atlantic Ocean." Nature 219: 1328-1333.
	
FUNVISIS and et al. (1997). Preliminary evaluation of the earthquake of Cariaco of 09 July 1997, Estado Sucre, Venezuela (revised version) (Evaluación preliminar del sismo de Cariaco del 09 de Julio de 1997, Estado Sucre, Venezuela (versión revisada)), FUNVISIS.
	
FUNVISIS, et al. (1997). The July 9, 1997, Cariaco, Eastern Venezuela Earthquake. EERI Special Earthquake Report - October 1997. Learning from Earthquakes.
	
Furlow, W. (1998). "Amoco's best kept secret is Caribbean's biggest play; 20-year head start has competition scrambling." Offshore (Conroe, TX) 58(9): 60-61.
	
Furrazola-Bermudez, G. (1965). Tres nuevas especies de tintinidos del Jurasico Superior de Cuba (Three new species of titinids of the Upper Jurassic of Cuba). ??? ??? La Habana, Institute of Cuba de Recursos Minerales, Department Ciencias de Geologia. 2: 1-30.
	
Furrazola-Bermudez, G. (1978). Nuevos datos sobre la formacion Mercedes, del Daniano (New data on the Mercedes Formation, of the Danian). Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincias de la Habana y Ciudad de la Habana (Contributions to the Geology of Habana and Habana City Provinces). Anonymous. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 55-58.
	
Furrazola-Bermudez, G., et al. (1976). "Western Sierra Maestra. New data. Stratigraphy of the Upper Cretaceous." La Mineria en Cuba 2(3): 50-62.
	
Furrazola-Bermudez, G., et al. (1976). "New stratigraphic data on the Upper Cretaceous, western Sierra Maestra." La Mineria en Cuba 2(3): 50-61.
	
Furrazola-Bermudez, G., et al. (1976). "Comprobación de un horizonte Daniano en Cuba (Proof of a Danian horizon in Cuba)." La Mineria en Cuba 2(1): 47-53.
	
Furrazola-Bermudez, G. and C. M. Khudoley (1969). "Geology of northeast Pinar del Rio Province." Revista Tecnológica 7(3, 4): 21-27.
	
Furrazola-Bermudez, G., et al. (1964). The Geology of Cuba. La Habana, Editorial  Nacional de Cuba.
	
Furrazola-Bermúdez, G. and K. Kreisel (1972). "Discoastéridos y braarudosphaeridos de la Formación Universidad (Eoceno Inferior) de Cuba " Min. Min. Comb. Met. Publ. Especial 6: 1-51.
	
Furrazola-Bermudez, G., et al. (1963). "General ideas sobre la geologia de Cuba (General ideas on the geology of Cuba)." Revista Tecnológica 2(10): 3-22.
	
Furrazola-Bermudez, G., et al. (1979). "Estratgrafia de los depositos mesocenozoicos de la costa norte del occidente de Cuba (Habana-Matanzas [Stratigraphy of the Meso-Cenozoic deposits of the north coast of western Cuba (Habana-Matanzas)]." La Mineria en Cuba 5(1): 2-13.
	
Furrazola-Bermudez, G., et al. (1985). "General stratigraphy of the region of western Cuba." Centro. Invest. Geol(215): 55.
	
Furrazola-Bermudez, G., et al. (1978). "Nuevo esquema de correlacion estratigrafica de las principales formaciones geologicas de Cuba (New stratigraphic correlation chart of the principal geological formations of Cuba)." La Mineria en Cuba 4(3): 36-52.
	
Furrer, M. (1968). "The depositional environment of the Mene Grande Formation." Asociacion Venezolzno de Geologia, Mineria y Petroleo, Boletin Infomativo 10: 192-195.
	
Furrer, M. A. (1968). Paleontology of some limestone and calcphyllites of the northern range of Trinidad, West Indies. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean Printers, Arima, Trinidad and Tobago.
	
Furukawa, Y., et al. (1997). "Effect of biogeochemical diagenesis on sediment fabric in shallow marine carbonate sediments near the Dry Tortugas, Florida." Geo - Marine Letters 17(4): 283-290.
	
Gabb, W. M. (1873). "On the topography and geology of Santo Domingo." American Philosophical Transactions 15: 141-142.
	
Gabb, W. M. (1875). "Note on the geology of Costa Rica." American Journal of Science 9: 128-204, 320.
	
Gabb, W. M. (1881). "Descriptions of new species of fossils from the Pliocene clay beds between Limon and Moen, Costa Rica, together with notes on previously known species from there and elsewhere in the Caribbean area." Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 8: 349-380.
	
Gabb, W. M. (1895). "Informe sobre la exploración de Talamanca verificada durante los años 1873-1874 (Information on the exploration of Talamanca verified during the years 1873-1874)." Anales del Instituto Fisico-geografico Nacional de Costa Rica 5: 67-90.
	
Gable, F. (1987). "Changing climate and Caribbean coastlines." Oceanus 30(4): 53-56.
	
Gaettgens, A. A. (1987). El Cretacio Superior y el Paleogeno de la Vertinet de Nicaragua Meridional y Costa Rica Septentrional: Origen, evolucion y dinamica de las cuencas profundas relacionadas al margen convergente de Centroamerica (The Upper Cretaceous and Paleogene of the Vertinet of middle Nicaragua and Septentrional Costa Rica:  Origin, evolution, and dynamics of the deep basins related to the convergent margin of Central America). Universidad de Costa Rica, Faculdad de Ciencias Basicas, Escuela Centroamericana de Geologia. Costa Rica: 250.
	
Gagnepainbeyneix, J., et al. (1995). "Experimental study of site effects in the Fort-de-France area (Martinique Island)." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 85(2): 478-495.
	
Galbraith, R. M. and A. R. Brown (1991). Field appraisal with three-dimensional seismic surveys offshore Trinidad. Interpretation of Three-dimensional Seismic Data. A. R. Brown. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 42: 218-223.
	
Galea-Alvarez, F. A. and J. Moreno-Vasquez (1994). Foraminiferal biofacies in the Carapit Formation and their relationship with tectonic events (early-middle Miocene), northern Monagas area, Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 225-227.
	
Gallagher, J. J. and P. R. Tauvers (1992). Tectonic evolution of northwestern South America. Basement Tectonics. R. Mason. ?, Kluwer Academic Publishers. 7: 123-137.
	
Gallango, O. and F. Parnaud (1995). Petroleum geology of the central part of the Eastern Venezuelan Basin
Petroleum Basins of South America, AAPG.
	
Gallango, O. and F. Parnaud (1995). Two-dimensional computer modeling of oil generation and migration in a transect of the Eastern Venezuela Basin. Petroleum Basins of South America. A. J. Tankard, R. S. Soruco and H. J. Welsink, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 62: 727-740.
	
Gallango, O. and R. Tocco (1994). Geochemistry of crude oils and oils seeps from the western Venezuelan basins. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 413-??
	
Gallardo, C. (1985). Estructuras de la Serrania de Paria en relacion con la sismotectonica del borde suroriental del Caribe (Structures of the Serrania de Paria in relation to seismotectonics of the southeastern border of the Caribbean). Transactions of the Fourth Latin American geological conference. 4: 85-865.
	
Galli-Olivier, C. (1977). "Edad de emplazamiento y periodo de acumlacion de la ofiolita de Costa Rica (Age of emplacement and period of accumulation of the ophiolite of Costa Rica)." Ciencia Tecnologia 1(1): 81-86.
	
Galli-Olivier, C. (1977). "Zeolite eyes: A top or bottom indicator in ophiolitic pillow lava." Ciencia Tecnologia 1(2): 3-6.
	
Galli-Olivier, C. (1979). "Ophiolite and island arc volcanism in Costa Rica." Geological Society of America Bulletin 90: 444-452.
	
Gallo, J. (1970). Stratigraphic section of the east flank of the Nuevo Mundo Syncline (La Paz and Esmeraldas Fm.), Intercol: ?
	
Gallo, J. and J. C. van Waggoner (1978). Stratigraphy and Facies Analysis of Honduras, Exxon Production Research Company.
	
Galloway, W. E., et al. (1991). Cenozoic. The Gulf of Mexico Basin. A. Salvador. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America. J: 245-324.
	
Galloway, W. E. and D. K. Hobday (1983). Terrigenous Clastics Depositional Systems:  Applications to Petroleum, Coal, and Uranium Exploration. New York, NY, Springer-Verlag.
	
Gallup, C. D., et al. (2002). "Direct determination of the timing of sea level change during Termination II." Science 295(5553): 310-313.
	An outcrop within the last interglacial terrace on Barbados contains corals that grew during the penultimate deglaciation, or Termination II. We used combined (super 230) Th and (super 231) Pa dating to determine that they grew 135.8 + or - 0.8 thousand years ago, indicating that sea level was 18 + or - 3 meters below present sea level at the time. This suggests that sea level had risen to within 20% of its peak last-interglacial value by 136 thousand years ago, in conflict with Milankovitch theory predictions. Orbital forcing may have played a role in the deglaciation, as may have isostatic adjustments due to large ice sheets. Other corals in the same outcrop grew during oxygen isotope (delta (super 18) O) substage 6e, indicating that sea level was 38 + or - 5 meters below present sea level, about 168.0 thousand years ago. When compared to the delta (super 18) O signal in the benthic V19-30/V19-28 record at that time, the coral data extend to the previous glacial cycle the conclusion that deep-water temperatures were colder during glacial periods

Gallup, C. D., et al. (1994). "The timing of high sea levels over the past 200,000 years." Science 263: 796-800.
	
Galvis-G., N. and J. Rubiano-O., Eds. (1985). Redefinicion estratigrafica de la Formacion Arcabuco, con base en el analisis facial (Stratigraphic redefinition of the Arcabuco Formation, with basis in facies analysis). Proyecto Cretacico Contribuciones. Bogota, Colombia, Publicaciones Especiales del Ingeominas.
	
Gamarra, S., et al. (1994). New Contributions to the Cretaceous stratigraphy in the southern flank of the Andes, Merida State, Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 171-172.
	
Gandais, V. (1987). "Clay mineral sources of the Grenada Basin, southeastern Caribbean." Clay Minerals 22(4): 395-400.
	
Gansser, A. (1954). "The Guiana Shield (South America):  Geological observations." Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae 47: 77-112.
	
Gansser, A. (1973). "Facts and theories on the Andes." Journal of Geological Society of London 129: 93-131.
	
Garapko, I. (1974). Composición geológica y minerales útiles de Isla de Pinos, informe sobre el levantamiento geológico y las búsquedas a escala 1: 100 000 (inédito) (Geologic compostion and useful minerals of the Isla de Pinos, report on the geologic uplift and searches at scale 1:100,000), Fondo Geológico Nacional, La Habana.
	
Garcia Casco, A., et al. (2002). "Oscillatory zoning in eclogitic garnet and amphibole, Northern Serpentinite Melange, Cuba: a record of tectonic instability during subduction?" Journal of Metamorphic Geology 20(6): 581-598.
	
Garcia, E. and F. Harms (1988). Informe del Mapa Geologico de la Republica Dominicana, San Juan (5972) (Report of the Geologic Map of the Dominican-Republic, San Juan (5972)). Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic, Secretaria de Estado de Industria y Comércio, Dirección Generál de Mineria: 121.
	
Garcia, E. and F. Harms (1989). Report of the geologic map of the Dominican Republic, San Juan (5972) (Informe del mapa geologico de la Republica Dominicana, San Juan (5972)). Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, Secretaria de Industria y Comércio, Dirección General de Minería: 97.
	
Garcia, J., et al. (2003). "Seismic hazard maps for Cuba and surrounding areas." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 93(6): 2563-2590.
	
Garcia, R., et al. (1985). Field trip guide for the north coast of La Habana / Matanzas. La Habana, Centro Invest. Geol.
	
García, S. (1975). Geografía Dominicana (Dominican geography). Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic, Amigo del Hogar.
	
García Sánchez, R., et al. (1989). "Nuevos aspectos bioestratigráficos y paleoambientales de la depresión de Los Palacios (New biostratigraphic aspects and paleo-environments of the depression of Los Palacios)." Revista Tecnológica XIX 4: 8-15.
	
Garciacaro, E. (2006). Stratigraphic Architecture and Basin Fill Evolution of a Plate Margin Basin, Eastern Offshore Trinidad and Venezuela. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 84.
	
Garcia-Casco, A., et al. (2008). "Partial melting and counterclockwise P-T path of subducted oceanic crust (Sierra del Convento Melange, Cuba)." Journal of Petrology 49(1): 129-161.
	Partial melting of subducted oceanic crust has been identified in the Sierra del Convento melange (Cuba). This serpentinite-matrix melange contains blocks of mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB)-derived plagioclase-lacking epidote+ or -garnet amphibolite intimately associated with peraluminous trondhjemitic-tonalitic rocks. Field relations, major element bulk-rock compositions, mineral assemblages, peak metamorphic conditions (c. 750 degrees C, 14-16 kbar), experimental evidence, and theoretical phase relations support formation of the trondhjemitic-tonalitic rocks by wet melting of subducted amphibolites. Phase relations and mass-balance calculations indicate eutectic- and peritectic-like melting reactions characterized by large stoichiometric coefficients of reactant plagioclase and suggest that this phase was completely consumed upon melting. The magmatic assemblages of the trondhjemitic-tonalitic melts, consisting of plagioclase, quartz, epidote, + or -paragonite, + or -pargasite, and + or -kyanite, crystallized at depth (14-15 kbar). The peraluminous composition of the melts is consistent with experimental evidence, explains the presence of magmatic paragonite and (relict) kyanite, and places important constraints on the interpretation of slab-derived magmatic rocks. Calculated P-T conditions indicate counterclockwise P-T paths during exhumation, when retrograde blueschist-facies overprints, composed of combinations of omphacite, glaucophane, actinolite, tremolite, paragonite, lawsonite, albite, (clino)zoisite, chlorite, pumpellyite and phengite, were formed in the amphibolites and trondhjemites. Partial melting of subducted oceanic crust in eastern Cuba is unique in the Caribbean realm and has important consequences for the plate-tectonic interpretation of the region, as it supports a scenario of onset of subduction of a young oceanic lithosphere during the early Cretaceous (c. 120 Ma). The counterclockwise P-T paths were caused by ensuing exhumation during continued subduction.

García-Casco, A., et al. (2006). High pressure metamorphism of ophiolites in Cuba. Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 67-88.
	
Garcia-Delgado, D., et al. (2001). Field Trip Guide to the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary in Western Cuba, March 17-18, 2001 (4th Cuban Geological and Mining Congress, March 19-23). La Habana, Cuba: 21.
	
Garcia-Mendez, L. M. (1978). "Stratigraphy of the north Bayate area: Guantanamo." La Mineria en Cuba 4(3): 71-79.
	
Garcia-Molina, G. (1995). Structural Evolution of SE Mexico (Chiapas-Tabasco-Campeche): Offshore and Onshore (Yucatan Platform). Houston, Rice University: 161.
	The Yucatan Platform bisects the NW-SE Sierra de Chiapas fold belt of SE Mexico at right angles. The outcropping Sierra de Chiapas involves Mesozoic platform carbonates, but its northwestern subsurface continuation involves mostly Mesozoic basinal and slope facies sediments in the Villahermosa folds and their offshore continuation, the Sonda de Campeche folds. The main decollement level for the folds is a middle Jurassic evaporite sequence. The pre-salt 'basement' of the area is poorly defined but estimated to dip from about a depth of 6 km to the north (Campeche offshore) to 13 km in the south (Sierra de Chiapas). The fold belt was formed during upper Miocene time and is characterized by bivergent NW-SE striking folds. The amount of shortening is estimated to be in the order of 45 km to 65 km. In the onshore and offshore subsurface the folded belt is orthogonally superposed by a late Neogene growth fault system which soles out near the base of the Neogene. This growth fault system developed on the continental slope and intercepted salt diapirs that probably emanated from the core of deep-seated folds. Much of the salt accumulated farther north in the large allochthonous mass of the Campeche salt domes.

GarciaPalomo, A., et al. (2000). "Miocene to Recent structural evolution of the Nevado de Toluca volcano region, Central Mexico." Tectonophysics 318(1-4): 281-302.
	
Garcia-Sanchez, R. (1976). "Lithofacies of the miogeosynclinal compex of Cuba." La Mineria en Cuba 4(1): 7-17.
	
Garcia-Sanchez, R. (1978). "Notes on the geologic-structural constitution of the Los Palacio depression." La Mineria en Cuba 4(3): 30-36.
	
García-Sánchez, R. and G. Fernández (1989). "Estratigrafía del subsuelo de la cuenca Vegas (Stratigraphy of the subsurface of Vegas Basin)." Revista Tecnológica XIX 1: 3-8.
	
Gardiner, E. S. (2001). Mollusk assemblages of Caribbean reef communities: Reef landscapes yield temporally stable mollusk assemblages with limited membership, University of Georgia: 313.
	
Gardner, J. V., et al. (1991). "Ground-truthing 6.5-kHz side scan sonographs: What are we really imaging96(B4), 5955-5974." Journal of Geophysical Research 96(B4): 5955-5974.
	
Gardner, L. W. and P. C. Wuenschel (1956). Refraction seismograph exploration of Escambray project, Las Villas Province, Cuba. New York, Gulf Research and Development Co.: 3.
	
Gardner, T. W., et al. (1987). Central America and the Caribbean. Geomorphic systems of North America. W. L. Graf. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 2: 343-402.
	
Gardner, T. W., et al. (1992). "Quaternary uplift astride the aseismic Cocos Ridge, Pacific coast, Costa Rica." Geological Society of America Bulletin 104: 219-232.
	
Gardner, W. D., et al. (1980). "Canyons off northwest Puerto Rico:  Studies of their origin and maintenance with the nuclear research submarine NR-1." Marine Geology 37: 41-70.
	
Gardner, W. D., et al. (1980). "Canyons off northwest Puerto Rico: Studies of their origin and maintenance with Nuclear Research Submarine NR-1." Marine Geology 37: 41-70.
	
Garner, A. H. (1926). "Suggested nomenclature and correlation of the geological formations in Venezuela." American Institute Mining and Metalluirgy Engineers Transactions: 677-863.
	
Garnero, E. J. and T. Lay (2003). "D" shear velocity heterogeneity, anisotropy and discontinuity structure beneath the Caribbean and Central America." Physics-of-the-Earth-and-Planetary-Interiors 140(1-3): 219-242.
	The D" region in the lowermost mantle beneath the Caribbean and Central America is investigated using shear waves from South American earthquakes recorded by seismic stations in North America. We present a large-scale, composite study of volumetric shear velocity heterogeneity, anisotropy, and the possible presence of a D" discontinuity in the region. Our data set includes: 328 S(S<inf>diff</inf>)- SKS differential travel times, 300 ScS-S differential travel times, 125 S ( S<inf>diff</inf>) and 120 ScS shear wave splitting measurements, and 297 seismograms inspected for Scd, the seismic phase refracted from a high-velocity D" layer. Broadband digital data are augmented by high-quality digitized analog WWSSN data, providing extensive path coverage in our study area. In all, data from 61 events are utilized. In some cases, a given seismogram can be used for velocity heterogeneity, anisotropy, and discontinuity analyses. Significant mid-mantle structure, possibly associated with the ancient subducted Farallon slab, affects shear wave travel times and must be corrected for to prevent erroneous mapping of D" shear velocity. All differential times are corrected for contributions from aspherical mantle structure above D" using a high-resolution tomography model. Travel time analyses demonstrate the presence of pervasive high velocities in D", with the highest velocities localized to a region beneath Central America, approximately 500-700 km in lateral dimension. Short wavelength variability overprints this general high-velocity background. Corrections are also made for lithospheric anisotropy beneath the receivers. Shear wave splitting analyses of the corrected waveforms reveal D" anisotropy throughout the study area, with a general correlation with heterogeneity strength. Evidence for Scd arrivals is pervasive across the study area, consistent with earlier work, but there are a few localized regions (100-200 km) lacking clear Scd arrivals, which indicates heterogeneity in the thickness or velocity gradients of the high-velocity layer. While small-scale geographic patterns of heterogeneity, anisotropy, and discontinuity are present, the details appear complex, and require higher resolution array analyses to fully characterize the structure. Explanations for the high-shear wave speeds, anisotropy, and reflector associated with D" beneath the Caribbean and Central America must be applicable over a lateral scale of roughly 1500 km<sup>2</sup>, the dimension over which we observe coherent wavefield behavior in the region. A slab graveyard appears viable in this regard.

Garrison, F. L. (1907). "Gold mining in Santo Domingo." Engineering and Mineralogy Journal 84: 490-492.
	
Garrison, L. E. (1969). Structural Geology of the Muertos Insular Shelf, Puerto Rico, U.S. Geological Survey: ?
	
Garrison, L. E. (1972). "USGS-IDOE, Leg 3." Geotimes 17(3): 14-15.
	
Garrison, L. E., et al. (1971). Geology of the insular shelf south of St. Thomas & St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. St. Thomas, V.I., Caribbean Research Institute.
	
Garrison, L. E., et al. (1972). Preliminary tectonic map of the eastern Greater Antilles region, U.S. Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Geological Investigations.
	
Garza, R. S. M., et al. (2003). "Paleomagnetism of the Cretaceous Morelos and Mezcala Formations, southern Mexico." Tectonophysics 361(3-4): 301-317.
	
Garza, R. S. M. and J. W. Geissman (1999). "Paleomagnetic data from the Caborca terrane, Mexico: Implications for Cordilleran tectonics and the Mojave-Sonora megashear hypothesis." Tectonics 18(2): 293-325.
	
Gasparini, Z., et al. (1998). The Jurassic marine reptiles as evidence of the Caribbean corridor (Los reptiles marinos jurásicos como evidencia del corredor Caribeño). Sociedad Cubana de Geología, Memorias, Geología y Minería '98, Reunión del Proyecto PICG/UNESCO 364. La Habana, Gasparini, Z., M. Fernández, M. Iturralde-Vinent, 1998. Los reptiles marinos jurásicos como evidencia del corredor Caribeño. Sociedad Cubana de Geología, Memorias, Geología y Minería '98, Reunión del Proyecto PICG/UNESCO 364. Tomo II, pp. 295-297, La Habana. 2: 295-297.
	
Gastil, G. (1991). "Is there a Oaxaca-California megashear? Conflict between paleomagnetic data and other elements of geology." Geology 19: 502-505.
	
Gawloski, T. (1983). "Stratigraphy and environmental significance of the continental Triassic rocks of Texas." Baylor Geological Studies Bulletin 41: 47.
	
Gayet, J., et al. (1991). "Morphologie de la marge caraibe colombienne:  Relation avec la structure et la sedimentation (Caribbean Colombian margin morphology:  The relationship between structure and sedimentation)." Bulletin de l'Institut de Geologie du Bassin d'Aquitaine 49: 23-37.
	
Gayet, M., et al. (1992). "Modalité des exchanges de vertebrés continentaux entre l'Amerique du Nord et l'Amerique du Sud au Cretacé superior et au Paleocene (Model of continental vertebrate exchanges between North America and South America from Upper Cretaceous to Paleocene)." Bulletin Societe du geologique France 163: 781-791.
	
Gazel, E., et al. (2006). Magmatic and geotectonic significance of Santa Elena Peninsula, Costa Rica. Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 193-202.
	
Gealey, W. K. (1980). Ophiolite obduction mechanisms. Ophiolites: Proceedings of the International (Ophiolite Symposium, Cyprus, 1979). ??? Nicosia, Cyprus Geological Survey Department: 243-247.
	
Geddes, W. and L. Dennis (1964). "Preliminary report on a special aeromagnetic survey of the Puerto Rico Trench." A study of serpentinite: the AMSOC core hole near Mayaguez, Puerto Rico(188): 175.
	
Geigengack, R. (1984). Late Cenozoic tectonic environments of the central Venezuelan Andes. The Caribbean-South American plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 343-364.
	
Geister (2000). A trip across time in the reefs of the island of San Andres (Caribbean Sea, Colombia) (Un viaje a traves del tiempo en los arrecifes de la isla de San Andres (Mar Caribe, Colombia)). Resumenes IX Colacmar  Noveno Congreso Latino Americano Sobre Ciencias del Mar: 66-68.
	
Geister, J. (1975). "Riffbau und geologische Entwicklungsgeschichte der Insel San Andrés (westliches Karibisches Meer, Kolumbien)." Stuttgarter Beitraege zur Naturkunde, Serie B (Geologie und Palaeontologie) 15: 203.
	
Geister, J. (1980). "Calm water reefs and rough-water reefs of the Caribbean Pleistocene." Acta Palaontogica Polonica 25(3-4): 541-556.
	
Geister, J. (1980). "Morphologie et distributuion des coraux dans les récifs actuels de la mer des Caraibes (Morphology and distribution of corals within the present-day reefs of the Caribbean Sea)." Ann. Univ. Ferrara (N.S.), Sez. IV (Sci. geol. e paleont.) VI (Supplemental): 15-37.
	
Geister, J. (1982). Pleistocene reef terraces and coral environments at Santo Domingo and near Boca Chica, southern coast of the Dominican-Republic. Ninth Caribbean Geological Conference (Santo Domingo, 1980), Transactions. 2: 689-703.
	
Geister, J. (1984). Geomorphologie, écologie et faciés des récifs actuels des Caraibes:  Conséquences pour l'interpretation des récifs fossiles (Geomorphology, ecology and facies of the present-day reefs of the Caribbean:  Consequences for the interpretation of fossil reefs). Géologie et Palóécologie des Récifs. J. Geister and R. Herb, Institut de Gélogie de l'Université de Berne: 1.1-1.14.
	
Geister, J. (1984). Récifs pléistocenes de la mer des Caribes:  Aspects géologiques et paléoécologiques (Pleistocene reefs of the Caribbean Sea:  Geologic and paleoecologic aspects). Géologie et Palóécologie des Récifs. J. Geister and R. Herb, Institut de Gélogie de l'Université de Berne: 3.1-3.34.
	
Geister, J. (1986). "Recent corals reefs and geology history of Providencia Island (western Caribbean Sea, Colombia)." Geologia-Colombiana 15: 115-134.
	
Geister, J. (1992). "Modern reef development and Cenozoic evolution of an oceanic island/reef complex:  Isla de Providencia (western Caribbean Sea, Colombia)." Facies 27: 1-70.
	
Geister, J. (1997). "Searching for the analogous coral reef (Auf der Suche nach dem analogen Korallenriff)." Coral Research Bulletin 5: 151-160.
	
Geister, J. (1999). "Thirty years in the life of a Caribbean coral reef (Jahre im leben eines karibischen korallenriffes)." Profil 16: 1-11.
	
Geister, J. (2001). "Coral life and coral death in a Recent Caribbean coral reef: A thirty-year record in photographs." Bulletin of the Tohoku University Museum 1: 114-124.
	
Geister, J. and J. M. Diaz (1997). "A field guide to the oceanic barrier reefs and atolls of the southwestern Caribbean (Archipelago of San Andres and Providencia, Colombia)." Proceedings of the 8th International Coral Reef  Symposium 1: 235-262.
	
Geldmacher, J., et al. (2003). "Hafnium isotopic variations in volcanic rocks from the Caribbean Large Igneous Province and Galapagos hot spot tracks - art. no. 1062." Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 4: 1062.
	
Geldmacher, J., et al. (2008). "Age and Geochemistry of the Central American Forearc Basement (DSDP Leg 67 and 84): Insights into Mesozoic Arc Volcanism and Seamount Accretion on the Fringe of the Caribbean LIP." Journal of Petrology: 35.
	The igneous forearc basement along the Pacific coast of northern Central America (between southern Mexico and Costa Rica) comprises a highly tectonized accretionary assemblage of igneous and ultramafic rocks. Volcanic and gabbroic rocks with primitive arc geochemical signatures formed between ~100 and ≥180 Ma and are interpreted to have originated by arc magmatism resulting from subduction of the Pacific–Farallon plate. Geochemically enriched ocean island basalt (OIB)-like units are interpreted as accreted seamounts and islands of a hotspot track, which was active between ≥220 and 100 Ma and originated from a hotspot located in the central Pacific. Based on their combined Pb, Nd and Hf isotopic compositions an affiliation of these rocks with the Caribbean Large Igneous Province or the present-day Galápagos hotspot appears unlikely. Rocks of similar age and geochemistry are exposed on the Santa Elena Peninsula in Costa Rica, suggesting that a similar forearc basement is accreted to the continental Chortis Block from southern Mexico to Costa Rica.

Gemeraad, J. H. (1978). "Contribution to the palynology of Jamaica (BWI): A progress report." Rijksmuseum Geol. Miner.: 1-6.
	
Geological Society of America (1987). Magnetic Anomaly Map of North America, 4 sheets, scale: 1: 5,000,000. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America.
	
Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago (2001). "Field Trip - Northern Range Systematic east to west variations in deformation temperatures, structural fabrics and structural architecture models, Northern Range, Trinidad." GSTT Technical Note #1: 6.
	
George, R. P., Jr. and M. B. Socas (1994). Thermal maturation history of Upper Cretaceous and Miocene source rocks in the Maturin sub-basin. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 405-407.
	
Gerace, D. T., Ed. (1980). Field Guide to the Geology of San Salvador. San Salvador, Bahamas, College Center of the Finger Lakes Field Station.
	
Gerth, R. A. (2000). La Boquita terrace, Nicaragua: Evidence for uplift of the central Pacific coast. Santa Cruz, California, University of California, Santa Cruz: 85.
	
Gervilla, F., et al. (2005). "Distribution of platinum-group elements and Os isotopes in chromite ores from Mayari-Baracoa Ophiolitic Belt (eastern Cuba)." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 150(6): 589-607.
	The Mayari-Baracoa ophiolitic belt in eastern Cuba hosts abundant chromite deposits of historical economic importance. Among these deposits, the chemistry of chromite ore is very variable, ranging from high Al (Cr#=0.43-0.55) to high Cr (Cr#=0.60-0.83) compositions. Platinum-group element (PGE) contents are also variable (from 33 ppb to 1.88 ppm) and correlate positively with the Cr# of the ore. Bulk PGE abundances correlate negatively with the Pd/Ir ratio showing that chromite concentrates mainly Os, Ir and Ru which gives rise to the characteristic negatively sloped, chrondrite-normalized PGE patterns in many chromitites. This is consistent with the mineralogy of PGEs, which is dominated by members of the laurite-erlichmanite solid solution series RuS<inf>2</inf>-OsS<inf>2</inf>), with minor amounts of irarsite (IrAsS), Os-Ir alloys, Ru-Os-Ir-Fe-Ni alloys, Ni-Rh-As, and sulfides of Ir, Os, Rh, Cu, Ni, and/or Pd. Measured <sup>187</sup>Os/<sup>188</sup> Os ratios (from 0.1304 to 0.1230) are among the lower values reported for podiform chromitites. The <sup>187</sup>Os/<sup>188</sup>Os ratios decrease with increasing whole-rock PGE contents and Cr# of chromite. Furthermore, < gamma >Os values of all but one of the chromitite samples are negative indicating a subchondiritc mantle source. < gamma >Os decrease with increasing bulk Os content and decreasing <sup>187</sup>Re/ <sup>188</sup>Os ratios. These mineralogical and geochemical features are interpreted in terms of chromite crystallization from melts varying in composition from back-arc basalts (Al-rich chromite) to boninites (Cr-rich chromite) in a suprasubduction zone setting. Chromite crystallization occurs as a consequence of magma mixing and assimilation of preexisting gabbro sills at the mantle-crust transition zone. Cr#, PGE abundances, and bulk Os isotopic composition of chromitites are determined by the combined effects of mantle source heterogeneity, the degree of partial melting, the extent of melt-rock interactions, and the local sulfur fugacity. Small-scale (< mu >m to cm) chemical and isotopic heterogeneities in the platinum-group minerals are controlled by the mechanism(s) of chromite crystallization in a heterogeneous environment created by the turbulent regime generated by successive inputs of different batches of melt. < copyright > Springer-Verlag 2005.

Gevork', y. V. K. and Y. G. Chugunnyy (1989). Ekzogennaya metallogeniya i fosfatonosnost' tropicheskoy Atlantiki; Karibskoye more (Exogene metallogeny and phosphate potential of tropical Atlantic Ocean; Caribbean Sea). Geologiya i metallogeniya tropicheskoy Atlantiki (Geology and metallogeny of the tropical Atlantic). Y. F. Shnyukov. Ukrainian-SSR, Akad. Nauk Ukr. SSR, Inst. Geol. Nauk: 147-149.
	
Ghosh, N. (1990). Magnetic Anomaly Studies of the Colombia Basin Area and Gravity Field Study of the Southeastern Caribbean Plate Boundary Zone. Department of Geosciences. Houston, TX, University of Houston: 403.
	
Ghosh, N. and S. A. Hall (1992). Crossover analysis of magnetic data over the Colombian Basin, western Caribbean Sea. Geomagnetic studies at low latitudes. G. K. Rangarajan and B. R. Arora. Bangalore, India, Geological Society of India. 24: 93-101.
	
Ghosh, N., et al. (1984). "Seafloor spreading magnetic anomalies in the Venezeulan Basin." The Caribbean-South American plate boundary and regional tectonics 162: 65-80.
	
Giannelli, G. and P. Varela (1994). "Structural setting of the El Pilar-Casanay geothermal area, Caribbbean-South America plate boundary, eastern Venezuela." Annales Tectonicae 8: 58-69.
	
Gibbs, A. K. and C. N. Barron (1983). "The Guiana Shield reviewed." Episodes 1983(2): 7-14.a.
	
Gibson, R. G. (1994). "Fault-zone seals in siliciclastic strata of the Columbus Basin, offshore Trinidad." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 78(9): 1372-1385.
	
Gibson, R. G. and P. A. Bentham (2003). "Use of fault-seal analysis in understanding petroleum migration in a complexly faulted anticlinal trap, Columbus Basin, offshore Trinidad." AAPG Bulletin 87(3): 465-478.
	
Gibson, R. G. and P. A. Bentham (2003). Use of fault-seal analysis in understanding petroleum migration in a complexly faulted anticlinal trap, Columbus Basin, offshore Trinidad. Fault seals. R. K. Davies and J. W. Handschy. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 87: 465-478.
	In the Columbus Basin, offshore Trinidad, evaluating the controls on fault seal is a prerequisite for understanding how the petroleum fields were charged. In this paper, we present a case study from Mahogany field, where interbedded Pliocene-Pleistocene shales and reservoir sands occur in a broad four-way-closed anticline cut by numerous normal faults. Fault seals in this stratigraphic sequence can be successfully evaluated using shale gouge ratio (SGR), with a transition between sealing and nonsealing faults occurring in the SGR = 0.15-0.25 range. Because of the high net-to-gross ratio of individual sands, low SGR values typically correspond to areas of reservoir self-juxtaposition, whereas good seals (SGR >0.2) exist where different sands are juxtaposed against one another. The larger structural geometry, which changes significantly from the shallow reservoirs to the deeper ones, closely controls the distribution of stacked, fault-sealed petroleum accumulations in this field. Petroleum column heights in individual fault blocks within the structure are limited either by (1) a cross-fault spill point at a low-SGR window on the west side of a fault block or (2) a synclinal spill point within a fault block from which petroleum leaves the overall four-way closure. The pattern of hydrocarbon-water contacts in the field suggests that petroleum filled and spilled its way from northeast to southwest across the structure with individual sands acting as a separate flow systems. Despite juxtaposition against each other, communication between stratigraphically different sands is minimal. Vertical migration of petroleum along faults is not required to explain the distribution of charged sands, and this is consistent with both petrophysical data and the known sealing character of the faults. This petroleum migration model serves as a tool for evaluating charge risk and column heights in untested fault blocks in the area.

Gibson, R. G. and L. I. P. Dzou (2004). "Shelf petroleum system of the Columbus Basin, offshore Trinidad, West Indies; II, Field geochemistry and petroleum migration model." Marine and Petroleum Geology 21(1): 109-129.
	Petroleum migration patterns in the present-day shelf area of the Columbus basin reflect a complex interaction of structural evolution, stratigraphic architecture, and fault-seal behavior. Thermogenic charge access is ultimately controlled by the geographic distribution of sand-prone carrier beds and how these vertically stacked stratigraphic units relate spatially to one another along their basinal limits. Migration in this system consists of two components, cross-stratal migration through mud-dominated, deep-water (slope and basin floor) sediments followed by horizon-parallel flow along laterally extensive, sand-prone, shelf carrier beds. Thermogenic charge access to any individual sand occurs only in a linear geographic area where that sand is not shielded from vertical migration by stratigraphically older sands.The geochemical characteristics of the trapped petroleum in this system are primarily a reflection of migration distance, with the earliest-expelled (lowest maturity) products having progressed farthest along the migration pathway. Because of the stratigraphic architecture and structural geometry involved, a pattern of increasing thermogenic content and maturity with depth at any location is created, despite the fact that a significant portion of the migration is horizon-parallel. In parts of the basin, this simple pattern has been overprinted by complex mixing of maturity fractions in single accumulations as a result of late-stage differential source-rock uplift. The observations are inconsistent with previously proposed models for this basin that emphasize petroleum fractionation accompanying vertical migration through the shelf stratigraphic section.

Gibson, R. G., et al. (2004). "Shelf petroleum system of the Columbus Basin, offshore Trinidad, West Indies; I, Source rock, thermal history, and controls on product distribution." Marine and Petroleum Geology 21(1): 97-108.
	Petroleum found in Plio-Pleistocene reservoirs of the Columbus basin is a mixture of biogenic gas, thermogenic gas, and oil. Based on gas isotope data, approximately one-third of the in-place petroleum volume is gas of biogenic origin. The source for all the thermogenic petroleum thus far discovered is interpreted to be a marine, siliciclastic facies of upper Cretaceous age, the eastern continuation of organic-rich deposits that occur all along the northern margin of the South American craton. Oil compositional variation indicates a progressive change from carbonate to siliciclastic source rocks eastward from Venezuela, through Trinidad, and into the Columbus basin. The thermogenic product ratio (gas vs. oil) in the Columbus basin varies geographically, being oil-dominated (60-70%) in the northwestern part of the basin and gas-dominated ( approximately 90%) farther southeast. Subtle changes in oil and condensate geochemistry between these two areas can be explained by more terrestrial-derived kerogen and more oxidizing conditions in the southeastern part of the basin. We interpret this variation to be the result of a southward transition from a slope to shelf depositional environment during source rock deposition. A southward decrease in source rock HI from the slope to shelf deposits is interpreted to be the dominant factor controlling the observed thermogenic product distribution (gas fraction) of petroleum fields within the basin. Although significant thermal maturity variations occur across the basin, this is not the primary controlling factor on the geographic distribution of oil and gas.

GIDA/GOJ and J. M. Siriunas (1992). Geochemical Map of Jamaica, CIDA/GSD Metallic Mineral Survey of Jamaica, Phase II.
	
Giedt, N. and O. E. Schooler (1959). Geology of sierra de Cubitas and Camaján hills, Camagüey, Cuba, Fondo Geológico del Ministerio de Industria Básica, La Habana.
	
Giegengack, R. (1984). "Late Cenozoic tectonic environments of the central Venezuelan Llanos basins." Geological society of America Memoir 162: 343-364.
	
Giffuni, G., et al. (1994). Sequence Stratigraphy of an Eocene section (Misoa Formation) in the eastern coast of Lake Maracaibo, Maracaibo Basin. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 62-64.
	
Giffuni, G. F. (1983). Miocene-Pliocene Boundary Problem:  Correlation of Mediterranean, Atlantic, Caribbean and Venezuelan Sections. Department of Geological Sciences. Rochester, NY, University of Rochester: ???
	
Gil, E., et al. (1994). Estratigrafia secuencial y su aplicacion en al exploracion de hidrocarburos en la subcuenca de barinas (Sequence stratigraphy and its application in the exploration of hydrocarbons in the Barinas subbasin). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 40-42.
	
Gill, I. (1989). The evolution of Tertiary St. Croix. Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Louisiana State University: 320.
	
Gill, I., et al. (1999). Evolution of the Neogene Kingshill Basin of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 343-366.
	
Gill, I. P., et al. (1989). Sedimentological and tectonic evolution of Tertiary St. Croix. Terrestrial and Marine Geology of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. D. K. Hubbard. St. Croix, U.S.V.I., West Indies Laboratory. 8: 49-72.
	
Gill, I. P., et al. (1995). "Evaporitic mixed-water dolomitization on St Croix, USVI." Journal of Sedimentary Research Section A - Sedimentary Petrology and Processes 65(4): 591-604.
	
Gillezeau, K. A., Ed. (1991). Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of-Spain, April 3-8, 1990. San Fernando, Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago.
	
Gingerich, P. D. (1985). South American mammals in the Paleocene of North America. The Great American Biotic Interchange. F. G. Stehli and S. D. Webb. New York, Plenum Press: 123-137.
	
Giraldo, C. and F. Audemard (1997). "The traction basin of Cabudare, west-central Venezuela (La cuenca de tracción de Cabudare, Venezuela centro-occidental) " 8º Congreso Geológico Venezolano, Porlamar, Venezuela 1: 351-357.
	
Girard, D., et al. (1982). "Pétrologie, géochimie et signification géodynamique de quelques formations volcaniques crétacées péri-caraibes (Petrology, geochemistry and geodynamic significance of some "pre-Caribbean" Cretaceous volcanic formations)." Bulletin of the Society of Geology France 24: 535-544.
	
Girard, G. and B. van Wyk de Vries (2005 ). "The Managua Graben and Las Sierras-Masaya volcanic complex (Nicaragua); pull-apart localization by an intrusive complex: Results from analogue modeling." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 144(1-4): 37-57.
	There is a well-documented association between pull-apart basins in strike-slip zones and large volcanic caldera complexes. Las Sierras-Masaya volcanic complex, Nicaragua, is a large basaltic lava and ignimbrite shield with nested calderas. The widest caldera is partly underlain by a large and dense intrusive complex, evidenced by a positive gravity anomaly. The Las Sierras Caldera, relating to this cumulate complex, is less than 30,000 years old and is probably still hot and ductile. The inner Masaya Caldera hosts an active magmatic system. The volcanic complex is in a dextral transtensional tectonic context of the Nicaraguan Depression. The highly active Managua Graben is on the northern part of the volcano. We speculate that the graben and volcano are linked tectonically, with the graben initiating in response of a regional stress field modified around the dense, ductile intrusive complex. Previous field work and reappraisal of structures with digital elevation model morphological analysis show that the volcano is surrounded by a rhombic fault pattern that may form a nascent pull-apart basin. We have done scaled analogue models to test the effect of intrusion density and rheology anomalies on strike-slip fault geometries. The models show that intrusion density variations alone do not significantly change fault patterns. In contrast, ductile rocks (silicone in the models as analogue for hot mafic intrusive rocks) markedly alter strike-slip fault patterns. In transtension the presence of a ductile intrusion causes the formation of a pull-apart, while in pure strike-slip or transpression, uplift and thrusting is generated. Pull-apart and uplift structures are rhomb-shaped even when the ductile inclusion is circular. We conclude that a pull-apart is developing at Las Sierras-Masaya volcanic complex in response to the transtensive regional deformation regime and the dense, ductile intrusive complex. We suggest that the volcano and graben are one dynamic system and should be monitored as one entity.

Girardin, N. and R. Gaulon (1983). "Microseismicity and stresses in the Lesser-Antilles dipping seismic." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 62: 340-348.
	
Giraudeau, J. and A. Pujos (1990). "Fonction de transfert basee sur les nannofossiles calcaires du Pleistocene des Caraibes (Calcareous nannofossil-based transfer function in Caribbean Pleistocene sediments)." Oceanologica Acta 13(4): 453-469.
	
Gischler, E., et al. (2003). "Characterization of depositional environments in isolated carbonate platforms based on benthic foraminifera, Belize, Central America." Palaios 18(3): 236-255.
	Tests of benthic foraminifera were analyzed quantitatively in 43 surface sediment samples collected along E-W traverses across the modern isolated carbonate platforms of Glovers Reef (N=14), Lighthouse Reef (N=14), and Turneffe Islands (N=15), offshore Belize, Central America. Water depths of sample stations range from 0 m (beach) to 40 m (fore reef). Each sample was sieved in the size classes 2-1, 1-0.5, 0.5- 0.25, and 0.25-0.125 mm (< phi >=1-0, 0-1, 1-2, and 2-3, respectively) and 300 foraminiferal identifications were attempted for each sieve fraction (i.e., 1,200 individuals per sample, totaling 46,003 specimens). Cluster analyses of samples characterized platform environments and distinguished four benthic foraminifera associations. Fore reef samples were characterized by abundant Amphistegina gibbosa and the occurrence of Asterigerina carinata, both rotaliids. In high-energy, marginal-reef areas the encrusting rotaliid Homotrema rubrum predominated. Platform-interior environments were marked by a variety of common taxa, the most common of which include Miliolina such as Archaias angulatus, Quinqueloculina sp., and Triloculina sp, as well as the rotaliid Cribroelphidium poeyanum, the latter indicating low-energy or deep-lagoonal regimes. Diversity, expressed as numbers of identified taxa, appears to be a function of relative degree of circulation. The highest number (147) of taxa was found in the shallow, high-energy platform of Lighthouse Reef, followed by Glovers Reef (78), both of which are open to the Caribbean Sea. The lowest number of taxa (66) occured in Turneffe Islands where large parts of the platform are characterized by the restricted circulation imposed by dense mangrove growth behind platform margins. The occurrence of tests of common foraminiferal species outside their original habitats, coupled with trends towards smaller grain-sizes and better sorting of tests away from original habitats along parts of the sample traverses, indicates sediment transport across platform margins. In the great majority of samples, however, sediment redeposition did not significantly alter characteristic taxonomic compositions. This result has important implications for the use of benthic foraminifera as facies indicators in fossil carbonate platforms.

Gischler, E. and J. H. Hudson (1998). "Holocene development of three isolated carbonate platforms, Belize, central America." Marine Geology 144(4): 333-347.
	
Gischler, E. and A. J. Lomando (1999). "Recent sedimentary facies of isolated carbonate platforms, Belize-Yucatan System, Central America." Journal of Sedimentary Research 69(3): 747-763.
	
Gischler, E., et al. (2000). "Last interglacial reef growth beneath Belize barrier and isolated platform reefs." Geology 28(5): 387-390.
	
Giunta, G. (1993). "Los margenes mesozoicos de la Placa Caribe: problematicas sobre nucleacion y evolucion (The Mesozoic margins of the Caribbean Plate: Problems on the nucleation and evolution)." VI Congreso Colombiano de Geologia, Medellin: 14.
	
Giunta, G. (1995). An outline on kinematic significance of the Calabrian COB (Central Mediterranean), and analogies with some Caribbean COB (Central America). COB'95: Curved Orogenic Belts: Their Nature and Significance, Meeting and Field Trip IAST, International Association of Structructal Tectonic Geologists, Buenos Aires: 9-14.
	
Giunta, G., et al. (2002). "The Motagua Suture-Zone in Guatemala: Field Trip Guide Book of the IGCP 433 Workshop and 2^ Italian-Latin American Geological Meeting in Guatemala." Ofioliti Ofioliti: 1-42.
	
Giunta, G., et al. (1997). A tentative correlation between ophiolites of the deformed borders of the Caribbean plate: New data on the petrogenesis and structural evolution, Meeting EL.I.C.A. 97: 57-58.
	
Giunta, G., et al. (1997). "Ophiolitic units of the Southern Margin of Caribbean Plate in Venezuela:  A reappraisal of their petrogenesis and original tectonic setting." VIII Congresso Geologico Venezolano, Isla Margarita, Memoir I: 331-337.
	
Giunta, G., et al. (1998). "A tentative correlation between the ophiolitic units of the Caribbean Plate margins and geogynamic implications." 15th Caribbean Geological Conference, Jamaica: 81.
	
Giunta, G., et al. (2002). Tectono-magmatic significance of the peri-Caribbean ophiolitic units and geodynamic implications. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 15-34.
	
Giunta, G., et al. (2002). "The southern margin of the Caribbean Plate in Venezuela: tectono-magmatic setting of the ophiolitic units and kinematic evolution." Lithos 63(1-2): 19-40.
	
Giunta, G., et al. (2006). Caribbean Plate margin evolution: Constraints and current problems. Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 265-278.
	
Giunta, G., et al. (2003). Geological constraints for the geodynamic evolution of the southern margin of the Caribbean Plate. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, Buffler, Richard T. Blickwede, Jon F. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 104-125.
	The southern margin of the Caribbean plate, cropping out in the Venezuela belt, consists of an assemblage of four main terranes: the Dutch-Venezuelan Islands, Margarita Island, Cordillera de la Costa, and Serrania del Interior. These terranes have been located, since the middle Cretaceous, along the transform boundary between the Caribbean and South American plates. On the basis of both new data and the literature, a critical review of the complex and long-lived evolution recorded in different units of these terranes is herein provided in order to highlight the Mesozoic-early Tertiary geodynamic evolution of the southern Caribbean. The analysis of the lithostratigraphic, petrologic, and tectono-metamorphic features of the terranes, as well as their regional correlations, allows us to define the main geotectonic elements (as oceanic basins, magmatic arcs, subduction zones, continental margins, continental microplates, etc.) involved in the evolution of the southern Caribbean margin. The magmatic, tectonic, and metamorphic histories of these elements provide valuable constrains for the evolution of the southern Caribbean, as for instance, the beginning of the convergence during the Early Cretaceous, the atypical evolution of the system during the middle Cretaceous, the role of the middle Cretaceous strike-slip tectonics, the exhumation histories of the high-pressure/low-temperature (HPLT) units. The collected data suggests a Middle Jurassic-Early Cretaceous location of these elements in a westernmost, "near mid-America" position, almost at the northwestern corner of the South American plate. Starting from the middle Cretaceous, the elements have been affected by a right-oblique convergence along the transform boundary connecting the two oppositely dipping subduction zones of the Andes and Aves-Lesser Antilles. According to the geologic constraints, three possible geodynamic scenarios can be proposed for the beginning of the convergence during the middle Cretaceous, taking into account the different locations of the transform fault in the geodynamic setting of the southern Caribbean. The collisional belt, resulting from the middle Cretaceous tectonics, has been dissected in different terranes, progressively rotated clockwise, reciprocally juxtaposed, and then eastward displaced. The geodynamic framework was closely related to the progressive eastward motion of the Caribbean plateau which, in turn, was associated with the development of a west-southwest-dipping, intraoceanic subduction of the proto-Caribbean oceanic crust below the plateau, and related island-arc calc-alkaline magmatism, today preserved in the Dutch-Venezuelan Islands and Aves-Lesser Antilles. At that time, the terranes were already emplaced onto the South America continental margin. Northward, the dextral strike-slip tectonics of the Caribbean southern margin increasingly involved the southern part of the magmatic arc, which gradually became inactive and underwent a progressive rotation clockwise. In contrast, the Aves-Lesser Antilles were gradually bent eastward by the oblique convergence occurring at the southern end of the magmatic arc. Since the late Paleocene, the whole marginal belt was already completely identifiable with the large shear zone occurring today at the transform boundary between the Caribbean and South American plates.

Giunta, G., et al. (1992). "Geologia de los margenes de la Placa Caribe: Generalidades en Guatemala, Costa Rica,  La Hispaniola y resultados preliminares del analisis de un transecto en el Sistema Montanoso del Caribe en Venezuela (Geology of the margins of the Caribbean Plate:  Generalities in Guatemala, Costa Rica, Hispaniola and preliminary results of the analysis of a transect in the Caribbean Montanoso System in Venezuela)." VII Congreso Geologico de America Central, Guatemala (Preprint en Revista Centramericana de Geologia-Costa Rica): 24.
	
Giunta, G., et al. (1996). "Geology of the margins of the Caribbean plate:  Generalities in Guatemala, Costa Rica and  Espanola and preliminary results of the analysis of a traverse in the cordillera of the Venezuelan coast (Geologia de las margenes de la placa del Caribe: Generalidades en Guatemala, Costa Rica, La Espanola y resultados preliminares del analisis de una transversal en la cordillera de la costa de Venezuela)." Revista Geologica de America Central 19/20: 7-28.
	
Giunta, G., et al. (1997). "Geology of the Caribbean Plate boundaries Generalities in Guatemala, Costa Rica, Hispaniola and preliminary results of the analysis of a geotraverse across the Cordillera de la Costa in Venezuela (Geologia de las margenes de la Placa del Caribe: Generalidades en Guatemala, Costa Rica, la Espana y resultados preliminares del analisis de una transversal en la Cordillera de la Costa de Venezuela)." Revista Geologica de America Central 19-20: 7-28.
	The Caribbean Plate margins are constituted by deformed belts built up since the Cretaceous in a compressional and strike-slip stress field, which allowed overthrusting of the Caribbean crust onto the Pacific, North and South American Plates. The Caribbean borders include Jurassic-Cretaceous ophiolitic units (Great Antilles, Venezuela, Costa Rica, Guatemala, etc.), composed by mantle peridotites, gabbros, volcanic and sedimentary covers, which have been deformed in at least two ductile penetrative phases and were often metamorphosed in the prehnite-pumpelleyite, green and blue schist, amphibolite, and in places eclogite facies. These units may present part of a subduction complex or are an accretionary prism. This paper deals with a regional geological survey (1989-1993) conducted on the main periCaribbean ophiolitic units of Guatemala, Costa Rica, Hispanola, and Venezuela. The preliminary data, recently updated with new and detailed researches, allow to recognize the magmatic affinities (MORB and IAT) of the different reconstructed lithological sequences, which can be related with an hypothetical kinematic model of the development of the Caribbean Plate.

Giunta, G., et al. (1992). Some problems connected with a several geological and petrographic aspects of the ophiolitic units at the deformed borders of the Caribbean Plate (Central America), IGCP  Project 256, Working Group Meeting, Tirana: 19-20.
	
Glaser, K. S. (1992). Late Quaternary Periplatform Sediments and Environments on the Northeastern Nicaragua Rise, Caribbean Sea. Rice University, Department of Geology & Geophysics. Houston, TX: 261.
	
Glaser, K. S., et al. (1991). "Highstand shedding off two semi-drowned shallow carbonate systems, Pedro Bank and the southern shelf of Jamaica, northeastern Nicaraguan Rise." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 61: 128-142.
	
Glaser, K. S. and A. W. Droxler (1993). "Controls and development of late Quaternary periplatform carbonate stratigraphy in Walton Basin (northeastern Nicaragua Rise, Caribbean Sea)." Paleoceanography 8(2): 243-274.
	
Glover, L., III (1971). Geology of the Coamo area, Puerto Rico, and its relation to the volcanic arc-trench association, U.S. Geological Survey.
	
Glover, L. and P. H. Mattson (???). Geologic Map of the Rio Descalabrado Quadrangle, Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Glynn, P., et al. (1983). "A dead Central American reef tract:  Possible link with the Little Ice Age." Journal of Marine Research 41: 605-637.
	
Goddard, E. N., et al. (1947). "Manganese deposits of the Republic of Haiti." U.S. Geologic Survey Bulletin 953-C: 53-84.
	
Godey, S., et al. (2003). "Surface wave tomography of North America and the Caribbean using global and regional broad-band networks: Phase velocity maps and limitations of ray theory." Geophysical Journal International 152(3): 620-632.
	We present phase velocity maps of fundamental mode Rayleigh waves across the North American and Caribbean plates. Our data set consists of 1846 waveforms from 172 events recorded at 91 broad-band stations operating in North America. We compute phase velocity maps in four narrow period bands between 50 and 150 s using a non-linear waveform inversion method that solves for phase velocity perturbations relative to a reference Earth model (PREM). Our results show a strong velocity contrast between high velocities beneath the stable North American craton, and lower velocities in the tectonically active western margin, in agreement with other regional and global surface wave tomography studies. We perform detailed comparisons with global model results, which display good agreement between phase velocity maps in the location and amplitude of the anomalies. However, forward modelling shows that regional maps are more accurate for predicting waveforms. In addition, at long periods, the amplitude of the velocity anomalies imaged in our regional phase velocity maps is three time larger than in global phase velocity models. This amplitude factor is necessary to explain the data accurately, showing that regional models provide a better image of velocity structures. Synthetic tests show that the raypath coverage used in this study enables one to resolve velocity features of the order of 800-1000 km. However, only larger length-scale features are observed in the phase velocity maps. The limitation in resolution of our maps can be attributed to the wave propagation theory used in the inversion. Ray theory does not account for off-great-circle ray propagation effects, such as ray bending or scattering. For wavelengths less than 1000 km, scattering effects are significant and may need to be considered.

Godey, S. U. U., Faculty of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, Netherlands); Snieder, Roel; Villasenor, Antonio; Benz, Harley M. , et al. (Surface wave tomography of North America and the Caribbean using global and regional broad-band networks; phase velocity maps and limitations of ray theory 
Author(s): Godey, Stephanie (Utrecht University, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, Netherlands); Snieder, Roel; Villasenor, Antonio; Benz, Harley M. 
Source: Geophysical Journal International, March 2003, Vol. 152, Issue 3, pp. 620-632 
Publisher: Blackwell Science for the Royal Astronomical Society, the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft and the European Geophysical Society, International 
Research Program(s): USGSOP 
Country of Publication: International 
Publication Date: March 2003 
Language(s): English 
Major Categories: (18) Solid-earth geophysics; (19) Seismology 
Subject(s): broad-band spectra; Caribbean region; crust; earthquakes; elastic waves; errors; focal mechanism; guided waves; noise; North America; Rayleigh waves; seismic networks; seismic waves; seismograms; surface waves; tomography; velocity; velocity structure; wave dispersion). "Surface wave tomography of North America and the Caribbean using global and regional broad-band networks; phase velocity maps and limitations of ray theory 
Author(s): Godey, Stephanie (Utrecht University, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, Netherlands); Snieder, Roel; Villasenor, Antonio; Benz, Harley M. 
Source: Geophysical Journal International, March 2003, Vol. 152, Issue 3, pp. 620-632 
Publisher: Blackwell Science for the Royal Astronomical Society, the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft and the European Geophysical Society, International 
Research Program(s): USGSOP 
Country of Publication: International 
Publication Date: March 2003 
Language(s): English 
Major Categories: (18) Solid-earth geophysics; (19) Seismology 
Subject(s): broad-band spectra; Caribbean region; crust; earthquakes; elastic waves; errors; focal mechanism; guided waves; noise; North America; Rayleigh waves; seismic networks; seismic waves; seismograms; surface waves; tomography; velocity; velocity structure; wave dispersion." Surface wave tomography of North America and the Caribbean using global and regional broad-band networks; phase velocity maps and limitations of ray theory 
Author(s): Godey, Stephanie (Utrecht University, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, Netherlands); Snieder, Roel; Villasenor, Antonio; Benz, Harley M. 
Source: Geophysical Journal International, March 2003, Vol. 152, Issue 3, pp. 620-632 
Publisher: Blackwell Science for the Royal Astronomical Society, the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft and the European Geophysical Society, International 
Research Program(s): USGSOP 
Country of Publication: International 
Publication Date: March 2003 
Language(s): English 
Major Categories: (18) Solid-earth geophysics; (19) Seismology 
Subject(s): broad-band spectra; Caribbean region; crust; earthquakes; elastic waves; errors; focal mechanism; guided waves; noise; North America; Rayleigh waves; seismic networks; seismic waves; seismograms; surface waves; tomography; velocity; velocity structure; wave dispersion Surface wave tomography of North America and the Caribbean using global and regional broad-band networks; phase velocity maps and limitations of ray theory 
Author(s): Godey, Stephanie (Utrecht University, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, Netherlands); Snieder, Roel; Villasenor, Antonio; Benz, Harley M. 
Source: Geophysical Journal International, March 2003, Vol. 152, Issue 3, pp. 620-632 
Publisher: Blackwell Science for the Royal Astronomical Society, the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft and the European Geophysical Society, International 
Research Program(s): USGSOP 
Country of Publication: International 
Publication Date: March 2003 
Language(s): English 
Major Categories: (18) Solid-earth geophysics; (19) Seismology 
Subject(s): broad-band spectra; Caribbean region; crust; earthquakes; elastic waves; errors; focal mechanism; guided waves; noise; North America; Rayleigh waves; seismic networks; seismic waves; seismograms; surface waves; tomography; velocity; velocity structure; wave dispersion(Surface wave tomography of North America and the Caribbean using global and regional broad-band networks; phase velocity maps and limitations of ray theory 
Author(s): Godey, Stephanie (Utrecht University, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, Netherlands); Snieder, Roel; Villasenor, Antonio; Benz, Harley M. 
Source: Geophysical Journal International, March 2003, Vol. 152, Issue 3, pp. 620-632 
Publisher: Blackwell Science for the Royal Astronomical Society, the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft and the European Geophysical Society, International 
Research Program(s): USGSOP 
Country of Publication: International 
Publication Date: March 2003 
Language(s): English 
Major Categories: (18) Solid-earth geophysics; (19) Seismology 
Subject(s): broad-band spectra; Caribbean region; crust; earthquakes; elastic waves; errors; focal mechanism; guided waves; noise; North America; Rayleigh waves; seismic networks; seismic waves; seismograms; surface waves; tomography; velocity; velocity structure; wave dispersion): Surface wave tomography of North America and the Caribbean using global and regional broad-band networks; phase velocity maps and limitations of ray theory 
Author(s): Godey, Stephanie (Utrecht University, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Utrecht, Netherlands); Snieder, Roel; Villasenor, Antonio; Benz, Harley M. 
Source: Geophysical Journal International, March 2003, Vol. 2152, Issue 2003, pp. 2620-2632 
Publisher: Blackwell Science for the Royal Astronomical Society, the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft and the European Geophysical Society, International 
Research Program(s): USGSOP 
Country of Publication: International 
Publication Date: March 2003 
Language(s): English 
Major Categories: (2018) Solid-earth geophysics; (2019) Seismology 
Subject(s): broad-band spectra; Caribbean region; crust; earthquakes; elastic waves; errors; focal mechanism; guided waves; noise; North America; Rayleigh waves; seismic networks; seismic waves; seismograms; surface waves; tomography; velocity; velocity structure; wave dispersion.
	
Goes, S. and S. Y. Schwartz (1991). "Rupture process of the April 22, 1991 Valle de la Estrella, Costa Rica earthquake from teleseismic body waves." EOS (American Geophysical Union Transactions) 72: 301.
	
Goes, S. D. B., et al. (1992). "The April 22, 1991 Valle de la Estrella, Costa Rica (M 7.7) earthquake and its tectonic implications:  A broadband seismic study." Journal of Geophysical Research 98: 8127-8142.
	
Goes, S. D. B., et al. (1993). "The April 22, 1991 , Valle de la Estrella, Costa Rica (Mw = 7.7) earthquake and its tectonic implications:  A broadband seismic study." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 98: 8127-8142.
	
Goguitchaichvili, A., et al. (2001). "Paleomagnetic and paleointensity study of Oligocene volcanic rocks from Chihuahua (Northern Mexico)." Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 124(3-4): 223-236.
	
Goldich, S. S. (1948). "Aluminous lateritic soil of the Republic of Haiti, West Indies." U.S. Geologic Survey Bulletin 854-C: 63-111.
	
Goldich, S. S. and H. R. Bergquist (1947). "Aluminous lateritic soil of the Sierra de Bahoruco area, Dominican Republic, West Indies." U.S. Geologic Survey Bulletin 953-C: 53-84.
	
Goldstein, A. (1985). Seismic Stratigraphy and Subsurface Structure of Tongue of the Ocean, Bahamas, University of Delaware MS Thesis, University of Delaware.
	
Golick, A. and F. B. Phleger (1977). "Benthic foraminifera from the Gulf of Panama." Journal of Foraminiferal Research 7: 83-99.
	
Goll, R. M. (1967). Classification and Phylogeny of Cenozoic Trissocyclidae (Radiolaria) in the Pacific and Caribbean Basins. Department of Geological Sciences. Columbus, OH, Ohio State University: 157.
	
Golovchenko, X. (1975). Late Cenozoic History of Sedimentation in the Blake-Bahama Basin, University of Delaware.
	
Golovkin, L. M. and et al. (1978). "Informe sobre los resultados del levantamiento geológico a escala 1:100 000 realizado en la parte occidental del macizo montañoso de la Sierra MaestraCNFG, La Habana (Report ".
	
Gomberg, D. N., et al. (1968). "Guatemala: Preliminary zircon ages from the Central Cordillera." Science 162: 121-122.
	
Gomez, G., F., et al., Eds. (1991). Aquifers of the Caribbean Islands:  Papers Presented at the AWRA International Symposium on Tropical Hydrology. AWRA Monograph Series.
	
Gómez-Cruz, A. L. (1987). Evaluation of Aquifer Potential and Design for Containment of Subterranean Waters in the Puente Mulas Zone, Heredia Province, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 66.
	
Gomez-Gomez, F. and J. E. Heisel (1980). Summary appraisals of the Nation's ground-water resources: Caribbean region. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey: 32.
	
Gómez-Venegas, M. A. (1992). Evaluation of the Diatomite Mine in Quebrada Grande Liberia, Guanacaste (Costa Rica). Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 101.
	
Goncalves, P., et al. (2000). "Thrusting and sinistral wrenching in a pre-Eocene HP-LT Caribbean accretionary wedge (Samana Peninsula, Dominican Republic)." Geodinamica Acta 13(2-3): 119-132.
	
Gondolfi, R. (1955). "The Genus Globotruncana in Northeastern Colombia." Bulletin of American Paleontology 36(155): 118.
	
Goni, M. A., et al. (2003). "Biogenic fluxes in the Cariaco Basin: A combined study of sinking particulates and underlying sediments." Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 50(6): 781-807.
	The fluxes of total mass, organic carbon (OC), biogenic opal, calcite (CaCO<inf>3</inf>) and long-chain C<inf>37</inf> alkenones (< Sigma >Alk <inf>37</inf>) were measured at three water depths (275, 455 and 930 m) in the Cariaco Basin (Venezuela) over three separate annual upwelling cycles (1996-1999) as part of the CARIACO sediment trap time-series. The strength and timing of both the primary and secondary upwelling events in the Cariaco Basin varied significantly during the study period, directly affecting the rates of primary productivity (PP) and the vertical transport of biogenic materials. OC fluxes showed a weak positive correlation (r<sup>2</sup> = 0.3) with PP rates throughout the 3 years of the study. The fluxes of opal, CaCO<inf>3</inf> and < Sigma >Alk<inf>37</inf> were strongly correlated (0.6 < r<sup>2</sup> < 0.8) with those of OC. The major exception was the lower than expected < Sigma >Alk<inf>37</inf> fluxes measured during periods of strong upwelling. All sediment trap fluxes were significantly attenuated with depth, consistent with marked losses during vertical transport. Annually, strong upwelling conditions, such as those observed during 1996-1997, led to elevated opal fluxes (e.g., 35 g m<sup>-2</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> at 275 m) and diminished < Sigma >Alk <inf>37</inf> fluxes (e.g., 5 mg m<sup>-2</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> at 275 m). The opposite trends were evident during the year of weakest upwelling (1998-1999), indicating that diatom and haptophyte productivity in the Cariaco Basin are inversely correlated depending on upwelling conditions. The analyses of the Cariaco Basin sediments collected via a gravity core showed that the rates of OC and opal burial (10-12 g m<sup>-2</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup>) over the past 5500 years were generally similar to the average annual water column fluxes measured in the deeper traps (10-14 g m<sup>-2</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup>) over the 1996-1999 study period. CaCO<inf>3</inf> burial fluxes (30-40 g m<sup>-2</sup> yr <sup>-1</sup>), on the other hand, were considerably higher than the fluxes measured in the deep traps (< similar-to > 10 g m<sup>-2</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup>) but comparable to those obtained from the shallowest trap (i.e. 38 g m<sup>-2</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup> at 275 m). In contrast, the burial rates of < Sigma >Alk <inf>37</inf> (0.4-1 mg m<sup>-2</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup>) in Cariaco sediments were significantly lower than the water column fluxes measured at all depths (4-6 mg m<sup>-2</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup>), indicating the large attenuation in the flux of these compounds at the sediment-water interface. The major trend throughout the core was the general decrease in all biogenic fluxes with depth, most likely due to postdepositional in situ degradation. The major exception was the relatively low opal fluxes (< similar-to > 5 g m<sup>-2</sup> yr<sup>-1</sup>) and elevated < Sigma >Alk<inf>37</inf> fluxes (< similar-to > 2 mg m<sup>-2</sup> yr <sup>-1</sup>) measured in the sedimentary interval corresponding to 1600-2000 yr BP. Such compositions are consistent with a period of low diatom and high haptophyte productivity, which based on the trends observed from the sediment traps, is indicative of low upwelling conditions relative to the modern day. < copyright > 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Gonzalez de Juana, C., et al. (1980). Geologia de Venezuela y de sus cuencas petroliferas (Geology of Venezuela and its petroliferous basins). Caracas, Ediciones FONINVES.
	
Gonzalez de Juana, C., et al. (1980). "Geology of Venezuela and its petroliferous basins (Geología de Venezuela y de sus cuencas petrolíferas)." Edición del Foninves 1-5.
	
Gonzalez de Juana, C., et al. (1968). "On the geology of the eastern Paria (Venezuela)." Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad: 25-29.
	
Gonzalez, E. C., et al. (2003). "Morphostructural study of Cuba (Estudio morfoestructural de Cuba)." Geografia Fisica e- Dinamica Quaternari 26(1): 49-69.
	In the work is exposed a methodology for the morphostructural classification of the Cuban archipelago in the complex and dynamical context of the lithospheric plates of the Caribbean, Northamerican, Cocos and Nazca. This classification, with six hierarchic levels, has the purpose of the morphostructural analysis, integral and complex of the geological, geophysical and geomorphological information. This last obtained from different methods. With its application is possible to delimit the very various and complex morphostructural spectrum of the Cuban territory, configurated in the time by the dynamic-active pair of endogenous and exogenous processes, and to prepare a map of scale 1:250.000. This material served as support to the neotectonic map. It is considered that Cuba is a morphostructure in differential ascent of first (I) order in the southern part of the geotecture (plate) of North America, compound by a various set of morphostructures of smaller order. All these units are characterized quantitatively as of the morphometric methods. The greater intensity of the neotectonic vertical movements are located in the Eastern region and in particular in the Sierra Maestra.

González Ferrer, S. and M. M. Iturralde Vinent (2004). Breve Historia Natural de los corales y sus formaciones (Short natural history of the corals and its formations). Jardines sumergidos de Cuba. S. González Ferrer and C. Pétreos. La Habana, Editorial Academia. 318: 65-69.
	
Gonzalez, G. (1992). Geological and Geophysical Interpretation of the Mara Oeste Area, Northwest of Maracaibo Basin, University of Arizona: 329.
	Mara Oeste is located in northwestern Maracaibo basin, northwestern Venezuela. The structural and stratigraphic framework of the Mara Oeste area was interpreted based on migrated seismic profiles and data from six wells drilled in the area. Six structural and two isochore (vertical thickness) maps were constructed. A structure contour map was constructed for the basement surface and for the top of each of five depositional megasequences that were identified. Normal faults show a NNW trend. Almost all the normal faults were generated earlier than the Eocene unconformity (Late Eocene) and only two of them appear reactivated during the Miocene. The most important structural feature of the area is an ENE trending reverse fault that has a maximum vertical separation of 3500-4000 ft (1000-1200 m). This major reverse fault was generated during the Miocene as a consequence of NNW-SSE compression that affected the area related to large-scale plate interactions.

González, R. A., et al. (1987). "Stratigraphy of upper middle Eocene deposits of the central region of the Habana and Matanzas provinces." Revista Tecnológica 17(1): 8-18.
	
Gonzalez-G, E. (1985). Comentarios biostratigraficos en relacion al Terciario en areas adyacentes a los Andes Colombo-Venezolanos (Biostratigraphic comentaries on the relation to the Tertiary in adjacent areas to the Colombian-Venezuelan Andes). II simposio Bolivariano de Eploracion Pelrolera en las Cuencas Subandinas. Bogota, Colombia, Asociacion Colombiana de Geologos y Geofisicos del Petroleo. 2: ?
	
Gonzalezleon, C. M. and T. F. Lawton (1995). Stratigraphy, depositional environments, and origin of the Cabullona basin, northeastern Sonora. Studies on the Mesozoic of Sonora and Adjacent Areas. C. Jacquesayala, C. M. Gonzalezleon and J. Roldanquintana. Boulder, CO, Geological Soc America Inc: 121-142.
	
Goodfriend, G. A. and R. M. Mitterer (1993). "A 45,000-yr record of a tropical lowland biota: The land snail fauna from cave sediments at Coco Ree, Jamaica." Geological Society of America Bulletin 105: 18-29.
	
Goodman, E. D., et al. (2002). "Genetic approach to understanding a complex hydrocarbon system; Caribbean colossus of East Venezuela." AAPG Bulletin, October 2002, Vol. 86, Issue 10, pp. 1848-1849 86(10): 1848-1849.
	Venezuela's well known, giant hydrocarbon provinces are characterized by complex paleo-tectonic, fluid flow and stratigraphic histories. This complexity makes predicting the distribution of rocks and fluids away from control difficult for those exploring for and developing hydrocarbon resources. We have used the eastern Venezuela Basin portion of a regional study, undertaken to evaluate available acreage, as an example of an integrated analysis of hydrocarbon systems. This scalable approach includes construction of a new plate tectonic model that is keyed to basin events, analysis of crustal types underlying sedimentary basins, and culminates with molecular geochemistry of reservoired hydrocarbons, seeps and fluid inclusions. The prolific Eastern Venezuela Basin is part of an active, curvilinear belt of subduction, transpression, and tectonic thickening, and has been compared to other global foreland basins. However, at both crustal and lithospheric scales, its genesis and evolution are unique. At the lithospheric scale, a combination of Atlantic, Caribbean and Pacific plate tectonic events influenced its development-it is currently located over one of the largest measured gravity lows on earth. At crustal and basin scales, it contains world-class hydrocarbon source rocks whose thermal maturation history is complex and spatially variable due to the interplay of these tectonic events. The superposition of these elements with late-developing, but long-lived structural and stratigraphic fairways, led to efficient migration of large volumes of oil and gas. Significant volumes were lost before regional seals were deposited. At least four hydrocarbon source rocks contribute to oil and gas accumulations. Cretaceous oil-prone, marine source rocks, and Miocene oil- and gas-prone, paralic source rocks are well documented. We also identified probable Jurassic hypersaline-lacustrine, and Albian carbonate source rocks based on new data and analyses. We hypothesize that, 1) the older organic-rich rocks formed under restricted conditions within continental rifts lying at high angles to the eventual passive margins and, 2) inverted Mesozoic normal faults underlie the thin-skinned structures of the Serrania del Interior. Probable Albian and Jurassic source rocks provide the incentive to investigate deeper oil and gas plays. The Tertiary, eastward-younging development of depocenters across Venezuela's northern margin, was supplemented by local, tectonically-induced subsidence. Rapid burial then created the opportunity for unusually efficient migration and trapping of Neogene-expelled hydrocarbons in eastern Venezuela. The complex, mapped distribution of oils of different qualities and mixtures is explained and predicted by an integrated model that incorporates source facies, burial/maturation, migration, mixing and preservation aspects.

Goosens, P. J., et al. (1977). Geochemistry of tholeiites of the basic igneous complex of northwestern South America. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 88: 1711-1720.
	
Goossens, P. J. and W. I. Rose, Jr. (1973). "Chemical compoistion and age determination of tholeiitic rocks in the basic igneous complex, Ecuador." Geological Society of America Bulletin 84: 1043-1052.
	
Gordon, A. L. (1965). Quantitative Study of the Dynamics of the Caribbean Sea. Department of Geological Sciences. Palisades, NY, Columbia University: ?
	
Gordon, C. M. (1991). "The poor fossil record of Echinometra (Echinodermata: Echinoidea) in the Caribbean region." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 28: 37-41.
	
Gordon, M. and K. Young (1993). Bathonian and Valanginian fossils from Honduras. Géobios. 15: 175-179.
	
Gordon, M. B. (1987). "The Guayape Fault of Honduras: A major right-lateral fault cutting the Chortis Block." EOS, Transactions of the American Geophysics Union 68: 423.
	
Gordon, M. B. (1990). The Chortis block is a continental, pre-Mesozoic terrane. Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, U. S. Virgin Islands. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, Florida, Miami Geological Society: 505-512.
	
Gordon, M. B. (1990). The Chortís block is a continental, pre-Mesozoic terrane. Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, Florida, Miami Geological Society: 505-512.
	
Gordon, M. B. (1990). "Mesozoic igneous rocks on the Chortis block:  implications for Caribbean reconstructions." EOS 70: 1342.
	
Gordon, M. B. (1990). Strike-slip Faulting and Basin Formation at the Guyape Fault-Valle de Catacamas Intersection, Honduras, Central America. University of Texas at Austin, Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX: 259.
	
Gordon, M. B. (1992). Northern Central America (the Chortís block). The Jurassic of the Circum-Pacific. G. E. G. Westermann. New York, Cambridge University Press. 3: 107-113.
	
Gordon, M. B. (1993). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, Santa María del Real sheet (Geologic Map of Honduras, Santa María del Real sheet). ???, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Gordon, M. B. (1993). Revised Jurassic and Early Cretaceous (Pre-Yojoa Group) stratigraphy of the Chortis Block:  Paleogeographic and tectonic implications. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region:  A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration. J. L. Pindell and R. F. Perkins. Austin, TX, Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation: 143-154.
	
Gordon, M. B., et al. (1991). Active tectonics of the Chortís block. Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, Florida, Miami Geological Society: 503-504.
	
Gordon, M. B., et al. (1997). "Cenozoic tectonic history of the North America-Caribbean plate boundary zone in western Cuba." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 102(5): 10055-10082.
	
Gordon, M. B. and W. R. Muehlberger (1994). "Rotation of the Chortís block causes dextral slip on the Guayape fault." Tectonics 13: 858-872.
	
Gordon, W. A. (1963). "Middle Tertiary echinoids of Puerto Rico." Journal of Paleontology 37: 628-642.
	
Goreau, P. D. E. (1981). The Tectonic Evolution of the North-central Caribbean Plate Margin. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Science. Cambridge, MA: 245.
	
Goreau, P. D. E. (1983). The tectonic evolution of the north central Caribbean plate margin. Woods Hole, Massachusetts, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute: 244.
	
Goreau, T. F. (1969). "The ecology of Jamaican coral reefs. I. Species composition and zonation." Ecology 40: 67-89.
	
Goreau, T. F. and N. I. Goreau (1973). "The ecology of Jamaican coral reefs II: Geomorphology, zonation and sedimentary phases." Bulletin of Marine Science 23: 399-464.
	
Goreau, T. F. and J. W. Wells (1967). "The shallow-water Scleractinia of Jamaica:  Revised list of species and their vertical distribution range." Bulletin of Marine Science 17: 442-453.
	
Gorney, D. (2005). Chronology of Cenozoic Tectonic Events in Western Venezuela and the Dutch Antilles Based on Integration of Offshore Seismic Reflection Data and Onland Geology. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 103.
	
Gorney, D., et al. (2007). "Chronology of Cenozoic tectonic events in western Venezuela and the Leeward Antilles based on integration of offshore seismic reflection data and on-land geology." AAPG Bulletin 91: 653-684.
	Newly acquired, deep-penetration Broadband Onshore-Offshore Lithospheric Investigation of Venezuela and the Antilles Arc Region seismic reflection data from offshore western Venezuela (Bonaire Basin) and around the Leeward Antilles are combined with existing geologic and geophysical data sets to examine the chronology of Late Cretaceous–Cenozoic tectonic events in this part of the Caribbean–South American plate boundary zone. These tectonic events have controlled the maturation and structural trapping of known hydrocarbons in the offshore Bonaire Basin and the adjacent onland Falco´n Basin. We infer three tectonic phases that are constrained using these combined data sets. (1) The late Eocene–early Oligocene, north-south opening of the 3–6-km (1.8–3.7-mi)-thick Falco´n-Bonaire Basin occurred along east-west–striking normal fault systems that have locally been inverted by later tectonic phases. These Paleogene normal faults rifted theUpper Cretaceous arc crust and Paleogene marine depositional sequences within the offshore Bonaire Basin. (2) Northwest-striking normal faults crosscut the older normal faults of the Bonaire Basin and Leeward Antilles and form deep, submarine rifts that contain up to 4 km (2.5 mi) of sedimentary fill and form deep-water channels between islands of the LeewardAntilles. Offshore well data and age of onshore sediments in the Falco´n Basin indicate that this second phase of rifting occurred mainly during the late Oligocene to early Miocene and remains active to the present. (3) Inversion of the subaerial Falco´n Basin commenced during the middle Miocene. This inversion phase is reflected in the present-day pattern of an east-northeast–trending fold-thrust belt that can be traced over 200 km (124 mi) along strike in the Falco´n Basin. A second offshore fold-thrust belt (La Vela) can be traced over a distance of 175 km (108 mi) along strike and parallel to the northeast-trending Falco´n Basin coast. Restoration of imbricate thrusts seen on seismic lines perpendicular to the La Vela fold-thrust belt indicates a minimum of 7 km (4.3 mi) of northeastsouthwest– directed, thin-skinned shortening. Geochemical work indicates that source rocks for scattered occurrences of hydrocarbons in the Falco´n Basin and its coastal zone are Paleogene and Miocene marine shale. Reservoir rocks are Tertiary marine sandstone and shale deposited in Paleogene rifts formed during the first tectonic phase in the late Eocene to early Oligocene. Structural traps were formed by thrusting during 

Gorney, D., et al. (2007). "Chronology of Cenozoic tectonic events in western Venezuela and the Leeward Antilles based on integration of offshore seismic reflection data and on-land geology." AAPG Bulletin 91(5): 653-684.
	Newly acquired, deep-penetration Broadband Onshore-Offshore Lithospheric Investigation of Venezuela and the Antilles Arc Region seismic reflection data from offshore western Venezuela (Bonaire Basin) and around the Leeward Antilles are combined with existing geologic and geophysical data sets to examine the chronology of Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic tectonic events in this part of the Caribbean-South American plate boundary zone. These tectonic events have controlled the maturation and structural trapping of known hydrocarbons in the offshore Bonaire Basin and the adjacent onland Falcon Basin. We infer three tectonic phases that are constrained using these combined data sets. (1) The late Eocene-early Oligocene, north-south opening of the 3-6-km (1.8-3.7-mi)-thick Falcon-Bonaire Basin occurred along east-west-striking normal fault systems that have locally been inverted by later tectonic phases. These Paleogene normal faults rifted the Upper Cretaceous arc crust and Paleogene marine depositional sequences within the offshore Bonaire Basin. (2) Northwest-striking normal faults crosscut the older normal faults of the Bonaire Basin and Leeward Antilles and form deep, submarine rifts that contain up to 4 km (2.5 mi) of sedimentary fill and form deep-water channels between islands of the Leeward Antilles. Offshore well data and age of onshore sediments in the Falcon Basin indicate that this second phase of rifting occurred mainly during the late Oligocene to early Miocene and remains active to the present. (3) Inversion of the subaerial Falcon Basin commenced during the middle Miocene. This inversion phase is reflected in the present-day pattern of an east-northeast-trending fold-thrust belt that can be traced over 200 km (124 mi) along strike in the Falcon Basin. A second offshore fold-thrust belt (La Vela) can be traced over a distance of 175 km (108 mi) along strike and parallel to the northeast-trending Falcon Basin coast. Restoration of imbricate thrusts seen on seismic lines perpendicular to the La Vela fold-thrust belt indicates a minimum of 7 km (4.3 mi) of northeast-southwest-directed, thin-skinned shortening. Geochemical work indicates that source rocks for scattered occurrences of hydrocarbons in the Falcon Basin and its coastal zone are Paleogene and Miocene marine shale. Reservoir rocks are Tertiary marine sandstone and shale deposited in Paleogene rifts formed during the first tectonic phase in the late Eocene to early Oligocene. Structural traps were formed by thrusting during the second tectonic phase in the late Oligocene to early Miocene.

Gosch, N., et al. (1984). Sea floor spreading magnetic anomalies in the Venezuelan basin. The Caribbean-South American plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 65-80.
	
Gose, W. (1985). Caribbean tectonics from a paleomagnetic perspective. The great American biotic interchange. F. G. Stehli and D. Webb. New York, Plenum Publishing Corporation: 285-301.
	
Gose, W. A. (1982). Some paleomagnetic results from DSDP leg 67 of Guatemala. Initial Report of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. 67: 669-673.
	
Gose, W. A. (1983). "Late Cretaceous - Early Tertiary tectonic history of south Central America." Journal of Geophysical Research 88(B12): 10585-10592.
	
Gose, W. A. (1985). "Paleomagnetic results from Honduras and their bearing on Caribbean tectonics." Tectonics 4(6): 565-585.
	
Gose, W. A. (1988). Paleomagnetic Studies in Panama.
	
Gose, W. A. and R. C. Finch (1987). "Magnetostratigraphic studies of Cretaceous rocks in Central America." Actas Fac. Ciencias Tierra U.A.N.L. Linares 2: 233-241.
	
Gose, W. A. and R. C. Finch (1992). "Stratigraphic implications of palaeomagnetic data from Honduras." Geophysical Journal International 108: 855-864.
	
Gose, W. A., et al. (1978). "Paleomagnetic results from Cretaceous sediments in Honduras: Tectonic implications: Reply." Geology 6: 444-447.
	
Gose, W. A. and L. A. Sanchez-Barreda (1981). "Paleomagnetic results from southern Mexico." Geofisica Internacional 20(3): 163-175.
	
Gose, W. A., et al. (1980). The aggregation of Mezoamerica-paleomagnetic evidence. The Origin of the Gulf of Mexico and the Early Opening of the Central North Atlantic Ocean. R. H. Pilger. Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University: 51-54.
	
Gose, W. A. and D. K. Swartz (1977). "Paleomagnetic results from Cretaceous sediments in Honduras: Tectonic implications." Geology 5: 505-508.
	
Gose, W. A. and M. M. Testarmarta (1983). "Paleomagnetic results from sedimentary rocks in Jamaica, initial results." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 22: 16-24.
	
Gose, W. A. and M. M. Testarmata (1983). "Paleomagnetic results from sedimentary rocks in Jamaica initial results." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 22: 16-24.
	
Gosh, N., et al. (1984). "Seafloor spreading magnetic anomalies in the Venezuela basin." The Caribbean-South American plate boundary and regional tectonics 16: 65-80.
	
Gossens, P. J. and W. I. Rose, Jr. (1973). "Chemical composition and age determination of the tholeitic rocks in the basic igneous complex, Ecuador." Geological Society of America Bulletin 84: 1043-1052.
	
Gossens, P. J., et al. (1977). "Geochemistry of tholeiites of the Basic Igneous Complex of northwestern South America." Geological Society of America Bulletin 88: 1711-1720.
	
Gough, D. I. and J. R. Heirtzler (1969). "Magnetic anomalies and tectonics of the Cayman Trough." Geophysical Journal of the Royal astronomical Society 18: 33-49.
	
Gouyet, S. (1988). Tectono-sedimentary Evolution of the Guyana Margins and Northern Brazil ... (Evolution tectono-sedimentarie des marges Guyanaise et Nord-Bresilienne au cours de L'ouverture de L'Atlantique Sud), L'Universite de Pau et des pays de L'Adour: 364.
	
Gouyet, S., et al. (1994). The French Guyana margin and the Demerara Plateau: Geological history and petroleum plays. Hydrocarbon and petroleum geology of France. A. Mascle. Federal Republic of Germany, Federal Republic of Germany. 4: 411-422.
	
Govea-R., C. and H. Aguilera-B. (1985). Cuencas sedimentarias de Colombia (Sedimentary basins of Colombia). II Simposio Bolivariano de Exploracion Petrolera en las Cuencas Subandinas. Bogota, Colombia, Asociacion Colombiana de Geologos y Geofisicos del Petroleo. 2: ?
	
Govea-R., C. and L. E. Castillo (1984). Ecursion Geologica al Area Infantas-La Cira-Lisama: Primer Congreso Colombiano de Petroleo (Field Guide) (Geologic Excursion to the Infantas-La Cira-Lisama Area:  First Colombian Congress of Petroleum ((Field Guide)). Santander, Colombia, Acipet - Ministerio de Minas y Energia - Ecopetrol, El Centro.
	
Graefe, K., et al. (2002). "Geodynamic evolution of southern Costa Rica related to low-angle subduction of the Cocos Ridge; constraints from thermochronology." Tectonophysics 348(4): 187-204.
	The Late Tertiary shallow subduction of the Cocos ridge under the Caribbean plate controlled the evolution of the Cordillera de Talamanca in southeast Costa Rica, which is a mountain range that consists mainly of granitoids formed in a volcanic arc setting. Fission track thermochronology using zircon and apatite, as well as (super 40) Ar- (super 39) Ar and Rb-Sr age data of amphibole and biotite in granitoid rocks constrain the thermal history of the Cordillera de Talamanca and the age of onset of subduction of the Cocos ridge. Shallow intrusion of granitoid melts resulted in fast and isobaric cooling. A weighted mean zircon fission track age (13 analyses) and Rb-Sr biotite ages of about 10 Ma suggest rapid cooling and give minimum ages for granitoid emplacement. In some cases (super 40) Ar- (super 39) Ar and Rb-Sr apparent ages of amphibole and biotite are younger than the zircon fission track ages, which can be attributed to partial resetting by hydrothermal alteration. Apatite fission track ages range from 4.8 to 1.7 Ma but show no correlation with the 3090-m elevation span over which they were sampled. The apatite ages seem to indicate rapid exhumation caused by tectonic and isostatic processes. The combination of the apatite fission track ages with subduction parameters of the Cocos plate such as subduction angle, plate convergence rate and distance of the Cordillera de Talamanca to the trench implies that the Cocos ridge entered the Middle America Trench between 5.5 and 3.5 Ma.

Grafe, F., et al. (in press). "Rb-Sr and 40Ar/39Ar mineralages of granitoid intrusives in the Mabujina unit, Central Cuba: Thermal exhumation history of the Escambray massif." Journal of Geology.
	
Grafe, K. (1998). Exhumation and thermal evolution of the Cordillera de Talamanca (Costa Rica): Constraints from fission track analysis, 40Ar-39Ar,
and 87Rb-87Sr chronology, Tubinger Geowissenschaftliche Arbeiten. 39: 113.
	
Graham, A. (1985). "Studies in neotropical paleobotany IV: The Eocene communities of Panama." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 72: 504-534.
	
Graham, A. (1990). "Late Tertiary microfossil flora from the Republic of Haiti." American Journal of Botany 77 (7): 911-926.
	
Graham, A. (1990). "New angiosperm records from the Caribbean Tertiary." American Journal of Botany 77(7): 897-910.
	
Graham, A., et al. (1985). "Studies in neotropical paleobotany, III:  The Tertiary communities of Panamá - geology of the pollen-bearing deposits." Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden. 72: 485-503.
	
GrajalesNishimura, J. M., et al. (1999). "Geochemistry of Paleozoic basalts from the Juchatengo complex of southern Mexico: tectonic implications." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12(6): 537-544.
	
Grammer, G. M. (1998). Formation and evolution of steep marginal slope deposits in the Bahamas; insight into the reservoir potential and distribution of slope deposits in the Permian Basin. The search continues into the 21st century; West Texas Geological Society fall symposium. W. D. DeMis and M. K. Nelis. 98-105: 1-9.
	
Grammer, G. M. and R. N. Ginsburg (1992). "Highstand versus lowstand deposition on carbonate platform margins: Insight from Quaternary foreslopes in the Bahamas." Marine Geology 103: 125-136.
	
Granier, B., et al. (1991). The Dasycladalean algae from the Cretaceous of the New World. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 178-183.
	
Grases, G. J. (1986). "Hacia a reconstruccion de la historia de los terremotos del Caribe (Towards the reconstruction of the history of Caribbean earthquakes)." Revista Geofisica 24: 54-69.
	
Grases, J., et al. (1996). Seismic Energy Released Along a Segment of the Southern Caribbean Plate Border. 11th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Acapulco, México.
	
Graus, R. R. and I. G. Macintyre (1998). "Global warming and the future of Caribbean coral reefs." Carbonates and Evaporites 13(1): 43-47.
	
Gravell, D. W. (1948). Summary Cuban paleo report on the Jaronu area, Camaguey Province, Cuba. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 6.
	
Green, D. W. (1977). Structure and geology of the Wagwater Belt, Kingston, Jamaica, Overseas Geology and Mineral Resources (London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office). 48: 22.
	
Green, G. W. (1974). Map and explanation of the geology: Geological Sheet 25. Kingston, Jamaica Geological Survey Department.
	
Green, G. W. (1977). "Structure and stratigraphy of the Wagwater Belt, Kingston, Jamaica." Overseas Geology and Mineral Resources 48: 21.
	
Green, H. G. and F. L. Wong (1989). Ridge collisions along the plate margins of South America compared with those in the southwest Pacific. Geology of the Andes and Its Relation to Hydrocarbon and Mineral Resources. G. E. Erickson, M. T. Canas Pinochet and J. A. Reinemund. Houston Texas, Circum-Pacific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources. 11: 39-57.
	
Greenstein, B. J., et al. (1998). "The completeness of the Pleistocene fossil record, implications for stratigraphic adequacy." 75-109.
	
Greenstein, B. J., et al. (1998). The completeness of the Pleistocene fossil record, implications for stratigraphic adequacy. The Adequacy of the Fossil Record. S. K. Donovan and C. R. C. Paul. Chichester, United Kingdom, John Wiley & Sons: 75-109.
	
Greiner, H. R. (1965). "The oil and gas potential of Jamaica." Geological Survey of Jamaica Bulletin 8: 24œ.
	
Grevemeyer, I., et al. (2004). "Fluid flow through active mud dome Mound Culebra offshore Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica; evidence from heat flow surveying." Marine Geology 207(1-4): 145-157.
	Mud extrusion is frequently observed as a dewatering phenomenon in compressional tectonic settings such as subduction zones. Along the Middle American Trench, several of these features have been recently discovered. This paper presents a heat flow study of actively venting Mound Culebra, offshore Nicoya Peninsula, and is complemented by data from geophysical surveys and coring. The mud diapir is characterized by methane emission and authigenic carbonate formation at its crest and is composed of overconsolidated scaly clays and clast-bearing muds. Compared with the conductive background heat flow, the flux through the mud dome is elevated by 10-20 mW/m (super 2) , possibly related to advection of heat by fluids rising from greater depth. Decreased chlorinity in the pore waters from gravity cores may support a deep-seated fluid origin. Geothermal measurements across the mound and temperature measurements made with outriggers on gravity corers were corrected for the effects of thermal refraction, forced by the topography of the mound. Corrected values roughly correlate with the topography, suggesting advection of heat by fluids rising through the mound, thereby generating the prominent methane anomaly over the dome and nurturing vent biota. However, elevated values occur also to the southeast of the mound. We believe that the overconsolidated clays and carbonates on the crest form an almost impermeable lid. Fluids rising from depth underneath the dome are therefore partially channelled towards the flanks of the mound.

Griboulard, R., et al. (1991). The role of shearing on the sedimentary and morphostructural evolution of the southern part of the Barbados Ridge, at the latitude of Trinidad. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 23-24.
	
Griboulard, R., et al. (1998). "Recent tectonic activity in the South Barbados Prism; deep-towed side-scan sonar imagery." Tectonophysics 284(1-2): 79-99.
	
Griboulard, R., et al. (1989). "New sedimentological and geochemical evidence of actual activity of the Southern Barbados prism (Nouvelles evidences sedimentologiques et geochemiques de l'activite actuelle du prisme Sud Barbade)." C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, serie II 308: 75-81.
	
Griboulard, R., et al. (1991). "Clay diapiric structures within the strike slip margin of the southern leg of the Barbados prism." Tectonophysics 192: 383-400.
	
Grieve, R. and A. Therriault (2000). "Vredefort, Sudbury, Chicxulub: Three of a kind?" Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28: 305-338.
	
Griffin, J. J. and E. D. Goldberg (1969). Recent sediments of Caribbean Sea. Tectonic Relations of Northern Central America and the Western Caribbean—the Bonacca Expedition. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 258.
	
Grimalt, J. O., et al. (2002). "Organic geochemistry of the oils from the southern geological Province of Cuba." Applied Geochemistry 17(1): 1-10.
	
Grindlay, N. R., et al. (2005). Toward an integrated understanding of Holocene fault activity in western Puerto Rico: Constraints from high-resolution seismic and sidescan sonar data. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 139–160.
	
Grindlay, N. R., et al. (2005). Neotectonics and subsidence of the northern Puerto Rico–Virgin Islands margin in response to the oblique subduction of high-standing ridges. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 31–60.
	
Grindley, N., et al. (1997). "Researchers investigate submarine faults north of Puerto Rico." EOS, Transactions, American Geophuysical Union 78(38): 404.
	
Grippi, J. (1978). Geology of the Lucea Inlier, Western Jamaica, State University of New York at Albany: 183.
	The Lucea Inlier exposes a Santonian to Campanian 4 km + thick sequence of shale-siltstone, resedimented volcaniclastics, lenses of shallow-water limestone, micritic limestone, pebbly mudstone and sandy pebble to boulder conglomerate. Clastics were deposited by a variety of gravity flow mechanisms. Petrographically sandstones are lithic or feldspathic arenites and contain only very small amounts of detrital quartz. Structurally the inlier is characterized by simple, open, east-west trending folds. A spaced, vertical axial-planar cleavage is developed in shales and fine siltstones. Two major east-west trending left-lateral fault zones, the Fat Hog Quarter and Maryland faults, cut the inlier into three blocks, northern, central and southern. The basal part of the sequence has been subjected to a prehnite-pumpellyite metamorphism.
The rocks of the Lucea Inlier are interpreted to represent a shelf to basin sequence within an upper slope basin of a Cretaceous intraoceanic arc trench system. Detritus shed from the arc was funneled down submarine canyons feeding a submarine fan complex. Between canyon heads, shoal areas fringing volcanic islands locally accumulated bioclastic, reef-type limestone.
The geology of the northern Caribbean plate boundary records a complex array of Cretaceous to Eocene arc-trench systems that has been modified by Cenozoic left-lateral slip along the Oriente and Swan transforms.
Ridge related north-south lineated topography of the Cayman Trough suggests that a minimum of 720 km of left-lateral movement has occurred between the North American and Caribbean plate since approximately Oligocene times. Presently active northwest, northeast and east-west trending structures within Jamaica are interpreted as being of compressional, extensional and strike-slip origin, respectively, and are thought to be related to Recent left-lateral slip along the northern Caribbean plate boundary.

Grippi, J. (1980). "Geology of the Lucea Inlier, western Jamaica." Journal of Geological Society of Jamaica 19: ?
	
Grippi, J. and A. M. C. Sengör (1980). "Neogene structures in Jamaica and the tectonic style of the northern Caribbean plate boundary zone." Journal of Geology 88: 375-386.
	
Griscom, A. and W. H. Geddes (1966). "Island-arc structure interpreted from aeromagnetic sata near Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands." Geological Society of America Bulletin 77: 153-162.
	
Groetsch, G. J. (1980). Field Trip F - route through the Tavera and Bao Dam sites - Resedimented conglomerates and turbidites of the Upper Tavera Group. Field Guide, 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Dominican Republic: 205-230.
	
Groetsch, G. J. (1982). Resedimented conglomerates and turbidites of the Upper Tavera Group. Transactions, 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Dominican Republic. `: 191-198.
	
Groetsch, G. J. (1983). Resedimented Conglomerates and Turbidites of the Represa and Janico Formations, North-central Dominican-Republic. Department of Geology. Washington, D. C., George Washington University: 108.
	
Grosser, J. R. (1989). "Geotectonic evolution of the Western Cordillera of Colombia:  New aspects from geochemical data on volcanic rocks." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 2: 359-369.
	
Grove, K. A. (???). Marine Geologic Map of the Puerto Rico Insular Shelf, Northwestern Area:  Rio Grande de Anasco to Rio Camuy, United States Geological Survey.
	
Grove, K. A., et al. (1982). "Mud transportation on a steep shelf, Rio de la Plata Shelf, Puerto Rico." Geo-Marine Letters 2(1-2): 71-75.
	
Gruy, H. J. (1998). "Natural gas hydrates and the mystery of the Bermuda Triangle." Hart's Petroleum Engineer International 71(3): 71-72, 74-75, 79.
	
Guard, A. K. (1955). Report on a trip across the isthmus of Panama above Madden Lake inspecting manganese mines, ?: 5.
	
Guedez, M. C. (2007). Crustal structure across the Caribbean-South American plate boundary at 70W: Results from seismic refraction and reflection data. Houston, TX, Rice University: 51.
	The Caribbean-South America diffuse plate boundary is characterized by tectonic transpression with oblique convergence. In northwestern Venezuela, the underthrusting of the Caribbean Plate beneath northwestern South America, and the tectonic escape of the Maracaibo block complicate the boundary. The BOLIVAR project acquired onshore-offshore refraction and marine reflection data along the 450 km profile 70W, which extends from the Venezuela Basin, on the Caribbean plate, to the Maracaibo block, in the diffuse boundary zone. A 2-D velocity model was generated from wide-angle data, and it shows good correlation with the reflection data analyzed. We present evidence consistent with the underthrusting of the 15 km Caribbean plateau; however, we propose that the landward extent and depth of the oceanic crust are substantially less than previously suggested. The model also indicates the presence of an 8 km crustal thinning located to the north of the Oca-Ancon Fault and the inverted Falcon Basin.

Güendel, F. and others (1991). "Mainshock-aftershock sequence associated with the Costa Rica earthquake of April 22, 1991." EOS (American Geophysical Union Transactions) 72: 301.
	
Güendel, F. and a. others (1989). "First results from a new seismographic network in Costa Rica, Central America." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 79: 205-210.
	
Güendel, F. D. (1978). On the Relationship Between Earth Tides and Volcanic Activity at Arenal Volcano, Costa Rica. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 32.
	
Güendel, F. D. (1986). Seismotectonics of Costa Rica:  An Analytical View of the Southern Terminus of the Middle America Trench. University of California: ?
	
Guerra Pena, F. (1956). Las principales cuencas sedimentarias de la Republica Dominicana y sus posibilidades petroliferas (The principal sedimentary basins of the Dominican-Republic and their petroliferous possibilities). Symposium sobre Yacimientos de Petroleo y Gas, XX Congreso Geologico International, Mexico City, Mexico.
	
Guerrero Suastegui, M. (2004). Depositional and tectonic history of the Guerrero Terrane, Sierra Madre del Sur; with emphasis on sedimentary successions of the Teloloapan area, southwestern Mexico. Saint John's, NL, Canada, Memorial University of Newfoundland: 332.
	The Pacific margin of Mexico is formed by Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous arc-related successions of the Guerrero Terrane. The Guerrero Terrane in southwestern Mexico is divided into three subterranes: from west to east: the Zihuatanejo-Huetamo subterrane, Arcelia-Palmar Chico subterrane, and Teloloapan subterrane.

This thesis research targets the Teloloapan subterrane and is aimed at establishing its stratigraphy, sedimentology, petrography and geochemistry as the basis for an improved understanding of its tectonic history. The Teloloapan subterrane contains a thick Lower Cretaceous age sequence of volcanic, volcaniclastic, and carbonate rocks (the arc-related succession), which is covered by Upper Cretaceous mostly deep-water siliciclastic rocks (the sedimentary cover successions). All rocks are strongly deformed.

The arc-related succession contains three formations (Villa Ayala, Acapetlahuaya and Teloloapan formations) showing concordant and transitional boundaries. Facies analysis of the Villa Ayala and Acapetlahuaya formations (Berriasian-Late Aptian) records the construction of volcanic build-ups and their destruction by gravity-current processes that formed slope-apron deposits. Carbonate rocks of the Teloloapan Formation developed on top of extinct volcanoes and formed an Aptian-Albian carbonate platform.

The Miahuatepec and Mezcala formations constitute the sedimentary cover succession. The Mezcala Formation is comprised of interbedded sandstone and shale with minor thin-bedded limestone and calcareous breccias. The Miahuatepec Formation is a thick sequence of interbedded sandstone and shale with minor thin-bedded limestone. Facies analysis shows both units were deposited by low- to high-concentration turbidity currents on the middle to lower parts of submarine fans.

Volcaniclastic and epiclastic sandstones from the arc-related succession are rich in volcanic lithic grains derived from contemporaneous volcanic source. They have an undissected to transitional arc provenance (terminology of W. R. Dickinson). Geochemical data indicate a mafic to felsic volcanic source with a calc-alkaline affinity. REE patterns are similar to those of evolved intraoceanic arcs.

Sandstones from the Mezcala Formation show quartzolithic and carbonate-rich petrofacies, while the sandstones of the Miahuatepec Formation are mainly quartzolithic. Both formations were derived by erosion of volcanic sources and have a transitional to dissected arc provenance.

Gugliemo, G., Jr. (1986). Push-up structure in a transpressional environment, northeastern Hispaniola. New York, New York, City College of New York: 52.
	
Guild, P. W. (1946). "Chromite deposits of Camagüey province." Economic Geology 40: ?
	
Guild, P. W. (1947). "Petrology and structure of the Moa chromite district, Oriente Province, Cuba." Transactions, American Geophysical Union 28: 218-246.
	
Guild, P. W. (1974). Mineral resources of the Caribbean region. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey: 9.
	
Guillande, R. (1988). Evolution meso-cenozoique d'une vallee intercordilleraine: la haute vallee du rio Magdalena (Colombie) (Meso-Cenozoic Evolution of an Intercordilleran Valley:  The High Valley of the Magdalena River (Colombia)). Paris, France, University of Pierre and Marie Curie: 358.
	
Guja, N. H. and S. A. Vincenz (1978). "Paleomagnetism of some late Cretaceous and Miocene igneous rocks on Jamaica." Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomy Society 52: 97-115.
	
Gumbs, F. A., et al. (1985). Soil erosion studies in the northern mountain range, Trinidad, under different crop and soil management. International Conference on Soil Erosion and Conservation, "Malama Aina 83", Honolulu, HI, Jan. 16-22, 1983. S. A. El Swaify, W. C. Moldenhauer and A. K. F. Lo. Ankeny, IA, Soil Conservation Society of America: 90-98.
	
Gunn, B. M. and M. J. Roobol (1976). "Metasomatic alteration of the predominantly island arc igneous suite of the Limestone Caribbees (Caribbean)." Geologische Rundschau 65: 1078-1108.
	
Guppy, R. J. I. (1977). "On the physical geography and fossils of the older rocks of Trinidad." Oroc. Sc. Association Trinidad 2: 103-115.
	
Gurko, N. N., et al. (1982). "Influence of secondary factors on the light hydrocarbon composition of oils of the central depression of Cuba." International Geological Review 24: 99-104.
	
Gursky, H.-J. (1984). "Das Schicksal von Kieselgesteinskoerpen in Magmatiten des ophiolotischen Basements von Suedzentralamerika." Geowissentschaftliches Lateinamerika - kolloquium 9: 78-83.
	
Gursky, H.-J. (1984). Die Sedimentgesteine im Ophiolithischen Nicoya-Komplex (Ober-Jura bis Alt-Tertiär von Costa Rica): Ihre Verbreitung, Fazies, und Geologische Geschichte mit Besonderer Berücksichtiung der Radiolarite. Marburg, Germany, University of Marburg: 394.
	
Gursky, H.-J. (1985). "Composition and origin of the sedimentary rocks in the Nicoya Ophiolite Complex (Jurassic - Lower Tertiary, Southern Central America) - A survey." Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie?: ?
	
Gursky, H.-J. (1987). "Los complejos basales de Centroamerca meridional - hechos y problemas (The basic complexes of Middle Central America - facts and problems)." Actas de la Faculdad de Ciencias de la Tierra de la Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo Leon(2): 243-249.
	
Gursky, H.-J. (1988). "Gefuege, Zusammensetzung und Genese der Radiolarite im ophiolitischen Nicoya - Komplex (Costa Rica)." Muensterische Forschungen zur Geologie und Palaeontologie 68: 1-189.
	
Gursky, H.-J. (1989). "Presence and origin of sedimentary rocks in the ophiolitic basement of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 10: ?
	
Gursky, H. J. and R. Schmidt-Effing (1983). Sedimentology of radiolarites within the Nicoya ophiolite complex, Costa Rica, Central America. Siliceous Deposits in the Pacific Region. A. Iijima, J. R. Hein and R. Siever. New York, NY, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.: 127-141.
	
Gursky, H. J., et al. (1982). "The ophiolite sequence in northwestern Costa Rica (Nicoya Complex): Outlines of stratigraphical, sedimentological, and tectonical data." ACTAS III: 607-619.
	
Gursky, H.-J. and et al. (1984). "Karten zur Geologie von Nordwest - Costa Rica (Mittelamerika) mit Erlaeuterungen." Geologica et Palaeontologica 18: 173-182.
	
Gursky, H.-J. and M. M. Gursky (1989). Thermal alteration of chert in the ophiolite basement of southern Central America. Siliceous Deposits of the Tethys and Pacific Regions. J. R. Hein and J. Obradovic. New York, Springer Verlag: ?
	
Gursky, H.-J. and R. Schmidt-Effing (1981). Sedimentology of the radiolarites within the Nicoya Ophiolite Complex (Costa Rica, Central America). Developments in Sedimentology (post conference volume of the Second International Conference on Siliceous Deposits in the Pacific Region). A. Iijima, R. Siever and J. R. Hein. Amsterdam, Elsevier Publ.: 127-141.
	
Gursky, M. M. (1986). Tectonic and Thermal Deformation in the Nicoya Complex Ophiolite and seinem Sedimentary-Bearing (Nicoya-Halbinsel, Costa Rica) and  Its Meaning  For the Geodynamic Development in Southern Central America [Tektonische und thermische deformationen im ophiolithischen Nicoya-Komplex und seinem sedimentaren auflager (Nicoya-Halbinsel, Costa Rica) und ihre bedeutung fur die geodynamische entwicklung im sudlichen Zentralamerika]. Marburg, Germany, University of Marburg: 230.
	
Gursky, M. M. (1986). Tektonische und Thermische Deformationen im Ophiolitischen Nicoya - Komplex und Seinem Sedimentaeren Auflager (Nicoya - Halbinsel, Costa Rica) und Ihre Bedeutung fuer die Geodynamische Entwicklung im Suedlichen Amerika. Philipps - Universitaet Marburg/Lahn. Marburg, West Germany: 230.
	
Gursky, M. M. (1987). "Estructuras tectonicas de edad cretacica y terciaria en la Peninsula de Nicoya (Costa Rica) y su significado tectonico (Tectonic structures of the Cretaceous and Tertiary age on the Nicoya Peninsula (Costa Rica) and their tectonic significance)." Actas de la Faculdad de Ciencias de la Tierra de la Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo Leon(2): 261-265.
	
Gursky, M. M. (1988). "Analisis tectonic de la Peninsula de Nicoya (Costa Rica) y su significado para el desasrrollo estructural-geodinamico de America Central meridional (Tectonic analysis of the Nicoya Peninsula (Costa Rica) and it significance for the structural-geodynamic development of middle Central America)." Revista Geologica de America Central 8: 19-75.
	
Gursky, M. M. (1992). Tectonics of the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica, and implications for the geodynamic history of the Caribbean. 12th symposium on Latin American geosciences. H. Miller, U. Rosenfeld and D. K. Weber. 6: 1557-1570.
	
Guth, L. R. (1991). Kinematic Analysis of the Deformation Structures on Eastern Isla De Margarita, Venezuela. Houston, TX, Rice University: 634.
	
Guth, L. R. (1991). Kinematic Analysis of the Deformational Structures on Eastern Isla De Margarita, Venezuela. Houston, TX, Rice University: 634.
	
Guth, L. R. and H. G. Ave Lallemant (1990). A kinematic history for eastern Margarita Island, Venezuela. Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 472-480.
	
Gutscher, M. A., et al. (1999). "Tectonic segmentation of the North Andean margin: impact of the Carnegie Ridge collision." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 168(3-4): 255-270.
	
Gutscher, M. A., et al. (1999). "Tectonic segmentation of the North Andean margin: impact of the Carnegie Ridge collision (Vol 168, pg 255, 1999)." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 170(1-2): 155-156.
	
Guzmán Espinal, J. I. (2000). Miocene stratigraphy and depositional framework of northeastern Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela: Implications for reservoir heterogeneity prediction in tectonically-active settings. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 192.
	Lateral and vertical changes in regime variables have a direct impact on the nature and distribution of macroscopic reservoir heterogeneity in tectonically-active basins. This relationship was tested in a clastic Miocene interval of the northeastern region of the Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela, by the integration and analysis of a comprehensive subsurface dataset. Four unconformity-bounded sequences record changes in accommodation, sediment supply, and sediment dispersal directions. These shifts were controlled by the uplift of the Sierra de Perij&aacute; and by the marine connection between the Maracaibo and Falc&oacute;n basins. The oldest sequence corresponds to the Early Miocene La Rosa Formation, which represents the episode of greatest increase in the regime ratio. After experiencing the maximum flooding event of the Neogene, accommodation space was filled by a mixed wave- and tide-influenced system of deltas and prograding shorelines that were fed from the west. Waterflooding in these reservoirs has been successful despite the compartmentalization and increased heterogeneity produced by rapid marine flooding of the deltaic pulses. Increased uplift and erosion of the sediment source areas shifted the regime ratio to supply dominated, causing a major fall in relative sea level and the development of a network of southwest- to northeast-oriented fluvially incised valleys. This event separates the La Rosa Formation from a younger sequence of highly heterogeneous tide-dominated estuarine deposits, overlain by tidal flats and tide-dominated deltaic sediments, that characterize the Lagunillas Inferior member of the Lagunillas Formation. The stratigraphic relationships and sedimentary fill of these incised valleys explain the complex nature of the LL-03/LL-05 reservoir boundary to the southeast of the study area. Continuing tectonic activity resulted in yet another significant drop in relative sea level, recorded by the abrupt onset of southeasterly flowing, mixed-load rivers, in the upper section of the Lagunillas Inferior Member. These deposits form the shelf-equivalent lowstand systems tract of the next younger sequence, which also includes the Laguna Member. A significant potential for targeting uncontacted and bypassed hydrocarbons exists in these reservoirs. Waterflooding has been relatively successful, but differences in directional permeability may be encountered across the fluvial entrenchment surfaces.

Guzman, J. I. and W. L. Fisher (2006). Early and middle Miocene depositional history of the Maracaibo Basin, western Venezuela. 3-D anatomy of a supergiant; Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. P. Mann and A. Escalona. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 90(4): 625-655.
	The uplift of the Sierra de Perija and Merida Andes and the marine connection with the Falcon Basin ultimately controlled the distribution of shallow-marine, coastal, and nonmarine sedimentary rocks in the Maracaibo Basin during the early and middle Miocene. These rocks contain the most important shale top seal in the basin and nearly three-quarters of the produced plus proven reserves of the supergiant Bolivar coastal fields. The Maracaibo Basin has been isolated from extrabasinal drainage systems since the late Oligocene, and sediments derived from the surrounding highlands were either deposited in the basin or delivered into the neighboring Falcon Basin through a narrow marine passage (the westward extension of the Falcon Channel). Four unconformity-bounded sequences mapped in the northeastern sector of the Maracaibo Basin help recreate its regional paleogeography as it was flooded from the northeast through this passage. In the early Miocene, part of the basin became a semi-enclosed shallow-marine gulf, and wave- and tide-modified deltas prograded across the temporarily inactive Lama-Icotea fault system. As sea level dropped, the shoreline advanced eastward of the Falcon Channel, and valleys were incised and subsequently filled by transgressive estuarine sediments. In the next sea level highstand, tidal-bar complexes of a tide-dominated delta system prograded and filled all available accommodation space. In the middle Miocene, relative sea level dropped into the Falcon Basin, and the Maracaibo area became a mixed-load fluvial drainage basin. By late middle Miocene, the two basins were separated, and the Maracaibo Basin became an intermontane fluvial-lacustrine depression.

Guzman Speziale, M. (2001). "Active seismic deformation in the grabens of northern Central America and its relationship to the relative motion of the North America-Caribbean plate boundary." Tectonophysics 337(1-2): 39-51.
	
Guzman Speziale, M. and J. M. Gomez (2002). "Comment on ''A new estimate for present-day Cocos- Caribbean plate motion: Implications for slip along the Central American volcanic arc'' by Charles DeMets - art. no. 1945." Geophysical Research Letters 29(20): 1945.
	
Guzman-Speziale, M. (1985). The triple junction of the North America, Cocos, and Caribbean plates: Seismicity and tectonics. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 67.
	
Guzmán-Speziale, M. and J. M. Gómez-González (2006). "Seismic Strain rate along the Middle America Trench reveals significant differences between Cocos–North America and Cocos–Caribbean convergence." Geophysical Journal International.
	Centroid-moment tensor solutions for thrust-faulting earthquakes in the last 27 yr are used to obtain and compare seismic strain rate associated to the subduction process along the Cocos–North America and along the Cocos–Caribbean convergent margins. In both cases, the eigenvectors of the strain-rate tensor align along radial and tangential directions with respect to their respective Euler Pole. Seismic strain rate along the Cocos–North America plate boundary is about 2.8 × 10−7 yr−1, a value close to those previously found along the Japan and Aegean convergent margins. Strain rate along the Cocos–Caribbean margin is one order of magnitude smaller, namely 3.7 × 10−8 yr−1. The relative plate velocity is also calculated using seismic moment tensors. We find a relative plate convergence of 1.13◦ Myr−1 for the Cocos–North America plate margin, and 0.13◦ Myr−1 for Cocos–Caribbean. This means that 80 per cent of the plate motion along the Cocos–North America plate margin is expressed as thrust-faulting earthquakes, as compared to the velocity given by global plate motion models. In contrast, only about 10 per cent of the Cocos–Caribbean relative motion is translated into thrusting events. Similar results are obtained when a 102-yr earthquake database is used. We suggest that differences in strain rate and percentage of plate motion are due to differences in the behaviour of the overriding plate and/or the Central America forearc sliver being detached from the Caribbean Plate and being incorporated into the Cocos Plate.

Guzmán-Speziale, M. and J. J. Meneses-Rocha (2000). "The North America-Caribbean plate boundary west of the Motagua-Polochic fault system: A fault jog in Southeastern Mexico." Journal of South American Earth Sciences(459-468).
	
Guzmán-Speziale, M., et al. (1989). "The triple junction of the North America, Cocos, and Caribbean plates: Seismicity and tectonics." Tectonics 8: 981-987.
	
Guzman-Speziale, M., et al. (2005). "Seismic activity along the Central America volcanic arc: Is it related to subduction of the Cocos plate?" Tectonophysics 400(1-4): 241-254.
	We determine seismic strain rate of tectonic earthquakes along the Central America Volcanic Arc. We then compare this result to those obtained from earthquakes related to the convergence of the Cocos and Caribbean plates and to earthquakes in the back-arc region of northern Central America. The seismic strain-rate tensor for shallow-focus earth quakes along the Central America volcanic arc since 1700, has a compressive eigenvector with a magnitude of 0.7 x 10<sup>-8</sup> year<sup>-1</sup>, and oriented in a 357< degrees > azimuth. The extensive eigenvector is oriented in a 86< degrees > azimuth, with a magnitude of 0.82 x 10<sup>-8</sup> year<sup>-1</sup>. When only Centroid Moment-tensor solutions (CMT) are considered, the respective eigenvectors are 1.2 x 10<sup>-8</sup> year<sup>-1</sup> and 1.0 x 10<sup>-8</sup> year<sup>-1</sup>. The compressive eigenvector from the seismic strain-rate tensor for earthquakes along the Cocos-Caribbean convergent margin is 2.0 x 10<sup>-8</sup> year<sup>-1</sup>, plunging at 25< degrees >, and oriented in a 29< degrees > azimuth. Its magnitude and direction are similar to those of the compressive eigenvector for earthquakes along the volcanic arc. The extensive eigenvector along the convergent margin, on the other hand, has a large vertical component. The compressive and extensive eigevenvectors are 4.9 x 10<sup>-8</sup> year<sup>-1</sup> and 4.6 x 10<sup>-8</sup> year<sup>-1</sup>, using only CMTs as the database. Earthquakes along the grabens of northern Central America yield a seismic strain-rate tensor whose extensive eigenvector has a magnitude of 2.4 x 10<sup>-8</sup> year<sup>-1</sup>, oriented in a 109< degrees > azimuth. Magnitude and direction are similar to those of the extensive eigenvector for earthquakes along the volcanic arc. The compressive eigenvector along the grabens is practically vertical. Similarities in magnitudes and directions for compressive and extensive eigenvectors suggest to us that the strain field along the Central America volcanic arc is the result of compression along the convergent Cocos-Caribbean margin, and extension in the back-arc region, along the grabens of northern Central America. This field is resolved as strike-slip faulting along the arc.

Gwinn, J. W. (1955). Review of "Results of the seismic survey in the Pinar Basin of Cuba," by Paul M. Tucker. La Habana, Standard Oil Co. of Cuba.
	
Gyarmati, P. (1983). Las rocas intrusivas intermedias de Cuba oriental (Intermediate intrusive rocks in eastern Cuba). Contribucion a la Geologia de Cuba Oriental (Contributions on the Geology of Eastern Cuba). Nagy and et al. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 99-111.
	
Gyarmati, P. (1983). The metamorphic formations of eastern Cuba. Contribucion a la Geologia de Cuba Oriental (Contributions on the Geology of Eastern Cuba). Anonymous. La Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 90 -98.
	
Gyarmati, P. and A. Brito (1983). Genetic relationships among abyssal, subvolcanic and volcanic rocks in Sierra Maestra. Contribucion a la Geologia de Cuba Oriental (Contributions on the Geology of Eastern Cuba). Anonymous. La Habana, Editorial Científico-Técnica: 112-114.
	
Gyarmati, P. and A. Brito (1983). "Relaciones genéticas entre las rocas abisales, subvolcánicas y volcánicas de la Sierra Maestra (Genetic relations between the abisal rocks, subvolcanics and volcanics of La Sierra Maestra)." Contribución a la Geología de Cuba Oriental (Contribution to the Geology of Eastern Cuba): 112-114.
	
Haczewski, G. (1976). "Sedimentological reconnaissance of the San Cayetano Formation: an accumulative continental margin in the Jurassic of western Cuba." Acta Geologica Polonica 26: 331-353.
	
Haczewski, G. (1987). Sedimentological reconnaissance of the San Cayetano Formation: an accumulative continental margin in the Jurassic of western Cuba. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincia Pinar del Rio (Contributions to the Geology of Pinar del Rio Province). A. Pszczolkowski, K. Pistrowska, J. Piotrowski et al. Ciudad de la Habana, La Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 228-247.
	
Haldemann, E. G., et al. (1980). Lateritic nickel deposits at Bonao Falconbridge Dominicana, C. por A. Field Guide, 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Dominican Republic: 69-78.
	
Hall, C. M., et al. (2004). "Age and tectonic setting of the Camagüey volcanic-intrusive arc, Cuba: Late Cretaceous extension and uplift in the western Caribbean." Journal of Geology 112: 521-542.
	
Hall, D. J., et al. (1982). The rotational origin of the Gulf of Mexico based on regional gravity data. Studies in Continental Margin Geology. J. S. Watkins and C. L. Drakes. 34: 115-126.
	
Hall, I. H. S. and J. H. Bateson (1972). "Late Paleozoic lavas in Maya Mountains, British Honduras: their possible regional significance." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 56: 950-963.
	
Hall, L. A. (1989). "The effects of dredging and reclamation on metal levels in water and sediments from an estuarine environment off Trinidad, West Indies." Environmental Pollution 56 (3): 189-207.
	
Hall, L. A. (1991). "A preliminary investigation into the speciation of trace metals in sediments from the Gulf of Paria off the coast of Trinidad." Environment International 17(5): 437-447.
	
Hall, M. L. and C. A. Wood (1985). "Volcano-tectonic segmentation of the northern Andes." Geology 13: 203-207.
	
Hall, S. A. and I. J. Najmuddin (1994). "Constraints on the tectonic development of the eastern Gulf of Mexico provided by magnetic anomaly data." Journal of Geophysical Research 99: 7161-7175.
	
Hall, S. A. and G. K. Westbrook (1990). Magnetic Anomaly Map of the Caribbean Region. The Caribbean Region (Dengo, G. and
Case, J.E. eds.). Bouder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Hall, S. A. and T. Yeung (1980). A study of magnetic anomalies in the Yucatan Basin. Transactions, 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, ???, ???
	
Hallam, A. (1986). "Evidence of displaced terranes from Permian to Jurassic faunas around the Pacific margin." Journal of the Geological Society of London 143: 209-216.
	
Hallenborg, E., et al. (2002). "Seismic structure of 15 Ma oceanic crust formed at an ultra-fast spreading East Pacific Rise: Evidence for kilometer-scale fracturing from dipping reflectors." Journal of Geophysical Research 108(EPM(11)): 1-22.
	
Hallenborg, E. C. (2003). The structure of mature oceanic crust: Tectonic features revealed in superfast-spread Cocos plate by multichannel seismic grids and swath bathymetry. San Diego, CA, University of California, San Diego: 214.
	Multi-channel seismic (MCS) investigations have revealed much concerning the structure of seafloor spreading centers, mainly along the fast-spreading East Pacific Rise (EPR), but the emphasis on young fast-spread seafloor represents a significant experimental bias, as there exist relatively few modern MCS reflection studies of &ldquo;normal&rdquo; oceanic plate distant from spreading centers, transform faults and known hotspots. This dissertation presents an analysis and interpretation of MCS data collected in March-April 1999 in three grids spaced along a 15-17 Ma flowline of the central Cocos plate and constitutes part of a renewed effort to investigate accretion and evolution processes across a wide range of plate spreading rates. The crust studied in this experiment accreted during an episode of superfast spreading at the EPR, and the westernmost area (15 Ma age) was selected by the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) for a major drilling operation (site 1256, Leg 206). MCS data contain an abundance of strong seismic reflectors with a predominance of isochron dip orientation, unprecedented in view of numerous reflection studies near the EPR where no similar structures have been observed. The analysis suggests upper crustal reflectors are small-slip thrust faults/fractures, possibly driven by differential thermoelastic stress. These fractures may have important implications for hydrothermal flow, alteration and advective heat transport in the oceanic lithosphere. Chapter 1 of the dissertation provides an overview of crustal reflection seismology and related faulting studies. Chapter 2 covers the experiment, methods and an overview of the acquired seafloor bathymetry and MCS data. Chapter 3 is a detailed study of the westernmost grid area, which was the highest drilling priority and contained several exceptionally bright reflectors. This chapter synthesizes bathymetry, MCS and synthetic seismogram modeling to argue a small-slip faulting/fracturing origin for kilometer-scale dipping structures. Chapter 4 is an integrated study of each grid (Areas 1&ndash;3) along the central flowline. A consistent reflection pattern is demonstrated along the central flowline with the aid of a statistical description. Chapter 5 is an application of pre-stack imaging techniques to several prominent dipping reflectors. 

Halley, R. B., et al. (1977). Recent and relict topography of Boo Bee patch reef, Belize. Third International Coral Reef Symposium, ???, University of Miami, FL.
	
Hallock, P. and J. A. Elrod (1988). Oceanic chlorophyll around carbonate platforms in the western Caribbean:  observations from CZCS data. Sixth International Coral Reef Symposium Proceedings, Townsville, Australia, 8-12th August, 1988, Townsville, Australia, ???
	
Hallock, P., et al. (1988). "Platforms of the Nicaraguan Rise: Examples of the sensitivity of carbonate sedimentary to excess trophic resources." Geology 16: 1104-1107.
	
Halsor, S. P. and W. I. Rose (1988). "Common characteristics of paired volcanoes in northern Central America." Journal of Geophysical Research 93(B5): 4467-4476.
	
Hamilton, D., Fouad, K., Barba, R. Jr., Holtz, M. and Fimlay, C. (1998). "Characterization of reservois in the Tertiary section of Block B in the south of Lake Maracaibo." The Leading Edge 17(12): 1754-1758.
	
Hammer, S. (1948). Gravity results, Turiguano Island, Cuba. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Hammer, S. (1949). Observed and residual gravity maps: Gulf's eastern concession, Cuba. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.
	
Hammer, S. (1949). Observed and residual gravity results: Gulf's western concession, Cuba. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 14.
	
Hammer, S., et al. (1945). "Gravimeter prospecting for chromite in Cuba." Geophysics 10: 34-39.
	
Hampel, A. (2002). "The migration history of the Nazca Ridge along the Peruvian active margin: A re-evaluation." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 203(2): 665-679.
	
Handschy, J. W. (1987). "The Ouachita System in northern Mexico." Tectonics 6: 323-330.
	
Hanshaw, P. M. (1989). Pleistocene and Holocene Carbonate Environments on San Salvador Island, Bahamas, AGU.
	
Hanshaw, P. M. (1989). Reefs of Florida and the Dry Tortugas, AGU.
	
Hans-Jürgen and M. M. Gursky (1989). Thermal alteration of chert in the Ophiolite basement of southern Central America. Siliceous deposits of the Tethys and Pacific Regions, New York, Springer-Verlag.
	
Hanzlík-Valentín, M. (2006). Late Quaternary Seismic Stratigraphy and Structure of the Western Insular Shelf Margin of Puerto Rico. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 84.
	The modern insular shelf and slope of western Puerto Rico is characterized by reef carbonate and siliciclastic sedimentary environments controlled by the complex interplay of tectonic arching and faulting, vigorous erosion of the elevated island of Puerto Rico, fluvial incision and sedimentation pulses, reef growth, and rapid late Quaternary eustatic sea-level changes. For this study, I interpret 725 km of high-resolution, single-channel seismic lines that were collected over the western insular shelf and slope by the RV Isla Magueyes in 2000 to better understand tectonic, erosional, and eustatic controls on late Quaternary history.  

The seafloor geology of the western shelf and slope area of Puerto Rico has been well studied and mapped mainly from grab and short cores collected by geoscientists at the U.S. Geological Survey and at the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez. Because of  low tectonic uplift rates from the western coast of Puerto Rico, the onland late Quaternary sedimentary history is not recorded in Quaternary coastal outcrops. The results of my seismic interpretation and correlation with multi-channel seismic data collected in 1972, reveal four main units defined by characteristic stratal reflection terminations and seismic facies. These units include: Unit 1 (basement) - a gently folded and faulted basal section correlated to the Oligocene-early Pleistocene carbonate shelf of Puerto Rico; deeper penetration, industry multi-channel seismic lines show that these rocks are deformed in a broad east-west-trending arch; Unit 2 (lowstand systems tract, LST) - chaotic channel fill deposits filling deep (~ 30 meter) incisions formed during the Last Glacial Maximum about 20 ka; Unit 3 (transgressive system tract, TST) - poorly stratified deposits truncating the top of Unit 2 and deposited during early Holocene transgression of the shelf margin; Unit 4 (highstand system tract, HST) – late Holocene, highly stratified deposits related to aggradation as the Holocene transgression began to slow. The base of unit 4 is a downlap surface interpreted as a maximum flooding surface likely formed about 8 ka. East-northeast-striking faults are observed that offset the late Quaternary units in three separate zones off the west coast of Puerto Rico. Because of a lack of wells and long cores from the shelf and slope area, age estimates for the four units are based on correlations with sea-level curves derived from dated coral samples in the Caribbean and western Atlantic region. All four units are deformed by faulting that should be considered active and possibly hazardous for the rapidly developing west coast of Puerto Rico. In one area, a large, late Holocene slump (~ 0.016 km3) is mapped using seismic, sidescan sonar and bathymetric data. Onland continuations of these faults are likely, but have not been identified due to cultural overprint of natural scarps on late Quaternary floodplains.  

Harding, I. C. and J. Lewis (1995). "Siliceous dinoflagellate thecal fossils from the Eocene of Barbados." Palaeontology 37(Part 4): 825-840.
	
Harding, T. P. and A. C. Tuminas (1989). "Structural interpretation of hydrocarbon traps sealed by basement normal block faults at stable flank of foredeep basins and rift basins." AAPG Bulletin 73(7): 812-840.
	
Hardy, N. (1991). "Tectonic evolution of the easternmost Panama Basin:  Some new data and inferences." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 4: 261-270.
	
Hardy, N. C. (1992). A Marine Geophysical Study of the Pacific Margins of Colombia and Southwest Panamá. Birmingham, United Kingdom, University of Birmingham: 253.
	
Hardy, N. C., et al. (1990). "A complex plate boundary south of the Gulf of Panama." EOS (Transactions of the American Geophysicla Union) 71: 1593.
	
Hare, P. W. and T. W. Gardner (1985). Geomorphic indicators of vertical neotectonism along converging plate margins, Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. Tectonic Geomorphology, ???, ???
	
Hargraves, R. and G. M. Skerlec (1983). Paleomagnetism of some Cretaceous- Tertiary igneous rocks on Venezuelan offshore islands, Netherland Antilles, and Tobago. Transactions, 9th Caribbean Geological Conference. ??? Santa Domingo, Dominican-Republic, ???: 231-238.
	
Hargraves, R. B. and G. M. Skerlec (1980). Paleomagnetism of some Cretaceous-Tertiary igneous rocks on Venezuelan offshore islands, Netherland Antilles, Trinidad, and Tobago. 9th Caribbean Geological Conference. Santa Domingo, Dominican Republic. 509-517.
	
Harkrider, D. G. (1957). Seismic Investigation of Geological Structure Bordering the Caribbean Island Arc, Part III. Department of Geology & Geophysics. Houston, TX, Rice University: ?
	
Harlow, D. H., et al. (1993). "The San Salvador earthquake of 10 October 1986 and its historical context." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 83: 1143-1154.
	
Harlow, G. E. (1994). "Jadeitites, albitites, and related rocks from the Motagua fault zone, Guatemala." Journal of Metamorphic Geology 12: 49-68.
	
Harlow, G. E., et al. (2004). "Two high-pressure-low-temperature serpentinite-matrix melange belts, Motagua fault zone, Guatemala; a record of Aptian and Maastrichtian collisions." Geology Boulder 32(1): 17-20.
	Left-lateral motion along the North American-Caribbean plate boundary has juxtaposed two high-pressure-low-temperature (HP-LT) belts from separate Cretaceous collisions. These two belts have quite different ages and different suites of high-pressure assemblages, yet they both contain jadeitite, a relatively rare rock type. This part of the plate boundary zone follows the Motagua River Valley in Guatemala, where it separates the Maya block (North American plate) from the Chortis block (Caribbean plate). On both sides of the bounding Motagua fault, tectonic slices of serpentinite-matrix melange host the HP-LT rocks. South of the fault, the melange slices contain eclogite, lawsonite eclogite, glaucophane eclogite, and blueschist blocks. North of the fault, the melange slices contain omphacite metabasite, albitite, and garnet amphibolite blocks, but lack intact eclogite. In addition to the dissimilar rock assemblages, (super 40) Ar/ (super 39) Ar geochronology of phengitic micas yields 77-65 Ma for northern and 125-113 Ma for southern blocks. These data suggest that the southern belt formed during Early Cretaceous (Aptian), northeastward-dipping subduction of the Farallon plate and collision of the Chortis block with western Mexico. The block was then displaced southeastward along this suture. In contrast, the northern belt records subduction related to the Maastrichtian collision of an extension of the Chortis block, perhaps the Nicaraguan Rise, with the Maya block.

Harlow, G. E., et al. (2004). "Two high-pressure-low-temperature serpentinite-matrix melange belts, Motagua fault zone, Guatemala: A record of Aptian and Maastrichtian collisions." Geology 32(1): 17-20.
	Left-lateral motion along the North American-Caribbean plate boundary has juxtaposed two high-pressure-low-temperature (HP-LT) belts from separate Cretaceous collisions. These two belts have quite different ages and different suites of high-pressure assemblages, yet they both contain jadeitite, a relatively rare rock type. This part of the plate boundary zone follows the Motagua River Valley in Guatemala, where it separates the Maya block (North American plate) from the Chortis block (Caribbean plate). On both sides of the bounding Motagua fault, tectonic slices of serpentinite-matrix melange host the HP-LT rocks. South of the fault, the melange slices contain eclogite, lawsonite eclogite, glaucophane eclogite, and blueschist blocks. North of the fault, the melange slices contain omphacite metabasite, albitite, and garnet amphibolite blocks, but lack intact eclogite. In addition to the dissimilar rock assemblages, <sup>40</sup>Ar/<sup>39</sup>Ar geochronology of phengitic micas yields 77-65 Ma for northern and 125-113 Ma for southern blocks. These data suggest that the southern belt formed during Early Cretaceous (Aptian), northeastwarddipping subduction of the Farallon plate and collision of the Chortis block with western Mexico. The block was then displaced southeastward along this suture. In contrast, the northern belt records subduction related to the Maastrichtian collision of an extension of the Chortis block, perhaps the Nicaraguan Rise, with the Maya block.

Harms, F. J. (1989). Konglomeratisches Jungetertiär im Valle de San Juan (südwestliche Dominikanische Republik, Grosse Antillen): Zusammensetzung, Herkunft und Alter der Gerölle Fazies. Hannover, Federal Republic of Germany, University of Hanover: 200.
	
Harper, D. A. T. (2002). Fossil brachiopoda of the Caribbean region: Biodiversity patterns. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 139-148.
	
Harper, D. A. T. and S. K. Donovan (2002). Pleistocene Brachiopods from carbonate cover sequences in the Caribbean region: Barbados and Jamaica compared. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 173-179.
	
Harper, J. F. (1990). "Plate dynamics:  Caribbean map corrections and hotspot push." Geophysical Journal International 100(3): 423-431.
	
Harpp, K. S., et al. (2002). "Northern Galapagos Province; hotspot-induced, near-ridge volcanism at Genovesa Island." Geology Boulder 30(5): 399-402.
	Genovesa Island is a small volcano located between the Galapagos hotspot and the Galapagos spreading center. Several observations suggest that Genovesa may not have originated as a direct product of the Galapagos plume, but instead by anomalous activation of the upper mantle by the plume. Genovesa's lavas exhibit remarkably homogeneous, depleted compositions with no detectable plume contribution; the volcano's trace element contents indicate a deeper origin than either pristine spreading center lavas or most lavas from the Galapagos Archipelago. Genovesa is virtually indistinguishable from the Lamont Seamounts (near the East Pacific Rise) in composition, volume, height, and distance from the ridge; and Genovesa formed close to its current near-ridge location, more recently than previously assumed (age younger than 350 ka). Numerous similar volcanoes populate the northern perimeter of the Galapagos Archipelago. We propose that the northern volcanic province is the result of the serendipitous combination of excess temperatures, weak lithosphere, and regional stresses from interaction between the plume and the ridge, yielding volcanism where none would be observed otherwise. The Galapagos system may define an eruptive process at hotspots, distinct from the Hawaiian model, in which plume-related volcanism can be regionally diffuse, coeval, and compositionally variable. Such a mechanism has profound implications for our understanding of plume-ridge interactions, as well as for island ages and adaptive radiation in the Galapagos.

Harrington, H. J. (1962). "Paleogeographic development of South America." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 46: 1773-1814.
	
Harris, G. D. (1926). Notes on the paleontology. The Geology of the Island of Trinidad, B.W.I. G. A. Waring. Baltimore, MD, John Hopkins Press: 87-112.
	
Harris, J. E. (1971). Characterization of Suspended Matter in the Gulf of Mexico and Northern Caribbean Sea. College Station, TX, Department of Geology. Texas A&M University: 212.
	
Harris, M. W. (1992). Sedimentary Products and Processes along a Current-Dominated Open Seaway, Bawihka Channel, Northern Nicaraguan Rise, Caribbean Sea. Saint Petersburg, FL, University of South Florida: 244.
	
Harris, N. (2002). Rain-induced slope failures and damage assessment in Portland, Jamaica: The flood event of January 3-4, 1998. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 235-255.
	
Harrison, J. V. (1953). The geology of the Santa Elena peninsula in Costa Rica, Central America. American 7th Pacific Scientific Congress Proceedings, New Zealand. Wellington. 2: 102-114.
	
Harry, B. (1988). Aspects of the Sedimentology of Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary Clastic Sediments, Rio Grande Valley, Northeast Jamaica, University of the West Indies: ?
	
Harry, B. E. (1992). Depositional Environments and Burial History of the Late Early Pliocene, Moruga Group, South Coast, Trinidad, West Indies. Department of Geology. Cincinnatti, OH, University of Cincinnati: 345.
	
Harry, D. L. and J. Londono (2004). "Structure and evolution of the central Gulf of Mexico continental margin and coastal plain, Southeast United States." Geological Society of America Bulletin 116(1-2): 188-199.
	As in many continental margins, Mesozoic rifting in the Gulf of Mexico trended subparallel to older tectonic structures created by opening and closure of a prior ocean basin. Unlike the situation in most other margins, however, extension in the Gulf of Mexico did not involve widespread reactivation of these older tectonic features. This difference may be related to the unusual facts that (1) the antecedent passive continental margin was a transform rather than a rift margin and (2) the prior orogeny did not substantially thicken the crust. In order to characterize the interaction between Mesozoic rifting and prior tectonic events, two geophysical transects were constructed across the central Gulf of Mexico coastal plain and continental shelf. The transects show that the early Paleozoic passive continental margin buried beneath the late Paleozoic Ouachita orogen was little affected by compressional tectonism or Mesozoic extension during opening of the Gulf of Mexico. The thickness of the crust on this ancient margin decreases from 35 km to 10 km over a distance of only 50 km, consistent with previous interpretations that this was a transform margin. The Ouachita fold-and-thrust belt is shown to be a thin-skinned doubly vergent orogen that formed above a well-preserved southward-dipping subduction system. Relict Cambrian oceanic crust may exist beneath the southern part of the orogen, but its presence is not required by the data. The thin crust and shallow mantle in the Ouachita suture created a zone of relatively high strength that acted as a barrier to Mesozoic extension, which is restricted to regions south of the orogen. Extension was initially distributed over a broad area that included the Mississippi Interior Salt Basin and regions south of the Wiggins Arch. Extension became progressively more focused south of the Wiggins Arch with time, culminating in the onset of seafloor spreading beneath the modern continental rise. Mesozoic extension factors are beta = 1.4-1.9 beneath the Mississippi Interior Salt Basin, beta nearly equal 2.9 immediately south of the Wiggins Arch, and beta nearly equal 4 adjacent to the oldest oceanic crust in the central Gulf of Mexico.

Harty, E. (1989). Elemental Characterization of the Negril Peat Morass, University of the West Indies: ?
	
Harza Overseas Engineering (1978). Dominican Republic, Tavera-Bao Project report of geological studies and drilling program completed during the period April-October, 1977, revised June 1978, Compania Dominicana de Electricidad: 40.
	
Hasanie, R. A. (2000). Crystallization processes, geothermometry and geobarometry of the volcanic blocks of Bequia, Lesser Antilles, University of Windsor: 136.
	 The island of Bequia lies in the southern section of the Lesser Antilles arc, which formed along the eastern margin of the Caribbean plate, where it is being under-thrust by the subduction of Jurassic to Cretaceous Atlantic oceanic lithosphere. Plutonic cumulate blocks were collected at single sites from each of the three volcanic formations; plutonic blocks labeled BQ60, were collected from the Northern Peninsular Formation, along outcrops on northern coast of Bequia. Blocks labeled BQ45, were collected from the Mount Pleasant Formation in the central area of Bequia. Blocks labeled PN, were collected from the Southern Peninsular Formation on Petit Nevis. All of the blocks collected at each location occur together in a single epiclastic or pyroclastic unit, and are considered to have erupted together and provide a "snapshot" of the physical and chemical conditions in the magma chamber. Each suite of blocks is characterized by distinct mineralogical and compositional features, which are indicative of the crystallization processes occurring within the magma chamber. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

Hatori, T. (1995). "Magnitude scale for the Central American tsunamis." PAGEOPH 144: 471-479.
	
Hatten, C. W. (1957). Geologic Report on Sierra de los Organos, Archivo de D.G.G.G., La Habana.
	
Hatten, C. W. (1957). Geology of the Central Sierra de los Organos, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba. La Habana, Standard Cuban Oil Co.: 48.
	
Hatten, C. W. (1967). "Principal features of Cuban geology: Discussion." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 51(5): 780-789.
	
Hatten, C. W., et al. (1958). Geology of Central Cuba, Eastern Las Villas and Western Camaguey Provinces, Cuba. La Habana, Standard Cuban Oil Co.: 174.
	
Hatten, C. W., et al. (1988). Tectonostratigraphic units of central Cuba. Transactions of the 11th Caribbean Geological Conference, Barbados,1986. L. Barker. Bridgetown, Barbados, Government of Barbados: 35.31-35.13.
	
Hauff, F., et al. (1997). "Mid-Cretaceous origin for the Galapagos hotspot: volcanological, petrological and geochemical evidence from Costa Rica oceanic crustal fragments." Geol. Rundsch 86: 141-155.
	
Hauff, F., et al. (2000). "Large volume recycling of oceanic lithosphere over short time scales: Geochemical constraints from the Caribbean Large Igneous Province." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 174(3-4): 247-263.
	Oceanic flood basalts are poorly understood, short-term expressions of highly increased heat flux and mass flow within the convecting mantle. The uniqueness of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province (CLIP, 92-74 Ma) with respect to other Cretaceous oceanic plateaus is its extensive sub-aerial exposures, providing an excellent basis to investigate the temporal and compositional relationships within a starting plume head. We present major element, trace element and initial Sr-Nd-Pb isotope composition of 40 extrusive rocks from the Caribbean Plateau, including onland sections in Costa Rica, Colombia and Curacao as well as DSDP Sites in the Central Caribbean. Even though the lavas were erupted over an area of approximately 3X10 (super 6) km (super 2) , the majority have strikingly uniform incompatible element patterns (La/Yb = 0.96+ or -0.16, n = 64 out of 79 samples, 2sigma ) and initial Nd-Pb isotopic compositions (e.g. (super 143) Nd/ (super 144) Nd (sub in) = 0.51291+ or -3, epsilon (sub Ndi) =7.3+ or -0.6, (super 206) Pb/ (super 204) Pb (sub in) = 18.86+ or -0.12, n = 54 out of 66, 2sigma ). Lavas with endmember compositions have only been sampled at the DSDP Sites, Gorgona Island (Colombia) and the 65-60 Ma accreted Quepos and Osa igneous complexes (Costa Rica) of the subsequent hotspot track. Despite the relatively uniform composition of most lavas, linear correlations exist between isotope ratios and between isotope and highly incompatible trace element ratios. The Sr-Nd-Pb isotope and trace element signatures of the chemically enriched lavas are compatible with derivation from recycled oceanic crust, while the depleted lavas are derived from a highly residual source. This source could represent either oceanic lithospheric mantle left after ocean crust formation or gabbros with interlayered ultramafic cumulates of the lower oceanic crust. High (super 3) He/ (super 4) He in olivines of enriched picrites at Quepos are approximately 12 times higher than the atmospheric ratio suggesting that the enriched component may have once resided in the lower mantle. Evaluation of the Sm-Nd and U-Pb isotope systematics on isochron diagrams suggests that the age of separation of enriched and depleted components from the depleted MORB source mantle could have been < or =500 Ma before CLIP formation and interpreted to reflect the recycling time of the CLIP source. Mantle plume heads may provide a mechanism for transporting large volumes of possibly young recycled oceanic lithosphere residing in the lower mantle back into the shallow MORB source mantle.

Have, T., et al. (1982). "Alterations in guano phosphates and Mio-Pliocene carbonates of Table Mountain Santa Barbara, Curaçao." Sedimentary Geology 31: 141-165.
	
Hawkins, H. L. (1927). Descriptions of new species of Cainozoic Echinoidea from Jamaica. Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Harvard, MA, ??? 50: 76-84.
	
Hay, W. (1986). Paleo-Oceanography of the Venezuelan Basin. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Hay, W. W. and C. N. Wold (1996). "A simpler plate-tectonic history for the Caribbean." Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie, Teil 1 7/8: 917-934.
	
Haydoutov, I., et al. (1989). "Nuevos aspectos acerca de la génesis del protolito del complejo Mabujina, sur de Cuba central (New aspects on the genesis of the protolith of the Mabujina complex, south of central Cuba)." Resúmenes Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología, La Habana: 97.
	
Haydoutov, I., et al. (1989). "Interrelaciones de los diferentes elementos de la asociación ofiolítica en Cuba Central (Interrelations of the different elements of the ophiolitic association in Central Cuba)." Resúmenes y Programa, Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 92.
	
Haydoutov, I. S. (1984). Model of the Cretaceous geotectonic evolution of central Cuba. Contributions of Bulgarian Geology. K. Khrischev and I. Nachev. Sofia, Bulgaria, Bulgarian Geological Society: 107-116.
	
Hayes, C. W. (1899). "Physiography and geology of regions adjacent to the Nicaragua canal route." Geological Society of America Bulletin 10: 285-488.
	
Hayes, D. E. and A. C. Pimm, Eds. (1972). Leg 14. Washington D.C, US Government Printing Office.
	
Hayes, W. C. (1899). "Physiography and geology of region adjacent to the Nicaragua canal route." Geological Society of America Bulletin 10: 285-348.
	
Hayward, N., et al. (2003). "Seismic velocity, anisotropy, and fluid pressure in the Barbados accretionary wedge from an offset vertical seismic profile with seabed sources." Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth 108(11): ESE 3-1 - ESE 3-16.
	The state of compaction and fluid pressure in the Barbados accretionary wedge near its toe, at Ocean Drilling Program Site 949, were investigated by modeling travel times of seismic waves from ocean bottom shots to a borehole geophone array. The model, constrained by a three-dimensional seismic survey and well logs, shows (1) a velocity gradient of about 1-1.25 s<sup>-1</sup> in the uppermost 180-230 m of the wedge, (2) a zone of variable, but no net change in, velocity between 230 and 350 m depth, (3) a low-velocity zone 40-50 m thick just above the decollement at 391 m, and (4) a displacement of the low-velocity zone by thrust faults. Pore fluid pressure sections derived from P wave velocity show that the upper half of the wedge is normally pressured while the lower half is overpressured. The < similar-to >160 m thick, underconsolidated basal zone shows anisotropy, which increases downward. The lowest 40-50 m has velocity varying (1) azimuthally (3%), being fastest in the direction of plate convergence, and (2) in the vertical plane (2-5%), horizontal faster than vertical. After correction for the effect of anisotropy in the derivation of effective stress from seismic velocity the calculated pore fluid pressure ratio < lambda > does not exceed 0.9 and in the lowest 40-50 m of the basal zone, is between 0.71 and 0.82, with < lambda >* [(fluid pressure - hydrostatic /(lithostatic pressure - hydrostatic)] between 0.5 and 0.65, in accordance with in situ measurements of fluid pressure in the decollement zone beneath. These indicate that the accretionary wedge is stronger and less overpressured than was previously supposed.

Hearn, P., Jr., et al. (2000). Global GIS database; digital atlas of Central and South America.
	This CD-ROM contains a digital atlas of the countries of Central and South America. This atlas is part of a global database compiled from USGS and other data sources at the nominal scale of 1:1 million and is intended to be used as a regional-scale reference and analytical tool by government officials, researchers, the private sector, and the general public. The atlas includes free GIS software or may also be used with ESRI's ArcView software. Customized ArcView tools, specifically designed to make the atlas easier to use, are also included. The atlas contains the following datasets: country political boundaries, digital shaded relief map, elevation, slope, hydrology, locations of cities and towns, airfields, roads, railroads, utility lines, population density, geology, ecological regions, historical seismicity, volcanoes, ore deposits, oil and gas fields, climate data, landcover, vegetation index, and lights at night.

Hearty, P. J. (1998). "The geology of Eleuthera Island, Bahamas; a Rosetta stone of Quaternary stratigraphy and sea-level history." Quaternary Science Reviews 17(4-5): 333-355.
	
Hearty, P. J. and P. Kindler (1998). "Comment on White et al. (1998) ''Bahamian coral reefs yield evidence of a brief sea-level lowstand during the last interglacial''." Carbonates and Evaporites 13(2): 229-230.
	
Heath, E., et al. (1998). "Magmagenesis at Soufriere Volcano, St Vincent, Lesser Antilles Arc." Journal of Petrology 39(10): 1721-1764.
	
Heath, E., et al. (1998). "Long magma residence times at an island arc volcano (Soufriere, St.  Vincent) in the Lesser Antilles: evidence from U-238-Th-230 isochron dating (Vol 160, pg 49, 1998)." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 163(1-4): 413-413.
	
Heath, E., et al. (1998). "Long magma residence times at an island are volcano (Soufriere, St. Vincent) in the Lesser Antilles: evidence from U-238-Th-230 isochron dating." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 160(1-2): 49-63.
	
Heatherington, A. L. and P. A. Mueller (1991). "Geochemical evidence for Triassic rifting in southwest Florida." Tectonophysics 188: 291-302.
	
Hebeda, E. H., et al. (1984). K-Ar hornblende ages from the El Chacao complex, north-central Venezuela. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagam, GSA. 162: 413-414.
	
Hebrard, F. (1985). Les foot-hills de la Cordillere Orientale de Colombie entre les rios Casanare et Cusiana. Evolution geodynamique depuis l'eo-Cretace (The Foot-hills of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia between the Casanare and Cusiana Rivers.  Geodynamic Evolution Since the Early Cretaceous). Paris, France, University of Pierre and Marie Curie: 162.
	
Hedberg, H. D. (1931). Standard stratigraphic section of the department of Santander, Colombia (Based principally on the geologic sectors exposed on the Rio Lebrija and the Rio Sogamoso), Venezuela Gulf Oil Company, Geological Department: 169.
	
Hedberg, H. D. (1950). "Geology of the Eastern Venezuela Basin (Anzoategui- Monagas-Sucre-Eastern Guarico portion)." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 61: 1173-1216.
	
Hedberg, H. D. (1950). "Geology of the eastern Venezuela basin (Anzoátegui, Monagas, Sucre, eastern Guárico portion)." Geological Society of America Bulletin 61: 1173-1216.
	
Hedberg, H. D. (1974). "Relation of methane generation to undercompacted shales, shale diapirs, and mud volcanoes." American Association of Petoleum Geologists 58(4): 661-673.
	
Hedberg, H. D. and A. Pyre (1944). "Stratigraphy of northeastern Anzonategui, Venezuela." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 28: 1-28.
	
Hedges, S. B. (1982). "Caribbean biogeography: Implications of recent plate tectonics studies." Systematic Zoology 31: 518-522.
	
Hedges, S. B., et al. (1992). "Caribbean biogeography: Molecular evidence for dispersal in West Indies terrestrial vertebrates." Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 89: 1909-1913.
	
Hedges, S. B., et al. (1994). "Reply: Toward a biogeography of the Caribbean." Cladistics 10: 43-55.
	
Hedges, S. B., et al. (1994). "Toward a biogeography of the Caribbean." Cladistics 10: 43-55.
	
Hedges, S. B. and C. A. Woods (1993). "Caribbean hot spot." Nature 364: 375.
	
Heezen, B. C., et al. (1958). "Date of stagnation of the Cariaco Trench, southeast Caribbean." Geological Society of America Bulletin 68: 1579.
	
Heezen, B. C., et al. (1985). Visual evidence for subduction in the western Puerto Rico Trench. Geodynamiques des Caribes, Paris, Editions Technip.
	
Heidenreich, W. L. and B. M. Reynolds (1959). Nickel-cobalt-iron bearing deposits in Puerto Rico, U.S. Bureau of Mines Report Investigation 5532: 68.
	
Heiken, G., et al. (1991). "Geology of the Platanares geothermal area, Departamento de Copán, Honduras." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 45: 41-58.
	
Heil, D. J. (1988). Response of an Accretionary Prism to Transform Ridge Collision South of Panama. Santa Cruz, CA, University of California Santa Cruz: 88.
	
Hein, J. R., et al. (1983). Petrology and geochemistry of Cretaceous and Paleogene cherts from western Costa Rica. Siliceous Deposits in the Pacific Region. A. Iijima, J. R. Hein and R. Siever. New York, NY, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co.: 143-174.
	
Hein, J. R. and J. Obradovic (1988). Siliceous deposits of the Tethys and Pacific regions. Siliceous Deposits of the Tethys and Pacific Regions, New York, NY, Springer-Verlag.
	
Hekinian, R. (1969). Petrological and Geochemical Study of Spilites and Associated Dike Rocks From the Virgin Island Core (Caribbean Island Arc). Department of Geological Sciences. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York: 216.
	
Helbig, K. M. (1959). Die Landschaften von Nordost - Honduras (?The Landforms of Northeast Honduras). Gotha, Veb Hermann  Haack, Geographisch-Kartographische Anstalt.
	
Helbig, K. M. (1965). Area y Paisajes del Nordeste de Honduras (Area and Landscape of Northeast Honduras). ???, Banco Central de Honduras.
	
Helenes, J. and D. Somoza (1999). "Palynology and sequence stratigraphy of the Cretaceous of eastern Venezuela." Cretaceous Research 20(4): 447-463.
	
Helmers, H. and D. J. Beets (1977). Cretaceous and Aruba. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdamm - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 29-35.
	
Hempton, M. R. and J. A. Barros (1993). Mesozoic stratigraphy of Cuba: Depositional architecture of a southeast facing continental margin. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region:  A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration. J. L. Pindell and R. F. Perkins. Baton Rouge, LA?, Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation: 193-209.
	
Henderson, W. G. (1979). "Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic arc activity in the Andes of northern Ecuador." Journal of the Geological Society of London 136: 367-378.
	
Hendry, M. and P. Bacon (1990). Hurricane impacts on Caribbean beaches:  The development of a data base and guidelines for coastal area planning and management. Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 5-9.
	
Hendry, M. D. (1982). Marine geology in Jamaica and the Caribbean. Proceedings of Seminar on the International Seabed Authority and Its Implications for Jamaica. P. A. Lyew-Ayee. 21: 54-57.
	
Hengesh, J. V. and J. F. Bachhuber (2005). Liquefaction susceptibility zonation map of San Juan, Puerto Rico. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 249–262.
	
Henneberg, H., et al. (1978). Geological-geophysical field trip on neotectonics aspects of Venezuela. Washington, A.G. U.
	
Henneberg, H. and C. Schubert (1986). "Geodetic networks along the Caribbean-South American plate boundary." Tectonophysics 130: 77-94.
	
Hennings, P. H. (1994). "Structural transect of the southern Chihuahua Fold Belt between Ojinaga and Aldama, Chihuahua, Mexico." Tectonics 13(6): 1445-1460.
	
Henningsen, D. (1966). "Die pazifische Kuestenkordillere (Cordillera Costena) Costa Ricas und ihre Stellung innerhalf des suedzentralamerikanischen Gebirges." Geotekt. Forsch. 23: 3-66.
	
Henningsen, D. (1966). "Notes on the stratigraphy and paleontology of the upper Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments in southwestern Costa Rica." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 50: 572-580.
	
Henningsen, D. (1966). "Umkehrung von Festland und Meeresraum im suedlichen zentralamerika." Z. dtsch. geol. Ges. 116(3): 584-588.
	
Henningsen, D. (1968). Stratigraphy and paleogeography of Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments in southern Costa Rica. Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference: 353-356.
	
Henningsen, D. and R. Weyl (1967). "Ozeanische Kruste im Nicoya-Konplex von Costa Rica (Mittelamerika) (Oceanic crust in Nicoya Complex of Costa Rica (Middle America))." Geologische Rundschau 57: 33-47.
	
Henningsen, D. W. (1965). Stratigraphy and paleogeography of upper Cretatceous and Tertiary sediments in southern Costa Rica. 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Trinidad, ???
	
Henry, C. D. and J. J. ArandaGomez (2000). "Plate interactions control middle-late Miocene, proto-Gulf and Basin and Range extension in the southern Basin and Range." Tectonophysics 318(1-4): 1-26.
	
Henry, M. (1974). Calcareous Nannofossils of the Bonaire Trench, Caribbean Sea. Department of Geology. College Station, TX, Texas A&M University: ?
	
Henry, P. (2000). "Fluid flow at the toe of the Barbados accretionary wedge constrained by thermal, chemical, and hydrogeologic observations and models." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 105(11): 25,855-825,872.
	
Henry, P., et al. (1990). "Mud volcano field seaward of the Barbados accretionary complex: A deep-towed scan sonar." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 95(6): 8917-8929.
	
Henry, P., et al. (1996). "Fluid flow in and around a mud volcano field seaward of the Barbados accretionary wedge: Results from Manon cruise." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 101(B9): 20297-20323.
	
Hensen, C., et al. (2004). "Fluid expulsion related to mud extrusion off Costa Rica; a window to the subducting slab." Geology Boulder 32(3): 201-204.
	A large number of mound-shaped structures that originated from mud extrusions is present along the convergent continental margin off Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Active fluid venting is indicated by the existence of CH (sub 4) - and H (sub 2) S-rich pore fluids as well as associated benthic fauna and authigenic carbonates. End-member fluid samples from all mounds are significantly depleted in dissolved Cl and other major elements, suggesting a general process of freshwater addition and thus a common source of the fluids. Our data clearly rule out dilution by gas hydrate dissociation as a dominant source of the freshwater. Enrichments of the fluids in B (up to 2 mmol/L) and inversely correlated delta (super 18) O vs. delta D values point to clay-mineral dehydration as the cause for these anomalies. Calculations assuming a delta (super 18) O vs. delta D equilibrium between the pore fluid and clay minerals at depth of formation indicate temperatures of dehydration between 85 and 130 degrees C. This temperature range is in agreement with the B enrichments and the presence of thermogenically formed CH (sub 4) . Because temperatures above 50 degrees C are not reached within the sediment cover of the upper plate, the fluids most likely form within the subducted sediments and flow upward along deep-seated faults from > or =12 km depth. Mound-related fluid expulsion may contribute significantly to the recycling of mineral-bound water.

Heppard, P. D., et al. (1991). Migration of oils into Samaan Field, Offshore Trinidad, West Indies. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Heppard, P. D., et al. (1998). Abnormal pressure and the occurrence of hydrocarbons in offshore eastern Trinidad, West Indies. Abnormal pressures in hydrocarbon environments (AAPG Hedberg research conference). B. E. Law, G. F. Ulmishek and V. I. Slavin. Golden, CO, United States, AAPG. 70: 215-246.
	
Heredia, M. and A. Terepin (1984). "Estudio comparativo de los complejos mafíticos-ultramafíticos de la provincia de Pinar del Río y los macizos Mayarí y Moa-Baracoa (Comparitive study of the mafic-ultramafic complexes of the province of Pinar del Rio and the Mayari and Moa-Baracoa massifs)." Serie Geológica  del Centro de Investigaciones Geológicas 3: 55-100.
	
Hermes, J. J. (1945). Geology and Paleontology of East Camaguey and West Oriente. Utrecht, Holland, Instituut der Rijksuniversiteit.
	
Hermes, J. J. (1968). "Planktonic foraminifera from the Seroe Mainsji Formation of Curaçao." Geoloie en Mijnbouw 47: 280-290.
	
Hernandez, G., et al. (1988). "Principal characteristics of geophysical fields in the marine platform of Cuba and adjacent seas, and their relation with the search for oil and gas deposits." Revista Tecnológica 18(4): 33-40.
	
Hernandez, G. R. (1973). "Paleogeografia del Paleozoico de Chiapas (Paleogeography of the Paleozoic of Chiapas)." Boletin de la Asociacion Mexicana de Geologos Petroleros 25(1-3): 77-134.
	
Hernandez, J. B. (1978). Experiencias de la Pequena Mineria en la Republica Dominica (Experiences of the Pequena Mineria in the Dominican Republic). Santo Domingo, D. G. M.: 18.
	
Hernandez Perez, E. (1997). Sedimentology of a mixed carbonate-siliciclastic succession: The Guasare Formation, Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela, University of Calgary (Canada): 279.
	The Paleocene Guasare Formation, Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela, represents a mixed carbonate-terrigenous clastic succession. Ten lithofacies were defined. Lithofacies can be grouped into three lithofacies successions representing coastal plain, off-shore and near-shore, tide and storm influenced settings. Recognition of encrusted shells, micrite envelopes, borings in skeletal fragments, flower spar, dissolution cavities, calcitization and equant spar in pelecypod beds indicate textural and compositional changes related to diagenetic processes in the marine, vadose and phreatic meteoric realms. Such limestones probably represent cheniers formed during periods of reduced sediment influx and reworking by waves. Environmental reconstruction indicates that sedimentation of the Guasare Formation occurred in a dynamic delta setting with tidal influence where delta lobe progradation, abandonment, transgression and renewed progradation were the dominant controlling factors on sedimentation. The repeated development of similar lithofacies successions due to switching delta lobes indicates that deposition of the Guasare Formation was basically controlled by autocyclic processes

Hernandez Perez, G. and J. F. Blickwede (2000). "Cuba deepwater exploration opportunities described in southeastern Gulf of Mexico." Oil and Gas Journal 98(50): 42-44, 46-48.
	
Herrara, N. M. (1961). "Contribution to the stratigraphy of the province of Pinar del Rio (Contribucion a la estratigrafia de la provincia de Pinar del Rio)." revista Cubana de la Sociedad de Ingenieros 61: 2-24.
	
Herrera, N. (1961). "Contribution to the stratigraphy of the Pinar del Rio Province." Revista Sociedad Cuban Ingenieria 61(1, 2): 2-24.
	
Herrera-Ibañez, I. R. (1989). Geochemistry and Pedology of Soils in the Western Valle Central, Alajuela Province, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 303.
	
Herrera-Ocampo, J. A. (1980). Hydrogeology of the Río Andamojo Basin, Santa Cruz, Guanacaste. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 81.
	
Herrick, D. H. (1982). Gravity Flow Deposition on the Grenada Basin Plain, Southeasten Caribbean Sea. Department of Geology. Durham, NC, Duke University: 94.
	
Herron, E. M. (1976). "Sea floor spreading and the Cenozoic history of the East Central Pacific." Geological Society of America Bulletin 83: 1671-1692.
	
Herrstrom, E. A., Reagan, M. K., and Morris, J. D. (1995). "Variations in lava composition associated with flow of asthenosphere beneath southern Central America, Geology."  23(7): 617-620.
	
Herrstrom, E. A., et al. (1995). "Variations in lava composition associated with flow of asthenosphere beneath southern Central America." Geology 23(7): 617-620.
	
Hershey, O. H. (1901). "The geology of the central portion of the Isthmus of Panama." Bulletin of the Department of Geology, University of California 2: 231-267.
	
Hervouet, Y., et al. (2005). "Deformation of the northeastern Venezuelan Andes: Relationships with the Caribbean overthrusts." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 176(1): 93-105.
	  Introduction The Merida Andes (Venezuela) formed in the middle Miocene due to oblique convergence between the South American plate and the Maracaibo block [Audemard et al., 2002] (figs. 1A and 1B). The study area corresponds to the so-called "Barbacoas platform" [Renz, 1960], which constitutes the northeastern termination of the belt, NE of Valera (fig. 2). It is located in the northeastern part of Trujillo block [Hervouet et al., 2001], considered as an independent block separated from the main Maracaibo block along the Valera fault. According to Stephan [1982], the N170< degrees >E-trending Caribbean compression developed in this area from late Cretaceous to Eocene. It was followed by a N105< degrees >E-trending compression older than middle Miocene, and finally by the NW-SE Andean compressional stage that lasted till now in most of the chain. However, east of El Empedrado fault, a NNE-SSW compression presently occurs that is oblique to the classical Andean stage. The tectonic evolution of the Andean stage is not well un derstood. The Merida Andes are mainly composed of Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks. The northern part of the belt only comprises a complete and continuous Jurassic to Paleogene cover. This lithologic pattern is probably a consequence of the tectonic escape of the Maracaibo block, and more particularly of the smaller Trujillo block. The Merida and Carribean belts being close to each other, the influence of the Andean deformation on the Caribbean allochthonous must be taken into account. In order to make a structural analysis at regional scale, we privileged the use of remote sensing data (Landsat, Spot and Radar images) and aerial photographs. This was complemented by structural data obtained in the field, allowing the study of geometric and chronological relationships between the tectonic structures. Lithostratigraphy of the northeastern Andes Andean formations The first Mesozoic deposits rest u nconformably upon the marine Permian (Palmarito Fm.) [Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980]. During the Jurassic, continental deposits of La Quinta Fin. were trapped in NE-SW grabens [Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980] that opened due to rifting of the northern margin of the South-American plate. The first marine sediments are composed of thick sandstone layers at the bottom and limestone at the top, Barremian-Albian in age (Penas Altas Fm). It is followed by Cenomanian-Campanian (La Luna Fm.) composed of euxinic black limestone and clay. Cretaceous ends with the Maastrichtian (Colon Fm.) composed of clay and limestone lenses with the intercalation of a white sandstone layer (Cujisal Member) [Renz, 1959; Pierce, 1960; Gonzalez de Juana et al., 1980]. Paleogene layers correspond to low depth deposits, su ch as the Paleocene-Eocene (Humocaro Fm.), and the upper Paleocene-early Eocene (Quebrada Arriba Fm). The Caribbean allochthonous The Caribbean series outcrop in the El Tocuyo area (fig. 3). The Barquisimeto Fm. (late Cretaceous) is composed of clay, clayey schist, marl, dark gray and black limestone, and phtanite [Bellizia, 1985; Stephan, 1982; Lexico Estratigrafico de Venezuela, 1997]. The Matatere Fm. (late Cretaceous-Paleocene) is composed of sandy turbidites involving sandy conglomerates. Tectonic structures of the northeastern Andes and adjacent plains The study area (figs. 3, 4) forms reliefs tha t can reach 3000 m. It is westerly and easterly surrounded by flat lying plains (La Pastora plain to the west ; El Tocuyo "synclinorium" [Stephan, 1982] to the east) with elevations less than 500 m. To the north and east, it is overlain by the Lara overthrusts belonging to the Caribbean orogen. To the south, the Andean reliefs are mainly composed of Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks. This Barbacoas platform is westerly and easterly bounded by the San Pedro and Humocaro anticlines respectively, separated by the "Barbacoas synclinorium" [Renz, 1960] forming a flat-lying area. The Humocaro anticline: inversion of a Jurassic graben The 9 km width and 1 6 km length NE-trending Humocaro Bajo anticline is composed of a complete Meso-Cenozoic sedimentary sequence. It is overturned toward the SE (fig. 4). The Jurassic layers outcrop in the San Pedro and Humocaro Bajo anticlines whereas they are missing in the Barbacoas synclinorium, showing that the area was organized in horsts (Barbacoas) and grabens during the Jurassic. The western boundary of the Jurassic layers is not defined (El Empedrado fault?) compared to the eastern border where the layers overstep the Humocaro area. We interpret that the Humocaro anticline formed during inversion of a preexisting graben in the Andean stage. This led to formation of a wide anticline overturned outwards of the eastern graben. This is not the case of the San Pedro anticline overturned inwards of the western graben. The Barbacoas synclinorium: formation of flower structures Both the morphol ogy and trend of the folds in the Barbacoas synclinorium (fig. 4) differ from those of the Humocaro anticline. Folds, trending < similar-to >N030< degrees >E, are narrow and well displayed on the remote sensing imagery. There are bounded by N030< degrees >E to N045< degrees >E trending left-lateral strike-slip faults juxtaposing contiguous anticlines. Numerous tectonic structures of various sizes affect these folds. In the field, we observed tension fractures striking N050< degrees >-060< degrees >E, N110< degrees >E and N150< degrees >E, an high-grade N030< degrees >-040< degrees >E deformation nearby strike-slip faults, fractures in various directions, and a field of flattened ammonites stretched in the N010< degrees > - to N030< degrees >E direction associated with a N010< degrees >E-striking cleavage. A N-S to NNE-SSW compression is well indiv idualized (fig. 5, VE01-14, VE01-26, Ve02-30). It is responsible for left-lateral strike-slip motions along N030-045< degrees >E directed faults. Narrow anticlines, parallel to these faults, can be interpreted as flower structures. Nearby these tectonic irregularities, the compression turns from N-S to N110< degrees >E. The western area : associate pull-apart and buckling The western plain can be considered as a pull-apart basin that opened locally at the step-over of a NE-SW left-lateral fault (figs. 3, 5, VE03-12). The San Pedro anticline is parallel to and has the same length of the La Pastora plain. Since it is overturned toward the Jurassic graben (fig. 4), it cannot be related to a positive tectonic inversion. We interpret the San Pedro anticline as an extensional forced fold [Cosgrove and Ameen, 2000; Maurin and Niviere, 2000] because of (1) its position relative to the La Pastora graben; (2) the lack of internal flank; and (3) the 1500 m lowering between San Pedro and La Pastora. This deformation is associated to the NNE-SSW compressional stage (fig. 5; Ve03-12), which appears also in other areas of the northeastern Andes (figs. 5, 9). The allochthonous deformation West of El Tocuyo (figs. 3, 6), the Caribbean allochthonous, Upper Cretaceous in age (Barquisimeto Fm.), associated to the Paleocene-Eocene Moran Fm. is juxtaposed to the Andean autochthonous along vertical or sub-horizontal faults (fig. 6, 7). The Andean series are composed of the Penas Altas and La Luna Fms. The Moran Fm. is highly folded comparatively to the underlying Cretaceous deposits. Moreover, since the intermediate deposits (Colon, Humocaro and Quebrada Arriba Fms.) do not outcrop, we interpret that the Moran Fm. is allochthonous in this area. To the south, in the Humocaro area, the Moran Fm. is slightly deformed and rests conformably upon the Quebrada Arriba Fm., showing that it is autochthonous in this southern area. In the El Tocuyo area, the Barquisimeto Fm. is represented as olistolites involved in the Moran Fm. (fig. 7B). In the Barquisimeto Fm., we observed N070< degrees >E- to N140< degrees >E-trending folds (fig. 8) with sub-horizontal axes that formed during the emplacement of the Caribbean overthrusts. These folds were reactivated during the Andean stage into recumbent folds trending N175< degrees >E to N050< degrees >E. In both the Barquisimeto and Moran Fms., we observed N000< degrees >- to N035< degrees >E-trending folds that can be sorted into two units corresponding (1) to sub-horizontal axes (plunges from 5< degrees > to 30< degrees > to the north) associated to a fracture or crenulation cleavage; and (2) to upright (45< degrees > to 64< degrees > to the north) axes. High-grade deformation develops at the bottom of the sedimentary units, showing that folding is related to ESE-ward displacement of these two formations. The upright fold axes, only observed on the borders of the El Tocuyo plain, characterize strike-slip motion of sub-meridian faults bounding this basin. Flat lying plains develop east and west of the northeastern Andes (figs. 3, 6, 7) and constitute an abrupt change in the topography. Our analysis of satellite imagery complemented by field observations show that the El Tocuyo plain (fig. 6) may be interpreted as a pull-apart basin that initiated along a left-lateral fault relay trending N000< degrees >E. The synclinal-like morphology of the basin results from the progressive breaking of the western fault, that locally buckles before vanishing in the south (fig. 7). This geometry greatly resembles to that of extensional forced folds initiating at the borders of grabens. Here, this deformation is associated to the NW-SE compressionnal Andean stage (fig. 9, VE01-49, VE02-54). Conclusions The northeastern part of the Merida Andes recorded several tectonic stages that can be described as follows: - (1) the Jurassic rifting, corresponding to the formation of NE-trending grabens filled by La Quinta Fm.; - (2) the Caribbean orogen (upper Cretaceous-early Oligocene) associated with the emplacement of Caribbean overthrusts. The front of some units (Barquisimeto Fm.) can be partly involved into the Paleocene-Eocene Moran Fm. 

Herweijer, J. P., et al. (1977). Neogene and Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdamm - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 39-55.
	
Herweijer, J. P. and J. W. Focke (1978). "Late Pleistocene depositional and denudation history of Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 177-187.
	
Hess, H. H. (1933). Interpretations of Geological and Geophysical Observations: Navy-Princeton Gravity Expedition to the West Indies in 1932. Washington, D.C., U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office.
	
Hess, H. H. (1938). Gravity anomalies and island arc structure with particular reference to the West Indies. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 79: 71-96.
	
Hess, H. H. (1966). Caribbean Research Project, 1965, and bathymetric chart. Caribbean Geological Investigations. H. H. Hess. New York, NY, Geological Society of America. 98: 1-10.
	
Hess, H. H. and J. C. Maxwell (1949). "Geological reconnaissance of the island of Margarita. Part 1." Geological Society of America Bulletin 60: 1857-1868.
	
Hess, H. H. and J. C. Maxwell (1953). "Caribbean research project." Geological Society of America Bulletin 64: 1-6.
	
Hesse, M. and T. L. Grove (2003). "Absarokites from the western Mexican Volcanic Belt: constraints on mantle wedge conditions." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 146(1): 10-27.
	
Heubeck, C. and P. Mann (1991). "Geologic evaluation of plate kinematic models for the northern Caribbean plate boundary zone." Tectonophysics 191: 1-26.
	
Heubeck, C. and P. Mann (1991). Structural geology and  Cenozoic tectonic history of the southeastern termination of the Cordillera Central, Dominican-Republic. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 315-336.
	
Heubeck, C., et al. (1991). "Diachronous uplift and recycling of sedimentary basins during Cenozoic tectonic transpression, northeastern Caribbean plate margin." Sedimentary Geology 70: 1-32.
	
Heubeck, C. E. (1988). Geology of the Southeast Termination of the Cordillera Central, South-Central Hispaniola, Greater Antilles. Austin TX, University of Texas at Austin: 333.
	
Hey, R. (1977). "Tectonic evolution of the Cocos-Nazca spreading center." Geological Society of America Bulletin 88: 1404-1420.
	
Hey, R. N., et al. (1977). "Recent plate motions in the Galapagos area." Geological Society of America Bulletin 88: 1385-1403.
	
Heywood, C. E. (1984). Forearc Deformation in Southern Costa Rica: A Sequence of Collision of the Aseismic Cocos Ridge, University of California at Santa Cruz: 104.
	
Heywood, C. E. and E. A. Silver (1983). "Forearc deformation related to collision of the Cocos Ridge, Costa Rica, Central America." Transcripts from the American Geophysical Union 64: 866.
	
Higgins, G. E. (1959). "Seismic velocity data from Trinidad, B.W.I., and comparison with the Caribbean area." Geophysics 24: 580-597.
	
Higgins, G. E. and J. B. Saunders (1968). "Excursion number 4, Western Central Range." Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Congress, Port of Spain, Trinidad: 435-437.
	
Higgins, G. E. and J. B. Saunders (1968). No. 4 Western Central Range. Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, 28 March-12 April 1965. J. B. Saunders: 435-?
	
Higgins, G. E. and J. B. Saunders (1974). Mud volcanoes: Their nature and origin. Contributions to the geology and paleobiology of the Caribbean and adjacent areas, Naturforsch. P. Jung. Verhandlungen, Basel 84, Gesellschaft.: 101-152.
	
Higuera-Gundy, A., et al. (1999). "A 10,300 14C yr record of climate and vegetation change in Haiti." Quaternary Research 52: 159-170.
	
Hildebrand, A. R. and W. V. Boynton (1990). "Proximal Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary impact deposits in the Caribbean." Science 248(4957): 843-847.
	
Hildebrand, A. R., et al. (1991). "Chicxulub Crater: A possible Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary impact crater in Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico." Geology 19: 867-871.
	
Hildebrand, A. R., et al. (1995). "Size and structure of the Chicxulub crater revealed by horizontal gravity gradients and cenotes." Nature 376(6539): 415-417.
	
Hill, P. A. (1959). "Geology and structure of the northwest Trinidad mountains, Las Villas Province, Cuba." Geological Society of America Bulletin 70: 1459-1478.
	
Hill, R. T. (1898). "The geological history of the Isthmus of Panama and portions of Costa Rica." Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 28: 154-281.
	
Hill, R. T. (1899). "The geology and physical geography of Jamaica: a study of a type of Antillean Development." Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 34: 1-226.
	
Hill, V. G. (1955). "The mineralogy and genesis of the bauxite deposits of Jamaica, B.W.I." America Mineralogist 40: 677-688.
	
Hilst, R. D. V. D. (1990). "Tomography with P, PP and pP delay-time data and the three dimension mantle structure below the Caribbean region." Geological Ultraiecutina, Mededelingenvan de Faculteit Aardwetenschappen der Rijksuniversiteit te Utrecht 67: 250.
	
Hine, A. C. (1983). Relict sand bodies and bedforms of northern Bahamas: evidence of extensive- early Holocene sand transport. Coated Grains. T. M. Peryt. Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag: 116-131.
	
Hine, A. C., et al. (1988). Halimeda bioherms along an open seaway:  Miskito Channel, Nicaraguan Rise, SW Caribbean Sea. Halimeda. H. H. Roberts and I. G. Macintyre. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University. 6: 173-178.
	
Hine, A. C., et al. (1988). "Halimeda bioherms along an open seaway: Miskito Channel, Nicaraguan Rise, SW CaribbeanSea." Coral Reefs 6: 173-178.
	
Hine, A. C., et al. (1994). "Sedimentary infilling of an open seaway - Bawihka Channel, Nicaraguan Rise." Journal of Sedimentary Research Section B - Stratigraphy and Global Studies 64(1): 2-25.
	
Hine, A. C., et al. (1994). "Sedimentary infilling of an open seaway:  Bawihka Channel, Nicaraguan Rise." Journal of Sedimentary Research B64(1): 2-25.
	
Hine, A. C., et al. (1992). "Megabreccia shedding from low relief carbonate platforms in an active tectonic setting, Nicaraguan Rise." Geological Society of America Bulletin 104: 928-943.
	
Hine, A. C. and A. C. Neumann (1977). "Shallow carbonate margin growth and structure. Little Bahama Bank, Bahamas." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 61: 376-406.
	
Hine, A. C., et al. (1981). "Offbank transport of carbonate sands along open, leeward bank margins, northern Bahamas." Marine Geology 42: 327-348.
	
Hine, A. C., et al. (1981). "Carbonate sand bodies along contrasting shallow bank margins facing open seaways in northern Bahamas." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 65: 261-290.
	
Hinz, K. (1992). Geoscientific Investigations off Costa Rica: "PAKO MAR 2" Sonne Cruise S081/1&2, Bericht Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe: 134.
	
Hinz, K., et al. (1996). "Tectonic structure of the convergent Pacific margin offshore Costa Rica from multichannel seismic reflection data." Tectonics 15(1): 54.
	
Hippolyte, J.-C., et al. (2005). Geologic evidence for the prolongation of active normal faults of the Mona rift into northwestern Puerto Rico. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 161–171.
	
Hitzman, D. C., et al. (1994). Offshore Trinidad survey identifies hydrocarbon microseepage. Geology, Earth Sciences and Environmental Factors. W. E. Schollnberger. Tulsa, OK, United-States, Amoco Production Company. 26 (Vol. 1): 65-72.
	
Hodell, D. A., et al. (1995). "Possible role of climate in the collapse of classic Maya civilization." Nature 375: 391-394.
	
Hodell, D. A., et al. (1991). "Reconstruction of Caribbean climate change over the past 10,500 years." Nature 352(6338): 790-793.
	
Hodson, F. (1926). Venezuelan and Caribbean Turritellas, with a List of Venezuelan Type Stratigraphic Formations, Cornell University: ?
	
Hoernle, K., et al. (2002). "Missing history (16-71 Ma) of the Galpapagos hotspot: Implications for the tectonic and biological evolution of the Americas." Geology 30(9): 795-798.
	
Hoernle, K., et al. (2002). "Missing history (16-71 Ma) of the Galapagos hotspot; implications for the tectonic and biological evolution of the Americas." Geology Boulder 30(9): 795-798.
	We present the results of volcanological, geochemical, and geochronological studies of volcanic rocks from Malpelo Island on the Nazca plate (15.8-17.3 Ma) belonging to the Galapagos hotspot tracks, and igneous complexes (20.8-71.3 Ma) along the Pacific margin of Costa Rica and Panama. The igneous complexes consist of accreted portions of ocean island and seamount volcanoes and aseismic ridges, representing the missing (primarily subducted) history of the Galapagos hotspot. The age and geochemical data directly link the Galapagos hotspot tracks on the Pacific Ocean floor to the Caribbean large igneous province (ca. 72-95 Ma), confirming a Pacific origin for the Caribbean oceanic plateau from the Galapagos hotspot. We propose that emplacement of this oceanic plateau between the Americas and interaction of the Galapagos hotspot tracks with the Central American Arc played a fundamental role in the formation of land bridges between the Americas in Late Cretaceous-Paleocene and Pliocene-Holocene time. The land bridges allowed the exchange of terrestrial faunas (e.g., dinosaurs, mastodons, saber-tooth cats, and ground sloths) between the Americas and served as barriers for the exchange of marine organisms between the central Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea and the central Atlantic Ocean.

Holcombe, T. L. (1977). Caribbean bathymetry and sediments. Geology, Geophysics and Resources of the Caribbean:  Report of the IDOE Workshop on the Geology and Marine Geophysics of the Caribbean region and its Resources, Kingston, Jamaica, February 17-22, 1975. J. D. Weaver: 27-62.
	
Holcombe, T. L., et al. (1990). Caribbean marine geology: Ridges and basins of the plate interior. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, Colorado, The Geological Society of America. H: 231-260.
	
Holcombe, T. L. and G. F. Sharman (1983). "Post-Miocene Cayman Trough evolution: a speculative model." Geology 11: 714-717.
	
Holcombe, T. L., et al. (1973). "Evidence for seafloor spreading in the Cayman Trough." Earth and Planetary Sciences Letters 20: 357-371.
	
Holliday, D. W. (1971). "Origin of lower Eocene gypsum-anhydrite rocks, southeast Jamaica." Transactions of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Section B 80: 305-315.
	
Holmes, J. A., et al. (1995). "A late Quaternary palaeolimnological record from Jamaica based on trace-element chemistry of ostracod shells." Chemical Geology 124: 143-160.
	
Hooghiemstra, H. (1984). Vegetational and climatic history of the high plain of Bogota, Colombia: A continuous record of the last 3.5 million years. Vaduz, Colombia, J. Cramer.
	
Hoover, P. R. (1981). "Paleontology, Taphonomy and Paleoecology of the Palmarito Formation (Permian of Venezuela)." Bulletin of American Paleontology 80(313): 138.
	
Hopkins, H. R. (1973). Geology of the Aruba Gap abyssal plain near DSDP site 153. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, Leg 15. N. T. Edgar, J. B. Saunders and a. others. Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office. 15: 1029-1050.
	
Hornbach, M. J., et al. (2008). "Did a submarine slide trigger the 1918 Puerto Rico tsunami?" Science of Tsunami Hazards 27: 22-31.
	The 1918 tsunami that inundated northwest Puerto Rico with up to 6 m waves has been attributed to seafloor faulting associated with the 1918 Mona Canyon earthquake. During the earthquake a series of submarine cable breaks occurred directly off the northwest coast of Puerto Rico where the largest tsunami waves came ashore. Here, we use a recently compiled geophysical data set to reveal that a 9 km long landslide headwall exists in the region where cable breaks occurred during the 1918 earthquake. We incorporate our interpretations into a near-field tsunami wave model to evaluate whether the slide may have triggered the observed 1918 tsunami. Our analysis indicates that this slide could generate a tsunami with phase, arrival times, and run-ups similar to observations along the northwest coast of Puerto Rico. We therefore suggest that a submarine slide offers a plausible alternative explanation for generation of this large tsunami.

Horne, G. S. (1977). "Pre-Cretaceous rocks of northwestern Honduras:  Basement terrane in Sierra de Omoa: Reply." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 61: 271-273.
	
Horne, G. S. (1994). "A Mid-Cretaceous ornithopod from central Honduras." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 14: 147-150.
	
Horne, G. S., et al. (1974). "Stratigraphy, sedimentology, and paleoenvironment of Esquias Formation of Honduras." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 58: 176-188.
	
Horne, G. S., et al. (1976). "Pre-Cretaceous rocks of northwestern Honduras: basement terrane in Sierra de Omoa." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 60: 566-583.
	
Horne, G. S., et al. (1976). Laramide plutons on the landward continuation of the Bonacca ridge, northern Honduras. Transactions of the 7th Caribbean Geologic Conference, Guadeloupe, ???
	
Horne, G. S., et al. (1976). Preliminary K-Ar age data from the Laramide Sierras of central Honduras. Informe y trabajos técnicos presentados en la IV Reunión de Geólogos de América Central. ???, ??? V: 91-99.
	
Horsfield, W. T. (1974). "Major faults in Jamaica." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 14: 1-15.
	
Horsfield, W. T. (1975). "Quaternary vertical movements in the Greater Antilles." Geological Society of America Bulletin 86: 933-938.
	
Horsfield, W. T. and E. Robinson (1974). Marine geology of the Jamica Passage. Transactions of the 7th Caribbean Geologic Conference, Guadaloupe, ???
	
Horsfield, W. T. and M. J. Roobol (1974). "A tectonic model for the evolution of Jamaica." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 14: 31-38.
	
Hose, H. R. and H. R. Versey (1957). "Palaentological and lithological divisions of the Lower Tertiary limestones of Jamaica." Colonial Geology and Mineral Resources 6: 19-39.
	
Hosein, F. (1990). Exploration of the middle Miocene oil bearing intermediate Herrera Sandstone reservoirs in Trinidad, West Indies. Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 430-443.
	
Hospers, J. and v. Wijnen (1959). The gravity field of the Venezuelan Andes and adjacent basins, North Holland Publishing Company.
	
Hosterman, J. W., et al. (1990). Chemistry and Mineralogy of Natural Bbitumens and Heavy Oils and Their Reservoir Rocks From the United States, Canada, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela, United States Geological Survey: 19.
	
Hough, R. M., et al. (1998). "Carbon content and isotopic composition of K/T impact glasses from Haiti." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 62(7): 1285-1291.
	
Houlgatte, E. (1983). Étude d'une Partie de la Frontiére Nord-est de la Plaque Caraibe (Study of One Part of the North-east Caribbean Plate Boundary). Brest, France, Université de Bretagne Occidentale: 69.
	
Houlgatte, E. (1983). Study of a Part of the Northeast Frontier of the Caribbean Plate (Etude d'une Partie de la Frontiere Nord-est de la Plaque Caribe), Université de Bretagne Occidentale: 69.
	
Housa, V. (1974). Informe final sobre los trabajos de campo realizados para el estudio bioestratigrafico y la recoleccion de los ammonites del Tithoniano y Cretacico Inferior en algunas localidades en la provincia de Pinar del Rio, Cuba (Final Report on the Field Work Realized for the Biostratigraphic Study and Collection of Ammonites of the Tithonian and Lower Cretacoue in Some Localities in the Province of Pinar del Rio, Cuba), Archivo Instituto Geologia y Paleontology (Academia Ciencia de Cuba), La Habana.
	
Housa, V. (1974). "Los Apticos de Cuba. I. Lamellaptychus angulocostatus (petl.)." Serie Geologica, Academia Ciencia de Cuba 14: 76.
	
Houtz, R. and W. Ludwig (1977). "Structure of Colombia Basin, Caribbean Sea, from profile sonobuoy measurements." Journal of Geophysical Research 82(30): 4861-4867.
	
Howe, E. (1907). Geology and the Panama Canal. Economic Geology. 2: 639-658.
	
Howell, D. G., et al. (1985). Tectonostratigraphic terranes of the circum-Pacific region. Tectonistratigraphic Terranes of the Circum-Pacific Region. D. G. Howell Houston, Texas, Circum-Pacific Council of Energy and Mineral Resources. 1: 3-30.
	
Hreinsdottir, S. (2005). Coseismic deformation of the 2001 El Salvador and 2002 Denali fault earthquakes from GPS geodetic measurements, University of Alaska Fairbanks: 122.
	GPS geodetic measurements are used to study two major earthquakes, the 2001 M<sub>W</sub> 7.7 El Salvador and 2002 M<sub>W</sub> 7.9 Denali Fault earthquakes. The 2001 M<sub>W</sub> 7.7 earthquake was a normal fault event in the subducting Cocos plate offshore El Salvador. Coseismic displacements of up to 15 mm were measured at permanent GPS stations in Central America. The GPS data were used to constrain the location of and slip on the normal fault. One month later a M<sub>W</sub> 6.6 strike-slip earthquake occurred in the overriding Caribbean plate. Coulomb stress changes estimated from the M<sub> W</sub> 7.7 earthquake suggest that it triggered the M<sub>W</sub> 6.6 earthquake. Coseismic displacement from the M<sub>W</sub> 6.6 earthquake, about 40 mm at a GPS station in El Salvador, indicates that the earthquake triggered additional slip on a fault close to the GPS station. The M<sub>W</sub> 6.6 earthquake further changed the stress field in the overriding Caribbean plate, with triggered seismic activity occurring west and possibly also to the east of the rupture in the days to months following the earthquake. The M<sub>W</sub> 7.9 Denali Fault earthquake ruptured three faults in the interior of Alaska. It initiated with a thrust motion on the Susitna Glacier fault but then ruptured the Denali and Totschunda faults with predominantly right-lateral strike-slip motion unilaterally from west to east. GPS data measured in the two weeks following the earthquake suggest a complex coseismic rupture along the faults with two main regions of moment release along the Denali fault. A large amount of additional data were collected in the year following the earthquake which greatly improved the resolution on the fault, revealing more details of the slip distribution. We estimate a total moment release of 6.81 &times; 10<super>20</super> Nm in the earthquake with a M<sub> W</sub> 7.2 thrust subevent on Susitna Glacier fault. The slip on the Denali fault is highly variable, with 4 main pulses of moment release. The largest moment pulse corresponds to a M<sub>W</sub> 7.5 subevent, about 40 km west of the Denali-Totschunda fault junction. We estimate relatively low and shallow slip on the Totschunda fault.

Hsu, K. J. (1999). Caribbean modelled after archipelago orogenesis: Coda in esperanto by the series editor. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 673-676.
	
Hubach, E. (1956). "Aspectos geograficos y geologicos y recursos de las islas de San Andres y Providencia (Geographic and geologic aspects and resources of the islands of San Andres and Providence)." Cuadernos de Geografia de Colombia(12): 39.
	
Huckriede, H. and D. Meischner (1996). "Origin and environment of manganese-rich sediments within black-shale basins." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 60(8): 1399-1413.
	
Hudson, D., et al. (1986). Sedimentological and geophysical studies in the Oropouche Bank area, Gulf of Paria, Trinidad. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Huérfano, H., et al. (2005). Microseismic activity reveals two stress regimes in southwestern Puerto Rico. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 81–101.
	
Huerfano, V. (1996). Crustal model and Stress Regime of the Puerto Rico block (Modelo de Corteza y Mecanica del Bloque de Puerto Rico). Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez (Physics Dept.): 90.
	
Huerta, R. (1980). Seismic, Stratigraphic and Structural Analysis of Northeast Campeche Escarpment, Gulf of Mexico, University of Texas at Austin: 107.
	
Hughes, R. A. and L. F. ilatasig (2002). "Cretaceous and Tertiary terrane accretion in the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes of Ecuador." Tectonophysics 345(1-4): 29-48.
	New field, geochronological, geochemical and biostratigraphical data indicate that the central and northern parts of the Cordillera Occidental of the Andes of Ecuador comprise two terranes. The older (Pallatanga) terrane consists of an early to late (?) Cretaceous oceanic plateau suite, late Cretaceous marine turbidites derived from an unknown basaltic to andesitic volcanic source, and a tectonic melange of probable late Cretaceous age. The younger (Macuchi) terrane consists of a volcanosedimentary island arc sequence, derived from a basaltic to andesitic source. A previously unidentified, regionally important dextral shear zone named the Chimbo-Toachi shear zone separates the two terranes. Regional evidence suggests that the Pallatanga terrane was accreted to the continental margin (the already accreted Cordillera Real) in Campanian times, producing a tectonic melange in the suture zone. The Macuchi terrane was accreted to the Pallatanga terrane along the Chimbo-Toachi shear zone during the late Eocene, probably in a dextral shear regime. The correlation of Cretaceous rocks and accretionary events in the Cordillera Occidental of Ecuador and Colombia remains problematical, but the late Eocene event is recognised along the northern Andean margin.

Hughes, T. P. (1994). "Catastrophes, phase shifts, and large-scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef." Science 265(5178): 1547-1551.
	
Huh, Y., et al. (2001). "Lithium isotopes as a probe of weathering processes: Orinoco River." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 194(1-2): 189-199.
	
Humphreys, E. W. (1916). "Sphenozamites rogersianus Fontaine; an addition to the Rhaetic flora of San Juancito, Honduras." Journal of the New York Botanical Gardens 17: 56-58.
	
Hung, E. J. (1997). Foredeep and thrust belt interpretation of the Maturin sub-basin, Eastern Venezuelan basin. Houston, TX, Rice University: 125.
	
Hung, E. J. (2005). Thrust belt interpretation of the Serrania del Interior and Maturin Subbasin, eastern Venezuela. Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 251-270.
	
Hungerbuhler, D., et al. (2002). "Neogene stratigraphy and Andean geodynamics of southern Ecuador." Earth   Science Reviews 57(1-2): 75-124.
	
Hunter, I. G. (1994). Modern and ancient coral associations of the Cayman Islands, University of Alberta (Canada): 372.
	
Hunter, V. F. (1972). A middle Eocene flysh from east Falcon, Venezuela. Transactions of the Sixth Caribbean Geological Conference. Petzall. Margarita, Venezuela, 6th - 14th July, 1971: 126-130.
	
Hunter, V. F. (1978). "Foraminiferal correlation of Tertiary mollusc horizons of the southern Caribbean area." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 193-203.
	
Husen, S., et al. (2003). "Subduction-zone structure and magmatic processes beneath Costa Rica constrained by local earthquake tomography and petrological modelling." Geophysical Journal International 155(1): 11-32.
	
Hutchings, L., et al. (1981). Microseismicity Along and Near the Dolores Shear Zone in Antioquia, Colombia, Woodward-Clyde Consultants for Interconexion Electrica S. A., San Francisco: 12.
	
Hutchinson, D. A. (1980). Stratigraphy, Sedimentary Petrology, and Petrologic Evolution of the Forearc Basin Rocks of the Terraba Trough, Southwestern Costa Rica. Department of Geology & Geophysics. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University: 114.
	
Hutson, F., et al. (1998). "40Ar/39Ar dating of single muscovite grains in Jurassic siliciclastic rocks (San Cayetano Formation): Constraints on the paleoposition of western Cuba." Geology 26(1): 83-86.
	
Huyghe, P., et al. (2004). "Channel profiles through the active thrust front of the southern Barbados prism." Geology Boulder 32(5): 429-432.
	Submarine channels of the Orinoco River were analyzed using high-quality, dense- coverage bathymetric and seismic data provided by a recent marine survey on the southern Barbados prism. Analysis of the syntectonic sediments on seismic profiles shows that the four to five frontmost structures show evidence of recent tectonic movement. Slope analysis of the major channels was performed. From their headwaters to domains of little or no active tectonics, the channels display <0.2% slope and form levees. Slope and incision increase gradually in domains of moderate tectonics, but deep canyons with approximately 2% mean slope form where the channels cross the active frontal folds of the prism. Detailed correlation between the active structures, their geometry, and canyon slope suggest that systematic variations in channel gradient highlight variations in substrate uplift rate. Steep slopes induced by uplift accelerate sediment flow and enhance incision. Nonetheless, such slope analysis is subject to complications introduced by variations in sediment flux and transient erosional conditions.

Huyghe, P., et al. (1996). "Geometry of supra-prism basins of southern Barbados wedge." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 167(3): 345-359.
	
Huyghe, P., et al. (1999). Review of the tectonic controls and sedimentary patterns in late Neogene piggyback basins on the Barbados Ridge Complex. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 369-388.
	
I.C.E. (Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad) (1988). "?" Boletin del Observatorio Vulcanologico del Arenal.
	
Ibaraki, M. (1997). "Closing of the Central American Seaway and Neogene coastal upwelling along the Pacific coast of South America." Tectonophysics 281(1-2): 99-104.
	
Ibaraki, M. (1997). "Planktonic foraminifera from the Trinidad Formation in Baja California and their paleoceanographic implications." Reports of Faculty of Science, Shizuoka University 31: 35-43.
	
Ibaraki, M. (2000). "Pliocene-Pleistocene planktonic Foraminifera from the ODP Leg 170 Hole 1039B in the Middle American Trench off Costa Rica." Reports of Faculty of Science, Shizuoka University 34: 37-58.
	The drill site of Hole 1039B is located on the bottom of the Middle American Trench off Costa Rica. Biostratigraphic analyses by means of planktonic Foraminifera are made on 148 samples in total from Cores 170-1039B-1H through 18X of about 160 meters in thickness. These sediments are included in Zones N19 through N23, the Pliocene to Pleistocene in age. Occurrences of planktonic Foraminifera are rare in Zones N19 and N21, although those are common in Zones N22 and N23. A temporal decrease of warm-water dwellers is recognized at ca. 4Ma in Zone N19, suggesting an influence of the closing of the Central American Seaway.

Ibaraki, M. (2002). "Pliocene-Pleistocene planktonic Foraminifera from the East Pacific Ocean off Costa Rica and their paleoceanographic implications." Marine Micropaleontology 46(1-2): 13-24.
	Planktonic foraminifera from the Ocean Drilling Program Holes 1039B, 1040C and 1043A off Costa Rica in the East Pacific Ocean indicate that the surface seawater temperature abruptly declined four times during the late Pliocene-early Pleistocene. These events occurred in the lower part of Zone N19 (5-4.2 Ma), the basal part of Zone N22 (ca. 2 Ma), the middle part of Zone N22 (ca. 1.5 Ma) and the basal part of Zone N23 (ca. 0.65 Ma). The maximum divergence of surface- and intermediate-water dwellers begins at the basal part of Zone N22 (ca. 2 Ma), which signals cooling episodes and faunal changes, suggesting responses to the closing of the Central American Seaway.

Ibrahim, A. K., et al. (1981). "Crustal structure in the Gulf of Mexico from OBS refraction and multichannel reflection data." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 65: 1207-1229.
	
Ibrahim, A. K., et al. (1979). "Seismic refraction and reflection measurements in the Middle America Trech offshore Guatemala." Journal of Geophysical Research 84(B10): 5643-5649.
	
ICE-UCR National Seismic Network (1991). "Technical Note, Summary of seismic and volcanic activity in Costa Rica in 1990." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 12.
	
Ide, S., et al. (1992
1994). "Source characteristics of the Nicaragua Tsunami earthquake of Sept. 2." Geophysical Research Letters 20(9): 863-866.
	
IDOE International Workshop on Marine Geology and Geophysics of the Caribbean Region and its Resources (1975). IDOE International Workshop on Marine Geology and Geophysics of the Caribbean Region and its Resources : Kingston, Jamaica 17-22, February 1975, Unesco (Paris): 36.
	
IDOE Workshop on the Geology and Marine Geophysics of the Caribbean Region and Its Resources (1977). Geology, Geophysics and Resources of the Caribbean : Report of the IDOE Workshop on the Geology and Marine Geophysics of the Caribbean Region and Its Resources, Kingston, Jamaica, 17-22 February 1975, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, UNESCO.
	
Idris, F. M. (1975). Reflection Seismic Measurements in the Old Bahama Channel North of Cuba. Miami, Florida, University of Miami.
	
Ihmle, F. (1996). "Frequency-dependent relocation of the 1992 Nicaragua slow earthquake: An empirical Green's function approach." Geophysical Journal International 127: 75-85.
	
Illing, V. C. (1928). "Geology of the Naparima region of Trinidad." Geol. Society of London Quaterly Journal 84(1): 1-56.
	
Imamura, F., et al. (1993). "Estimate of the tsunami source of the 1992 Nicaragua earthquake from tsunami data." Geophysical Research Letters 20: 1515-1518.
	
Imlay, R. W. (1942). "Late Jurassic fossils from Cuba and their economic significance." Geologic Society of America Bulletin 53: 1417-1477.
	
Imlay, R. W. (1944). "Cretaceous formations of Central America and Mexico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 28: 1090-1120.
	
Infante, A. R. (1998). "Tectonic and geodynamic style of the Moa region (Estilo tectonico y geodinamica de la region de Moa)." Mineria y Geologia 15(2): 37-41.
	In the seismotectonic research of Moa several methods of investigation were applied such as morphometric maps, aerial photographic interpretation, geological cartography, and geodesic and geophysical methods. In the Moa zone, four fault systems were disovered, each one related to diferent periods of the evolution of the region. On the other hand, a neotectonic scheme suggesting upper, horizontal and rotational movements of morphotectonic blocks was obtained.

Infante, A. R., et al. (1998). "Study of the Cananova strike-slip fault (Estudio de la falla strike-slip Cananova)." Mineria y Geologia 15(2): 11-16.
	The objective of this paper is the study and mapping of the Cananova strike-slip fault and other structures related with it. Research was developed according the direction of the strike-slip fault, from the Yaguaneque bay to Jucaral town, scale 1:25 000. Several methods of investigation were used such as morphometric and aerial photographic interpretation methods and geological cartography. The data point out the position of Cananova strike slip fault in the region, and develop the tectonic scheme of the zone.

Ingecominas (1988). Mapa geologico de Colombia (Geologic Map of Colombia). Bogota, Colombia, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Mineras.
	
Ingle, J. C. and G. Keller (1980). Benthonic foraminiferal biofacies of the Eastern Pacific Margin between 40°S and 30°N. Quaternary depositional environments of the Pacific Coast, Pacific Coast Paleogeography Symposium. M. E. Field and et al. Los Angeles, Pacific Section, Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists. 4: 341-355.
	
Ingram, W. M. (1939). "New Fossil Cypraeidae From the Miocene of the Dominican Republic and Panama, With a Survey of the Miocene Species of the Dominican Republic." Bulletin of American Paleontology 24(84): 14.
	
Ingram, W. M. (1947). "New Fossil Cypraeidae From Venezuela and Colombia." Bulletin of American Paleontology 31(121): 12.
	
Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad (I.C.E.) staff (1989). "?" Boletin del Observatorio Vulcanologico del Arnal 2(3).
	
Instituto Geografico National (1970). Costa Rica, Topographic Map (E561 series?). San Jose, Costa Rica, Instituto Geografico National, Costa Rica.
	
Instituto Geographico Nacional "Tommy Guardia" (1982). Panama-Topographic Map. Panama, Ministerio de Obras Publicas.
	
IOCARIBE Workshop on Environmental Geology of the Caribbean Coastal Area (1978). Report of the IOCARIBE Workshop on Environmental Geology of the Caribbean Coastal Area : Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, 16-18 January, 1978. Paris, Unesco.
	
Ipatenko, S., et al. (1971). "Using gravimetric exploration to study the crustal structure of the Island of Cuba and adjacent territory." Revista Tecnológica 9(2): 40-46.
	
Ipatenko, S., et al. (1971). "Propiedades físicas de las rocas de Cuba (Physical properties of the rocks of Cuba)." Serie Geofísica 8,: 13.
	
Irving, E. M. (1971). "La evolucion estructural de los Andes mas Septentrionales de Colombia (The structural evolution of the Andes and Septentrionalses of Colombia)." Ingeominas, Boletin Geologico 19(2): ?
	
Irving, E. M. (1975). Structural evolution of the northernmost Andes, Colombia. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office.
	
Irwin, B. J. (1989). Raw Gravity and Navigation Data From R/V Starella Cruises S1-86, S2-86, and S3-86 in the Caribbean Sea, United States Geological Survey: 13.
	
Iryu, Y., et al. (1995). "Distribution of marine organisms and its geological significance in the modern reef complex of the Ryukyu Islands." Sedimentary Geology 99(3-4): 243-258.
	
Iryu, Y., et al. (1995). "Distribution of marine organisms and its geological significance in the modern reef complex of the Ryukyu Islands." Sedimentary Geology 99(3-4): 243-258.
	
Isaacs, M. C. and T. A. Jackson (1986). The mineralogy and geochemistry of plutonic rocks from Jamaica. Proceedings of a Workshop on the Status of Jamaican Geology. R. Ahmad, Geological Society of Jamaica. Speciual issue: 95-106.
	
Isacks, B., et al. (1968). "Seismology and the new global tectonics." Journal of Geophysical Research 73: 5855-5899.
	
Isern, A. R. and F. Anselmetti (2002). "The influence of carbonate platform morphology and sea level on fifth-order petrophysical cyclicity in slope and basin sediments adjacent to the Great Bahama Bank." Marine Geology 185(1-2): 19-25.
	
Isern, A. R. and F. S. Anselmetti (2002). The influence of carbonate platform morphology and sea level on fifth-order petrophysical cyclicity in slope and basin sediments adjacent to the Great Bahama Bank. Carbonate margin development (Bahama Transect, ODP Leg 166). J. J. G. Reijmer. Amsterdam, Netherlands, Elsevier. 185: 19-25.
	Despite several decades of study, details of the relationship between sea level and other factors controlling carbonate sedimentation require clarification. To address this issue, ODP Leg 166 drilled a slope to basin transect adjacent to the Great Bahama Bank to document Neogene and Quaternary sea level changes, and to precisely date the major unconformities within the slope and basinal succession. Here we describe the complex connection between the cyclicities evident in a range of sediment physical property parameters at Leg 166 sites and their relationship to sea level fluctuations, diagenesis, and the morphology of the adjacent carbonate bank margin. The characteristics of fifth-order petrophysical cycles in Miocene slope sediments of the Great Bahama Bank are fundamentally different from those in overlying late Pliocene and Pleistocene slope sediments. These intervals are separated by an early Pliocene sequence with characteristics that are transitional between the overlying and underlying sequences. We interpret the more symmetric character of the Miocene cycles as reflecting cyclic sedimentation controlled by the interaction between sea level fluctuations and the "ramp" morphology of the adjacent platform, and the markedly asymmetric late Pliocene and Pleistocene cycles as representing the interaction between sea level and a "rimmed" platform morphology. In the case of the Miocene cycles, diagenetic overprints cause values for petrophysical properties controlled by porosity to be inverted compared to cycles in essentially unaltered late Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments. A detailed understanding of the relationship between petrophysical cycles, diagenesis, sea level fluctuations, and platform margin morphology offers the potential to provide a proxy for inferring the controls on carbonate sedimentation in situations where the nature of the carbonate platform margin is unknown (e.g., where regional seismic data is poor or absent) and/or where sea level effects cannot be reliably determined by other means. These petrophysical proxies should be of greatest benefit where downhole logging data is used as the primary basis for sediment characterization.

Islebe, G. A., et al. (1996). "A Holocene vegetation history from lowland Guatemala." The Holocene 6: 265-271.
	
Islebe, G. A., et al. (1995). "A cooling event during the Younger Dryas Chron in Costa Rica." Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 117(1-2): 73-80.
	
Ito, T., et al. (1998). "Strontium isotopic compositions and paleoceanographic implication of fossil manganese nodules in DSDP/ODP cores, Leg 1-126." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 62(9): 1545-1554.
	
Itturalde-Vinent, M. (1997). "Stratigraphy and correlation of Cretaceous volcanic-arc rocks, Dominican Republic (IGCP 364): July, 1997." Journal of Petroleum Geology 20(4): 489-491.
	
ItturaldeVinent, M. A. and E. G. Lidiak (2001). "Caribbean plate tectonics (IGCP 433)." Gondwana Research 4(2): 247-248.
	
Iturralde Vinent, M. (1998). "Proposed IGCP project on Caribbean plate tectonics." Episodes 21(3): 201-201.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1971). "Estratigrafía y magmatismo de la provincia de Matanzas y noroeste de Las Villas (Stratigraphy and magmatism of the province of Matanzas and northwest of Las Villas)." Revista Tecnológica  IX 2: 27-40.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1974). "Circum Caribbean tectonic and igneous activity and the evolution of the Caribbean plate: Discussion." Geological Society of America Bulletin 85: 1961-1962.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1975). "Problemas en la aplicación de dos hipótesis tectónicas modernas a Cuba y la región Caribe (Problems in the application of the modern tectonic hypotheses to Cuba and the Caribbean region)." Revista Tecnológica XIII 1: 46-63.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1976). "Estratigrafía de la zona Calabazas-Achotal, Mayarí Arriba, Oriente. Part I (Stratigraphy of the Calabazas-Achotal zone, Mayari Arriba, Oriente. Part I)." Revista de La Minería en Cuba 5: 9-23.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1977). "Estratigrafía de la zona Calabazas-Achotal, Mayarí Arriba, Oriente. Part II (Stratigraphy of the Calabazas-Achotal zone, Mayari Arriba, Oriente. Part II)." Revista de La Minería en Cuba 6: 32-40.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1978). "Los movimientos tectonicos de la etapa de desarrollo plataformico en Cuba (The tectonic movements in the stage of platform development in Cuba)." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57(2): 205-212.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1978). "The tectonic movements during the platform development stage in Cuba (Los movimientos tectonicos de la etapa de desarollo plataformico en Cuba)." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 205-212.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1979). "Texturas en las ultramafitas serpentinizadas de la provincia de Camagüey (Textures in the serpentinized ultramafics of the province of Camaguey)." Resúmenes  VIII Jornada Científica del Instituto de Geología y Paleontología: 10.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1981). "An expanding Earth model explanation of the origin and evolution of Cuba." Expanding Earth Symposium in Sydney 1981: 215-218.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1982). "Aspectos geológicos de la biogeografía de Cuba (Geologic aspects of biogeography of Cuba)." Ciencias de la Tierra y del Espacio 5: 85-100.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1988). "Composition and age of the deposits of the oceanic bottom (ophiolitic association) of the Mesozoic of Cuba, in the example of Camaguey (Composición y edad de los depósitos del fondo oceánico (Asociación ofiolítica) del Mesozoico de Cuba, en el ejemplo de Camagüey )." Revista Tecnológica  XVIII 3: 13-24.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1988). "Naturaleza Geológica de Cuba (Geologic Nature of Cuba)." Editorial Científico-Técnica: 246.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1989). Geologic Map of Camaguey (Mapa geologico de Camaguey). La Habana, Cuba, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1990). "Ophiolites in the geological structure of Cuba." Geotektonika 4/90: 63-76.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1990). "Reconstrucción paleogeológica del archipiélago volcánico paleogénico temprano en Cuba (Paleogeologic reconstruction of the early Paleogene volcanic archipelago in Cuba)." Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989: 547.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1991). "Deslizamientos y descensos del terreno en el flanco meridional de la Sierra Maestra, Cuba sudoriental (Landslides annd terrane descents on the meridional flank of La Sierra Maestra, southeastern Cuba)." Morfotectónica de Cuba Oriental: 24-27.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1992). "Cuban geology and pate tectonics." Resúmenes Conferencia Geológica de Cuba: 136.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1992). "A short note on the Cuban late Maastrichtian megaturbidite (an impact-derived deposit?)." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 109: 225-228.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1994). "Interrelationships of the terranes in western and central Cuba - Comment." Tectonophysics 234: 345-348.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1994). "Meeting reports: Tectonostratigraphic correlation of the NW Caribbean: Dominican Republic." Journal of Petroleum Geology 17(2): 243-245.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1994). "Meetings Reports: Tectonostratographic corelation of the NW Caribbean: Dominican Republic." Journal of Petroleum Geology 17(2): 243-245.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1995). Field Guide. Sedimentary Geology of Western Cuba, 1st SEPM Congress on Sedimentary geology, St. Pete Beach, Florida.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1995). "Meeting report: Caribbean ophiolites and volcanic arcs: Jamaica, October 1994." Journal of Petroleum Geology 18(2): 234-235.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1995). "Sedimentary basins of the Paleocene-Eocene of Cuba (Cuencas sedimentarias del Paleoceno-Eoceno de Cuba)." Boletin Sociedad Venezolana de Geólogica 20(1-2): 75-80.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1995). Tectonic implications of the magmatism of the continental margin of Cuba and the Caribbean Basin (Implicaciones tectónicas del magmatismo de margen continental de Cuba y la cuenca del Caribe). Jurassic in Cuba and South America: Relations of the Field Conference of PICG 322 in Cuba, Nov. 22-29, 1994 (Jurásico en Cuba y América del  Sur, Relatorio de la conferencia de campo del PICG 322 en Cuba, Nov. 22-29, 1994). A. C. Ricardi and M. P. Iglesia: 14-30.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1996). Cuba: el archipielago volcanico Paleoceno-Eoceno Medio (Cuba: The Middle Paleocene-Eocene volcanic archipelago). Ofiolitas y arcos volcánicos de Cuba. M. Iturralde-Vinent. Miami, IUGS/UNESCO. International Geological Correlation Program, Project 364. Contribution 1: 231-246.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1996). Geología de las ofiolitas de Cuba (Geology of the ophiolites of Cuba). Ofiolitas y arcos volcánicos de Cuba. M. Iturralde-Vinent. Miami, IUGS/UNESCO. International Geological Correlation Program, Project 364. Contribution 1: 83-120.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1996). Introduction to Cuban geology and geophysics. Ofiolitas y arcos volcánicos de Cuba. M. Iturralde-Vinent. Miami, IUGS/UNESCO. International Geological Correlation Program, Project 364. Contribution 1: 3-35.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1996). Magmatismo de margen continental en Cuba (Magmatism of the continental margin of Cuba). Ofiolitas y arcos volcánicos de Cuba. M. Iturralde-Vinent. Miami, IUGS/UNESCO. International Geological Correlation Program, Project 364. Contribution 1: 121-130.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1997). Introduction to the geology of Cuba (Introducción a la geología de Cuba). Studies on the Geology of Cuba (Estudios sobre geología de Cuba). G. Furrazola Bermúdez and K. Núñez Cambra. La Habana, Instituto de Geología y Paleontología: 35-68.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1997). "Meeting Reports: Stratigraphy and Correlation of Cretaceous Volcanic arc rocks, Dominican Republic (IGCP-364) July, 1997." Journal of Petroleum Geology 20(4): 489-491.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1997). "Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs in Eastern Cuba." Journal of Petroleum Geology 20(2): 250-251.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1998). The "GEOSITE" Program of the UNESCO-IUGS for the conservation of geologic herencia (El Programa "GEOSITE" de la UNESCO-IUGS para la conservación de la herencia geológica). Memórias Geología y Minería'98, III Congreso Cubano de Geología y Minería, Marzo 24-27, Palacio de las Convenciones de La Habana. 1: 323-325.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1998). Late Paleocene to early middle Eocene Cuban island arc. Transactions of the 3rd Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago and the 14th Caribbean Geological Conference. W. Ali, A. Paul and V. Young On. 2: 343-362.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (1998). "Sinopsis de la Constitución Geológica de Cuba (Synopsis of Geological Constitution of Cuba)." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 9-56.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M., Ed. (2003). A brief account of the evolution of the Caribbean seaway: Jurassic to Present. From Greenhouse to Icehouse: The Marine Eocene-Oligocene Transition. New York, Colombus University Press.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (2004). The conflicting paleontologic vs stratigraphic record of the formation of the Caribbean seaway. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoire. 79: 75-88.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. (2004). Origen y evolución del Caribe y sus biotas marinas y terrestres (Origin and evolution of the Caribbean and its marine and land life). La Habana, Centro de Información Geológica.
	
Iturralde-Vinent , M. and G. R. Case (1998). "First report of the fossil fish Diodon (Family Diodontidae) from the Miocene of Cuba." Revista de la Sociedad Mexicana de Paleontología 8(2): 123-126.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. and A. de la Torre (1990). "Posición estratigráfica de los rudistas de Camagüey, Cuba (Stratigraphic position of the rudists of Camaguey, Cuba)." Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989: 59-67.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. and G. Giunta (1995). "Geologic transects on the Ophiolites and related units in Northern Venezuela and Central Cuba: January 9-17th, 1995." Reports in Geosciences and Developement, Journal of Petroleum Geology?: ?
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M., et al. (1986). "The geology of the ophiolite association in Camagüey province / central Cuba." Zeitschrift für angewandte Geologie Bd. 32(Heft. 6): 162-165.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M., et al. (1986). "Ofiolitas de Camagüey, Cuba: Naturaleza, posición tectónica y sedimentos derivados (Ophiolites of Camaguey, Cuba: Nature, tectonic position and derived sediments)." Revista Tecnológica, Serie Geológica 2: 29-32.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M., et al. (in press). "Paleooceanographic implications of Lower--Middle Miocene Cuban sharks and a catalog of Cuban fossil sharks (Paleocene--Pliocene)."?
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. and T. A. Jackson (1999). The 15th Caribbean Geological Conference, Episodes.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M., et al. (1992). "Cuban K-Ar isotopic dating: Preliminary interpretation." Resúmenes 13th Conferencia Geológica de Cuba: 79-80.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M., et al. (1998). "Myliobatidae (Elasmobranchii: Batomorphii) of teh Tertiary of Cuba (Myliobatidae (Elasmobranchii: Batomorphii) del Terciario de Cuba)." Revista de la Sociedad Mexicana de Paleontología 8(2): 135-145.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. and R. D. E. MacPhee (2004). Los Mamíferos Terrestres en las Antillas Mayores. Su paleogeografía, biogeografía, irradiaciones y extinciones (The Land Mammals in the Greater Antilles: their paleogeography, biogeography, irradiations, and extinctions). Santo Domingo, Publicaciones de la Academia de Ciencias de la República Dominicana, Editora Buho.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. and M. Norell (in prep.). "Synoptic catalog of Cuban Late Jurassic marine Sauria." American Museum Novitates.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. and M. Norell (in press). "A comprehensive catalog of Cuban marine Jurassic sauria." Novitates.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. and F. Roque Marrero (1982). "La falla Cubitas: su edad y desplazamientos (The Cubitas Fault: Its age and displacements)." Revista de Ciencias de la Tierra y del Espacio 4: 57-70.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M., et al. (2000). Geology of the Camaguey region, Central Cuba - Evolution of a
collisional margin in the northern Caribbean. Geoscientific cooperation with Latin America. H. Miller, F. Hervé, e. G. c. w. L. Z. A. Geol. and (Sonderband SH 1), 267 - 274. 1: 267 - 274.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M., et al. (1981). "Geología del territorio de Ciego-Camagüey-Las Tunas: Resultados de las investigaciones científicas y del levantamiento geológico escala 1:250 000 (Geology of the terriotry of Ciego-Camaguey-Las Tunas: Results of the scientific investigations and geologic uplift scale 1:250,000)." 940.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M., et al. (1986). Informe final sobre los resultados del levantamiento geológico complejo y las búsquedas acompañantes a escala 1:50 000 en el polígono CAME III, Camagüey (Final report on the results of the geologic uplifted complex and the accompanying searches at scale 1:50,000 in the CAME III polygon, Camaguey). La Habana, Fondo geológico, Ministerio de Industria Básica: 1500.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. and H. U. Thieke (1989). "Geología del territorio de Camagüey, Cuba central (Geology of the territory of Camaguey, central Cuba)." Resúmenes Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología , La Habana,: 101.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M., et al. (1987). Final Report on the uplifted geologic complex and accompanying research at scale 1:50000 in the CAME III polygon 1981-1987 (Informe final sobre los trabajos del levantamiento geologico complejo y las busquedas acompanantes a escala 1:50000 en el Poligono CAME III 1981-1987). Camaguey, La Habana, Cuba, Oficina de Minerales: 1500.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M., et al. (1989). "Edades radiométricas del territorio camagüeyano (Radiometric ages of the Camaguey territory)." Resúmenes del Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología 1: 117.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1968). "Remarks on "Fundamentals of mid-Tertiary stratigraphical correlation" in reference to Cuba." Journal of Paleontogy 42: 230-231.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1970). "Neogene stratigraphy in western Cuba: New Data." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 54: 1938-1955.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1970). "Principal characteristics of Cuban Neogene stratigraphy." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 53: 658-661.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1971). "Contribution to the study of stratigraphy and magmatism of Matanzas Province and east of Las Villas, Cuba." Revista Tecnológica 9: 27-39.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1972). "Principal characteristics of the Oligocene and Lower Miocene stratigraphy of Cuba." Revista Tecnológica 10(3,4): 24-35.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1975). "Problems in application of modern tectonic hypothesis to Cuba and Caribbean region." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 59: 838-854.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1976). "Stratigraphy of the area Calabazas-Achotal (I)." La Mineria en Cuba 2(4): 9-24.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1977). "Stratigraphy of the area Calabazas-Achotal (II)." La Mineria en Cuba 3(1): 32-41.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1977). "The tectonic movements during the platform development stage in Cuba." Informe Científico-Técnico, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 20: 1-24.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1978). Engineer-geological evaluation of the area of the Habana provinces. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincias de la Habana y Ciudad de la Habana (Contributions to the Geology of Habana and Habana City Provinces). Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 136-150.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1978). Mesozoic geological history of the Habana provinces. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincias de la Habana y Ciudad de la Habana (Contributions to the Geology of Habana and Habana City Provinces). Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 94-99.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1978). Some geomorphological aspects of the territory of the Habana provinces. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincias de la Habana y Ciudad de la Habana (Contributions to the Geology of Habana and Habana City Provinces). Anonymous. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 5-11.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1981). "Nuevo modelo interpretativo de la evolución geológica de Cuba (New interpretative model of the geological evolution of Cuba)." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio 3: 51-89.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1986). "Palinspastic reconstruction and paleogeography of the Lower Cretaceous of eastern Cuba and adjacent territory." Revista Mineria y Geologia(1): 1-13.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1988). "General characteristics of the magmatism of the continental margin of Cuba." Revista Tecnológica 18(4): 17-24.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1990). "Ophiolites in the Cuban geological constitution." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio 17: 8-26.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1993). Cuban geology and plate tectonics, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1994). "Cuban geology: A new plate-tectonic synthesis." Journal of Petroleum Geology 17(1): 39-70.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1994). "IGCP 364: Caribbean volcanic arcs and ophiolites: First field and business meeting." Episodes 17(3): 67-68.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1994). "Interrelationship of the terranes in western and central Cuba - Comment." Tectonophysics 234(4): 345-348.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1995). "Caribbean ophiolites and volcanic arcs: Jamaica, October 1994." Journal of Petroleum Geology 18(2): 234-235.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1995). Sedimentary Geology of Western Cuba. La Habana / St. Petersburg, Society for Sedimentary Geology (SEPM).
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). "14th Caribbean Geological Conference: Port of Spain, (Trinidad), July, 1995." Journal of Petroleum Geology 19(1): 113-115.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). "Catalogue of Cuban fossil Elasmobranchii (Paleocene to Pliocene) and paleographic implications of their Lower the Middle Miocene occurrence." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 31: 7-21.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Cuba:  El arco de islas volcanicas del Cretacico (Cuba:  The volcanic island arc of the Cretaceous). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 179-189.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Cuba: El archipielago volcanico Paleoceno-Eoceno medio (Cuba:  The Paleocene-Middle Eocene volcanic archipelago). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 231-246.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Evidencias de un arco primitivo (Cretacico inferior) en Cuba (Evidences of a primitive arc (Lower Cretaceous) in Cuba). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 227-230.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Geologia de las ofiolitas de Cuba (Geology of the ophiolites of Cuba). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 83-120.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Introduction to Cuban geology and tectonics. Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 3-.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Introduction:  Estratigrafia del arco volcanico Cretacico en Cuba (Introduction: Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous volcanic arc in Cuba). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 190.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Magmatismo de margen continental en Cuba (Continental margin magmatism of Cuba). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 121-130.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A., Ed. (1996). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Region Ciego-Camaguey-Las Tunas (Ciego-Camaguey-Las Tunas region). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 201-211.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Region de Mayari-Baracoa (Mayari-Baracoa region). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 225-226.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Region de San Juan y Martinez (Pinar del Rio) Region of San Juan and Martinez (Pinar del Rio). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 197.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Vulcanitas cretacicas del Turquino (Sierra Maestra) (Cretaceous volcanics of Turquino (Sierra Maestra)). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 222-225.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Vulcanitas de Bahia Honda, La Habana y Matanzas (Volcanics of Bahia Honda, La Habana and Matanzas). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 190-197.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (1996). Vulcanitas de Sabana Grande (Isla de la Juventud) (Volcanics of Sabana Grande (Isla de la Juventud)). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 197-199.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (2001). Field Guide to the former Caribbean Plate Boundary, Camagüey, Central Cuba (4th Cuban Geological and Mining Congress, March 19-23; IGCP Project 433 Caribbean Plate Tectonics Field Workshop, Havana, Cuba, March 19-27, 2001). La Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 16.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (2003). The conflicting paleontologic versus stratigraphic record of the formation of the Caribbean seaway. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, R. T. Buffler and J. F. Blickwede. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 75-88.
	This paper presents a set of paleogeographic maps that illustrate the formation and evolution of the Caribbean from latest Triassic to latest Jurassic. Stratigraphic data and plate-tectonic models indicate that the Caribbean first evolved as a system of latest Triassic-Middle Jurassic rift valleys in west-central Pangea. Probably since the Bajocian, but certainly since the Oxfordian, it became a marine seaway connecting western Tethys with the eastern Pacific. In contrast, abundant paleontological data strongly suggest that the seaway across west-central Pangea opened during the Early Jurassic (Hettangian-Pliensbachian), which data conflict with the stratigraphic data. This contradiction between paleontology (biogeographic interpretations) and stratigraphy (paleogeographic interpretation) reveals our insufficient knowledge about the Mesozoic geology of west-central Pangea. This paper is a contribution to IUGS/UNESCO IGCP Project 433.

Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (2005). El origen paleogeográfico de la biota de Guatemala (The paleogeographic origin of the biota of Guatemala). Biodiversidad de Guatemala (Biodiversity of Guatemala). E. B. Cano, Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Fondo Nacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (FONACON). 1.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. (2006). "Meso-Cenozoic Caribbean Paleogeography: Implications for the Historical Biogeography of the Region." International Geology Review 48: 791–827.
	Since the latest Triassic, the Caribbean started to form as a system of rift valleys within westcentral Pangea, later evolving into a mediterranean sea where distinct volcanic and non-volcanic islands evolved. Since its very early formation, this sea has been playing an important role controlling the historical patterns of ocean water circulation, moderating the world climate, and determining the possibilities of biotic exchange of the surrounding terrestrial and marine ecosystems. The formation of a Mesozoic marine seaway between western Tethys and the eastern Pacific, across west-central Pangea, has been postulated for the Early Jurassic (Hettangian–Pliensbachian) according to biogeographic considerations, but supporting stratigraphic data are lacking. Probably since the Bathonian but certainly since the Oxfordian, the stratigraphic record indicates that this connection was fully functional and the Circum-Tropical marine current was active. Overland dispersal between western Laurasia (North America) and western Gondwana (South America) was interrupted in the Callovian when the continents were separated by a marine gap. Later, a connecting land bridge may have been present during the latest Campanian/Maastrichtian (~75–65 Ma), and since the Plio-Pleistocene (2.5–2.3 Ma). Evidence for a precursor bridge late in the Middle Miocene is currently ambiguous. Since the formation of the first volcanic archipelago within the Caribbean realm at about the Jurassic–Cretaceous transition, volcanic islands, shallow banks, and ridges have been present in the paleogeographic evolution of the area. However, these lands were generally ephemeral, and lasted just a few million years. Only after the Middle Eocene (<40 Ma) were permanent lands present within the Caribbean realm, providing substrates for the formation and development of the present terrestrial biota.  

Iturralde-Vinent, M. A., et al. (2006). Tectonic implications of paleontologic dating of Cretaceous-Danian sections of Eastern Cuba. Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 89-102.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. and L. Gahagan (2002). Late Eocene to Middle Miocene Tectonic Evolution of the Caribbean: Some principles and their implications for plate tectonic modelling. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 47-62.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. and E. G. Lidiak, Eds. (2006). Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433), Geologica Acta.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. and E. G. Lidiak (2006). Foreword. Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 1-6.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. and R. D. E. MacPhee (1999). "Paleogeography of the Caribbean region:  Implications for Cenozoic biogeography." Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 238: 1-95.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A., et al. (1996). Geological interpretation of the Cuban K-Ar database. Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 48-69.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. and J. L. Morales (1973). "New data about the Upper Miocene and Pliocene of northern Matanzas." Revista Tecnológica 11(5,6): ??
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. and T. M. Morales (1988). "Toletitas del Titoniano medio en la Sierra de Camajan, Camagüey.  Posible datacion de la corteza oceanica (Tholeiites of the middle Tithonian in La Sierra de Camajan, Camaguey: Possible dating of oceanic crust)." Revista Techologica 18: 25-32.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. and T. M. Morales (1988). "Toletitas del Titoniano medio en la Sierra de Camajan, Camaguey:  Posible datacion de la corteza oceanica (Middle Tithonian tholeiites in the Sierra de Camajan, Camaguey:  Possible dating of oceanic crust)." Revista Tecnológica 18: 25-32.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. and M. A. Norell (1996). Synopsis of Late Jurassic Marine Reptiles From Cuba. New York, NY, American Museum of Natural History.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. and F. D. Roque-Marrero (1982). "The Cubitas Fault: Its age and displacement." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(4): 58-70.
	
Iturralde-Vinent, M. A. and R. D. Roque-Marrero (1982). "Nuevos datos sobre las estructuras diapíricas de Punta Alegre y Turiguanó, Ciego de Avila (New data on the diapiric structures of Punta Alegre and Turiguano, Ciego de Avila)." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(4): 47-55.
	
Ivey, M. L., et al. (1980). "Sedimentary facies and depositional history of the Swan Islands, Honduras." Sedimentary Geology 27: 195-212.
	
Jackson, T. (1970). The Geology and Petrology of the Volcanic Rocks of Carriacou, Grenadines. Kingston, Jamaica, University of West Indies: 102.
	
Jackson, T. A. (1967). Field Report on the Marchmont Inlier, University of the West Indies: 36.
	
Jackson, T. A. (1977). The Petrochemistry and Origin of the Tertiary Volcanic Rocks, Wagwater Belt, Jamaica, West Indies. Department of Geology. Kingston 7,  Jamaica, University of the West Indies: 267.
	
Jackson, T. A. (1980). "The composition and differentiation of the volcanic rocks of Carriacou, Grenadines, West Indies." Bulletin Volcanologique 2(43): 311-324.
	
Jackson, T. A. (1983). Field Guide to Mavis Bank and Hope Mine, Geological Society of Jamaica.
	
Jackson, T. A. (1985). "St Peter's Inlier - fact or fiction." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 23: 44-49.
	
Jackson, T. A., Ed. (1986). Proceedings of a workshop on exploration geochemistry in tropical terrains in the Caribbean region. Technical Publication Series, Commonwealth Science Council.
	
Jackson, T. A. (1987). The petrology of Jamaican Cretaceous and Tertiary volcanic rocks and their tectonic significance. Proceedings of a Workshop on the Status of Jamaican Geology. R. Ahmad, Geological Society of Jamaica: 69-94.
	
Jackson, T. A. (1988). The mineral resources of the Caribbean Sea. Seminar/workshop on Coastal Resources and Law of the Sea, CERMES. CERMES, Cave Hill, Barbados: 28-44.
	
Jackson, T. A. (1989). "The development and present status of seismic research work in Jamaica, West Indies." Physics of the Earth & Planetary Interiors(58): 1-8.
	
Jackson, T. A. (1990). "Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago-Second Conference." Journal of Petroleum Geology(13): 360-361.
	
Jackson, T. A. (1994). "The marine geology and the non-living resources of the Caribbean Sea:  An overview." Caribbean Marine Studies 2(1-2): 10-17.
	
Jackson, T. A. (1994). The Netherlands and Venezuelan Antilles. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 249-263.
	
Jackson, T. A. (1994). Tobago. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 193-207.
	
Jackson, T. A., Ed. (2002). Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1989). Field Guide to the southwestern coast of Jamaica, Geological Society of Jamaica.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1998). Field guide to the geology of eastern  Jamaica. 15th Caribbean Geological Conference: 10-21.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1998). "Field guide to the geology of eastern  Jamaica." 15th Caribbean Geological Conference, June 29-July 2, Contributions to Geology Jackson, T.A., Draper, G., Robinson, E. & Fleugeman, R.H. 1998.  Field guide to the geology of eastern  Jamaica. 15th Caribbean Geological Conference, June 29-July 2, Contributions to Geol-ogy, 3, 10-21.: 10-21.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1995). "The petrology and inferred tectonic setting of the Mountain Pine Ridge granitoids, Maya Mountains, Belize." International Geology Reviews 37: 26-38.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1988). The geochemistry of the metavolcanics in the Parlatuvier Formation, Tobago: Evidence of an island arc origin. 11th Caribbean Geological Conference, Barbados. L. Barker. Barbados: 21.21-21.28.
	
Jackson, T. A. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (1999). "The 15th Caribbean Geological Conference, June 29th to July 2nd 1998, Kingston, Jamaica." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 33: 42-43.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1998). "The petrology of lamprophyre dikes in the Above Rocks granitoid, Jamaica: Evidence of rifting above a subduction zone during the early Tertiary." Caribbean Journal of Science 34: 1-11.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1974). "Field guide to selected Jamaican geological localities." Mines A Geology Division, Special Publication(1): 57.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1974). Field guide to selected Jamaican geological localities, Mines A Geology Division.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1980). "The composition and tectonic importance of Cretaceous pillow lavas from Whitehall, St. Thomas, Jamaica." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica(19): 40-45.
	
Jackson, T. A. and P. W. Scott (1994). "The mineral and rock chemistry of the Above Rocks pluton, Jamaica: New information on emplacement and petrogenesis." Caribbean Journal of Science 3-4(30): 153- 163.
	
Jackson, T. A. and P. W. Scott (1997). "A welded tuff boulder from within the Wagwater Belt, Jamaica." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 32: 25-28.
	
Jackson, T. A. and P. W. Scott (2002). The Paleogene volcanic rocks of Cuba and Jamaica: Similarities and differences. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 107-117.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1998). The petrology of ultramafic and mafic rocks from the Blue Mountain inlier, Jamaica. 14th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port- of-Spain, Trinidad.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1991). The geochemistry of a metavolcanic horizon in the Maracas Formation, Northern Range, Trinidad: Evidence of ocean floor basalt activity. Transactions of the 2nd Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad. K. A. Gillezeau: 42-47.
	
Jackson, T. A. and T. E. Smith (1976). "Subduction and crustal thickness across Jamaica during the Late Cretaceous." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 15: 11-15.
	
Jackson, T. A. and T. E. Smith (1978). Metasomatism in the Tertiary volcanics of the Wagwater Belt, Jamaica. The 8th Caribbean geological conference. H. J. Mac Gillavry and D. J. Beets. 57: 213-220.
	
Jackson, T. A. and T. E. Smith (1979). "The tectonic significance of basalts and dacites in the Wagwater Belt, Jamaica." Geological Magazine 116: 365-374.
	
Jackson, T. A. and T. E. Smith (1984). Mesozoic and Cenozoic mafic magma types in Jamaica and their 
tectonic setting. 10th Caribbean Geological Conference. W. Snow, N. Gil, R. Llinas et al. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: 434-440.
	
Jackson, T. A. and T. E. Smith (1985). Metasomatism in the Tobago Volcanic Group, Tobago. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, July, ???
	
Jackson, T. A. and T. E. Smith (1985). The petrochemistry of some Cretaceous mafic volcanics, Jamaica, W.I. The 4th Latin American Congress, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1987). The geochemistry and geochemical variations of Cretaceous andesites and dacites from Jamaica West Indies. 10th Caribbean Geological Conference, Cartegena, Colombia.
	
Jackson, T. A., et al. (1989). "The significance of geochemical variations in Cretaceous volcanic and plutonic rocks of intermediate and felsic composition from Jamaica." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 26: 33-42.
	
Jackson, T. A. and J. West-Thomas (1994). "The genesis of the silica sands of Black River, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica." Sedimentology 41(4): 777-786.
	
Jackson, T. A. and J. West-Thomas (1995). "The mineralogy and surface texture of the silica sands of Black River, Jamaica: Its importance as a guide to future exploration of silica sand deposits in Jamaica." Proceedings of the Caribbean Academy of Sciences 4: 142-153.
	
Jackson, T. E. (1991). Neogene Geochemistry of the Central American Arc: Western Panamá and Southeastern Costa Rica. Tampa, FL, University of South Florida: 104.
	
Jacob, K. H. and W. R. McCann (1980). Strong ground motions in two seismic gaps: Shumagin Islands, Alaska, and northern Lesser Antilles, Caribbean, U. S. Geological Survey  (Reston, VA): 5.
	
Jacob, K. H. and W. R. McCann (1982). Strong ground motions in two seismic gaps: Shumagin Islands, Alaska, and northern Lesser Antilles, Caribbean. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey: 22.
	
Jacobs, C. L., et al. (1989). A revised bathymetry of the Mid Cayman Rise and central Cayman Trough using long range side scan sonar. Taunton, United Kingdom, Institute of Oceanographic Sciences: 11.
	
Jacome, M. I., et al. (2003). "Formation of the Maturin Foreland Basin, eastern Venezuela: Thrust sheet loading or subduction dynamic topography - art. no. 1046." Tectonics 22(5): 1046.
	
Jacques, J. M. (2003). "A tectonostratigraphic synthesis of the sub-Andean basins; implications for the geotectonic segmentation of the Andean Belt." Journal of the Geological Society of London A tectonostratigraphic synthesis of the sub-Andean basins; implications for the geotectonic segmentation of the Andean Belt 
Author(s): Jacques, John M. (Robertson Research International, 160(5): 687-701.
	The tectonic, structural and depositional history of 19 Sub-Andean foreland and eight southern Caribbean basins has been synthesized and is summarized by regional geohistory charts. These charts recapitulate the subsidence regimes recognized and have been used to evaluate correlations between genetically related stratigraphic sequences. Based on spatial and temporal changes in palaeo-depositional setting, the Sub-Andean region can be subdivided longitudinally into several tectonostratigraphic domains. The differential amount of subsidence between two adjacent tectonostratigraphic provinces or sub-provinces relies on the presence of a transverse zone of structural accommodation. The location of these transfer zones correlates with a number of known and several newly identified zones of intracontinental deformation. Combined with changes in the structural geometry of the Andean Fold and Thrust Belt and the relative dominance of basement fault systems along the length of the Andean foreland, it is suggested that the Andean Belt can be separated into five tectonic domains (which are themselves bounded by transverse, structural accommodation zones). Representing the multiphase reactivation of pre-existing basement fault systems, the influence of these broad zones of transcontinental deformation is most apparent during the Triassic-Jurassic period, suggesting that they were intimately associated with accommodating intraplate stresses during the breakup of the Gondwana Supercontinent.

Jager, G. (1977). Geologia de las mineralizaciones de cromita al Este de la Peninsula da Santa Elena Provincia de Guanacaste (Geology of the Mineralizations of Chromite to the East of the Peninsula of Santa Elena, Guanacaste Province), University of Costa Rica, San Jose.
	
Jager, W. (1972). "Zur lithologie, tektonik und vererzung im gebiet von Matahambre (Provinz Pinar del Río, Kuba)." Jarbuch für Geologische 4: 347-385, Berlín.
	
Jager-Contreras, G. (1977). Geology of Chromite Mineralization of the Eastern Santa Elena Peninsula, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 136.
	
Jaillard, E., et al. (1997). "The Paleogene formation of the southern equatorial forearc zone in relation with the geodynamic evolution (Les de formations paleogenes de la zone d'avant-arc sud-equatorienne en relation avec l'evolution geodynamique)." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 168((4)): 403- 412.
	
Jaillard, E., et al. (1995). "Basin development in an accretionary, oceanic-floored fore-arc setting: Southern coastal Ecuador during Late Cretaceous - late Eocene time." AAPG Memoir 62: 615- 631.
	
Jaillard, E., et al. (1995). Basin development in an accretionary, oceanic-floored fore-arc setting:  Southern coastal Ecuador during Late Cretaceous-Late Eocene time. Petroleum Basins of South America. A. J. Tankard, R. S. Soruco and H. J. Welsink, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 62: 659-665.
	
Jaillard, E., et al. (1996). "Sedimentary and tectonic evolution of the arc zone of southwestern Ecuador during Late Cretaceous and early Tertiary times." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 9(1-2): 131-140.
	
Jaillard, E., et al. (1990). "Geodynamic evolution of the northern and central Andes during early to middle Mesozoic times:  A Tethyan model." Journal of the Geological Society of London 147: 1009-1022.
	
Jaimes, M. (2003). Paleogene to Recent Tectonic and Paleogeographic Evolution of the Cariaco Basin, Venezuela. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, University of Texas at Austin: 94.
	
Jain, R. K. (1975). A Palynological Study of Selected Coals From Panama. Denver, CO, Texaco, Inc., Producing Department, Denver Division.
	
Jakus, P. (1983). Volcano-sedimentary and sedimentary formations of eastern Cuba. Contribucion a la Geologia de Cuba Oriental (Contributions on the Geology of Eastern Cuba). Nagy and et al. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 17-85.
	
Jamaica Geological Survey (1966). Map and Brief Explanation of Geology, Geological Sheet 22, Above Rocks. Kingston, Jamaica, Jamaica Geological Survey Department.
	
Jamaica Geological Survey (1972). Map and Brief Explanation of Geology, Geological Sheet 23, Spanish Town. Kingston, Jamaica, Jamaica Geological Survey Department.
	
Jamaica Geological Survey (1978). Map and Brief Explanation of Geology, Geological Sheet  21, Port Maria. Kingston, Jamaica, Jamaica Geological Survey Department.
	
Jamaica Geological Survey (1978). Map and Brief Explanation of Geology, Geological Sheet  24, Annotto Bay. Kingston, Jamaica, Jamaica Geological Survey Department.
	
James, D. (1982). "Isotopic Evidence for the Petrogenesis of Modern Andesites of the Northernmost Andes." Carnegie Institue of Washington, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Annual Report, 1981-1982: 485-489.
	
James, K. H. (1990). The Venezuelan hydrocarbon habitat. Classic Petroleum Provinces. J. Brooks. ???, ??? 50: 9-35.
	
James, K. H. (2000). "The Venezuelan hydrocarbon habitat, Part 1: Tectonics, structure, palaeogeography and source rocks." Journal of Petroleum Geology 23(1): 5-53.
	
James, K. H. (2000). "The Venezuelan hydrocarbon habitat, part 2: Hydrocarbon occurrences and generated-accumulated volumes." Journal of Petroleum Geology 23(2): 133-164.
	
James, K. H. (2006). Arguments for and against the Pacific origin of the Caribbean Plate: Discussion, finding for an inter-American origin. Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 279-302.
	
James, N. P., et al. (1977). Field guide book to modern and Pleistocene reef carbonates, Barbados, W.I. Miami, Atlantic Reef Committee, University of Miami.
	
Jankowsky, W. J. and G. Schlapak (1983). Guyana offshore. Atlas of Seismic Stratigraphy. A. Bally, AAPG. 27, #2: ???
	
Jansma, P., et al. (2000). "Microplate tectonics in the northeastern Caribbean as constrained by Global Positioning (GPS) geodesy." Tectonics 19: 1021-1037.
	
Jansma, P. E., et al. (1991). "Preliminary investigation of the Tertiary Balsas Group, Mesa Los Caballos area, northern Guerrero State, Mexico, using landsat thematic mapper data." The Mountain Geologist 28(2/3): 137-150.
	
Jansma, P. E. and G. S. Mattioli (2005). GPS results from Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands: Constraints on tectonic setting and rates of active faulting. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 13–30.
	
Jansma, P. E., et al. (2000). "Neotectonics of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, northeastern Caribbean, from GPS geodesy." Tectonics 19(6): 1021-1037.
	
Jany, I. (1989). Neotectonics to the south of the Greater Antilles, collision (Beata Ridge, Presquile de Bahoruco); subduction (Muertos Trench); transtension (Anegada Passage) (Néotectonique au sud des Grandes Antilles, collision (ride de Beata, Presqu'ile de Bahoruco); subduction (fosse de Muertos); transtension (passage d'Anegada)). Paris, France, Université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie (Paris-VI): 306.
	
Jany, I. (1989). Néotectonique au Sud des Grandes Antilles [Neotectonics of the Southern Greater Antilles]. Paris, France, Université Pierre et Marie Curie: ???
	
Jany, I., et al. (1987). "Relevé bathymétrique Seabeam et tectonique en décrochement au sud des Iles Vierges (Nord-Est Caraibes) [Seabeam bathymetry and pull-apart tectonics south of the Virgin Islands (Northeastern Caribbean)]." Comptes Réndus Académie des Sciences [Paris], Serie II 304(10): 527-532.
	
Jany, I., et al. (1990). "Geological interpretation of combined Seabeam, GLORIA and seismic data from Anegada Passage (Virgin Islands, North Caribbean)." Marine Geophysical Researches 12(3): 173-196.
	
Jaramillo, J. (1980). Petrology and Geochemistry of the Nevado del Ruiz Volcano, Northern Andes, Colombia. Universtiy of Houston: ?
	
Jean-Poix, C. (1981). "Bilan des formations d'Haïti." Presentations/Transactions du 1er Colloque sur la Geologie d'Haïti, Faculté des Sciences, L'Université d'Haïti, Port-au-Prince, Haiti.
	
Jehanno, C., et al. (1992). "The Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary at Beloc, Haiti:  No evidence for an impact in the Caribbean area." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 109(1-2): 229-241.
	
Jennette, D., et al. (2003). "Traps and turbidite reservoir characteristics from a complex and evolving tectonic setting, Veracruz Basin, southeastern Mexico." AAPG Bulletin 87(10): 1599-1622.
	
Jiang, M.-J. and E. Robinson (1987). "Calcareous nannofossils and larger foraminifera in Jamaican rocks of Cretaceous to early Eocene age." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica(10): 24-51.
	
Joern Geister, B. (1975). "Riffbau und geologische Entwicklunggeschichte der Insel San Andres (westliches Karibisces Meer, Kolumbien)." Stuttgarter Beitraege zur Naturkunde(15): ???
	
Johannessen, C. L. (1963). Savannas of Interior Honduras. Berkeley, University of California Press.
	
John, A. M. (2006). The deformation history of the Villa de Cura blueschist belt, Venezuela: Implications for the evolution of the Caribbean-South American Plate boundary zone. Houston, TX, Rice University. The deformation history of the Villa de Cura blueschist belt, Venezuela: Implications for the evolution of the Caribbean-South American Plate boundary zone
by John, Alastair M., MS
RICE UNIVERSITY, 2006, 117 pages: 117.
	This study presents a new conceptual tectonic model for the exhumation and emplacement of the Villa de Cura blueschist belt, which places specific constraints on the development of the Caribbean-South American plate boundary zone. New structural and fluid inclusion microthermometric analyses constrain the evolution of the western and central parts of the Villa de Cura blueschist belt, Venezuela. The structural evolution is represented by seven generations of deformation structures. Three ductile generations are associated with Late Cretaceous subduction zone deformation, and Paleocene-Eocene exhumation of the belt from the fore arc of the Great Arc of the Caribbean. Two brittle-ductile generations record the Eocene-Miocene emplacement of the belt onto the South American continental margin; during this deformation early aqueous fluid inclusion assemblages are reequilibrated. Two brittle generations result from plate boundary deformation similar to that occurring at present; methane-rich fluid inclusion assemblages are associated with hydrocarbon entrapment during these deformations.

Johns, W. E., et al. (2002). "On the Atlantic inflow to the Caribbean Sea." Deep   Sea Research Part I   Oceanographic Research Papers 49(2): 211-243.
	
Johnson, C. A. (1990). Stratigraphy and Structure of the San Lucas Area, Michoacan and Guerrero States, Southwestern Mexico. Miami, FL, University of Miami: 238.
	
Johnson, C. A. and J. A. Barros (1993). Tertiary tectonics and margin truncation in southem Mexico. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region:  A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration. J. L. Pindell and R. F. Perkins. ???, Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation: 181-191.
	
Johnson, C. A. and H. C.G.A. (1990). "Neotectonics in central Mexico." Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 64: 187-210.
	
Johnson, C. A. and G. E. Harlow (1999). "Guatemala jadeitites and albitites were formed by deuterium-rich serpentinizng fluids deep within a subduction zone." Geology 27(7): 629-632.
	
Johnson, C. A., et al. (1991). "Preliminary assessment of stratigraphy and structure, San Lucas region, Michoacan and Guerrero states, SW Mexico." The Mountain Geologist 28(2/3): 121-135.
	
Johnson, C. C. (1993). Cretaceous Biogeography of the Caribbean Region. Boulder, CO, University of Colorado at Boulder: 330.
	
Johnson, C. C. and E. G. Kauffman (1996). Maastrichtian extinction patterns of Caribbean province rudistids. Cretaceous - Tertiary Mass Extinctions: Biotic and Environmental Changes. N. Macleod and G. Keller. 500 Fifth Ave, New York, NY 10110, W W Norton & Co: 231-273.
	
Johnson, C. C. and E. G. Kauffman (2001). Cretaceous evolution of reef ecosystems - A regional synthesis of the Caribbean tropics. History and Sedimentology of Ancient Reef Systems. G. D. Stanley. 233 Spring St/New York/NY 10013/USA, Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publ: 311-349.
	
Johnson, C. C. and E. G. Kaufman (1989). Cretaceous rudistid paleobiogeography of the Caribbean Province. 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands: ?
	
Johnson, C. M. (1973). Occurrence and Alteration of Clay Minerals in the Caribbean Sea. Department of Geology. College Station, TX, Texas A&M University: 111.
	
Johnson, K. R. (1984). Geology of the Gualan and Southern Sierra de las Minas Quadrangles, Guatemala. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York: 355.
	
Johnson, M. K., et al. (1991). "Controls on the composition of fluvial sands from a tropical weathering environment: Sands of the Orinoco River drainage basin, Venezuela and Colombia." Geological Society of America Bulletin 103(12): 1622-1647.
	
Johnson, M. S. and E. Headington (1971). Panama: Exploration history and petroleum potential. Oil and Gas Journal. ???: 96-100.
	
Johnson, S. E., et al., Eds. (2003). Tectonic evolution of northwestern Mexico and the Southwestern USA. Special Paper. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America (GSA).
	
Johnston, S. T. and D. J. Thorkelson (1997). "Cocos-Nazca slab window beneath Central America." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 146(3-4): 465-474.
	Integration of petrologic and tectonic data favours a model of slab window formation beneath Central America in the Pliocene-Pleistocene. Central America has been the site of voluminous Cenozoic arc volcanism. The Cocos and Nazca plates, which are subducting beneath Central America, are diverging along the east-trending Cocos-Nazca spreading ridge. Since 25 Ma the Americas have advanced about 1800 km west over the ridge-transform system. Since at least 8 Ma, plate integrity and the ridge-transform configuration have been preserved during convergence, resulting in subduction of the spreading ridge and development of a slab window. The Panama fracture zone, an active transform fault, is the part of the ridge-transform system currently being subducted. The ridge-transform system formerly adjoining the northern end of the Panama fracture zone is likely to have been left-stepping. We use present-day plate motions to design a slab window to fit known variations in igneous composition, hypocentre distribution, and mantle anisotropy. The modeling demonstrates that subduction of ridge segments and resultant slab window development began between 6 and 10 Ma. Cessation of ridge subduction occurred between 1 and 3 Ma, when subduction of the Panama fracture zone is considered to have begun. The slab window is continuing to expand and migrate northeastward below the Central American volcanic arc. The absence of a Wadati-Benioff zone from southeastern Costa Rica through Panama corresponds to the position of the slab window. Within this region, dacitic and rhyolitic volcanic rocks have "adakitic" compositions, and are thought to result from anatexis of the young, buoyant crust which forms the trailing edges of the slabs bounding the window. Basalts in this area were derived from an enriched ocean-island type mantle source, whereas basalts from the rest of the arc, in Nicaragua, El Salvador and Guatemala, are mainly derived from slab-modified depleted mantle, characteristic of volcanic arcs. The presence of ocean-island type mantle beneath southern Costa Rica and Panama is explained by eastward flow of enriched asthenosphere from the Galapagos plume-head through the slab window and into the volcano source region. Eastward transfer of asthenosphere is consistent with global plate motion studies and seismic anisotropy in the asthenosphere beneath the Nazca and Caribbean plates. The flow of peridotite is a consequence of progressive shrinkage of the Pacific mantle reservoir and concurrent expansion of the Atlantic mantle reservoir.

Jolly, W. T. and E. G. Lidiak (2006). Role of crustal melting in petrogenesis of the Cretaceous Water Island Formation (Virgin Islands, northeast Antilles Island arc). Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 7-34.
	
Jolly, W. T., et al. (2006). Cretaceous to Mid-Eocene pelagic sediment budget in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands (northeast Antilles Island arc). Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 35-62.
	
Jolly, W. T., et al. (2008). "The case for persistent southwest-dipping Cretaceous convergence in the northeast Antilles; geochemistry, melting models, and tectonic implications." Geological Society of America Bulletin 120(7-8): 1036-1052.
	Constraints on the polarity of Cretaceous subduction in the Greater Antilles are provided through geochemical comparison between the erupted island arc lavas in central Puerto Rico and potential pelagic sediment reservoirs in the flanking ocean basins. Early Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous (185- to 65-Ma) sediment from the open Pacific on the southwest is dominated by pelagic chert, which is highly refractory and depleted with respect to incompatible elements. In comparison, mid- to Late Cretaceous (ca. 112- to 65-Ma) sediment from the younger Atlantic basin on the northeast was dominated by mixtures of two end members. These include (1) biogenic clay and carbonates with elevated light rare-earth element (LREE) abundances, negative MORB-normalized, high field-strength element (HFSE) anomalies, and low Zr/Sm; and (2) turbiditic detritus of upper continental crust composition with high LREE, comparatively shallow HFSE anomalies, and high Zr/Sm. Compositions of Puerto Rican arc basalts are inconsistent with incorporation of Pacific pelagic chert. Instead, patterns characteristic of high-Fe island arc tholeiites are reproduced by incorporation of up to 4% of a low-Zr/Sm biogenic sediment component of Atlantic origin, whereas patterns of low-Fe lavas require, in addition to biogenic sediment, introduction of up to 2% of a high-Zr/Sm crustal turbidite component. The Atlantic origin of all the subducted sediments indicates the polarity of subduction throughout the Cretaceous in the northeast Antilles was persistently southwest dipping. This conclusion is supported by the presence of a low-Zr/Sm suprasubduction zone component of Atlantic origin in Caribbean plateau basalts (91-88 Ma) from southwest Puerto Rico, which were erupted within the broad back-arc region of the Greater Antilles during intermediate stages of arc development.

Jolly, W. T., et al. (2001). "Secular geochemistry of central Puerto Rican island arc lavas: Constraints on Mesozoic tectonism in the eastern Greater Antilles." Journal of Petrology 42(12): 2197-2214.
	
Jolly, W. T., et al. (1998
1998). Geochemical diversity of Mesozoic island arc tectonic blocks in eastern Puerto Rico
The Pliocene Bowden shell bed, Southeast Jamaica. Tectonics and geochemistry of the northeastern Caribbean. S. K. Donovan, Geological Society of America
University of the West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica. 322
35: 67-98
175.
	
Jolly, W. T., et al. (1998). Volcanism, tectonics, and stratigraphic correlations in Puerto Rico. Tectonics and geochemistry of the northeastern Caribbean, Geological Society of America. 322: 1-34.
	
Jones, A. T. and R. G. Dill (2002). The Great Blue Hole of Lighthouse Reef Atoll, Belize, Central America: Deep technical diving to collect sea-level records. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 181-193.
	
Jones, B. (1989). "The role of micro-organisms in phytokarst development on dolostones and limestones, Grand Cayman, British West Indies." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 26: 2204-2213.
	
Jones, B. (1992). "Void-filling deposits in karst terrains of isolated oceanic islands: A case study from Tertiary carbonates of the Cayman Islands." Sedimentology 39: 857-876.
	
Jones, B. (1994). The Cayman Islands. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 87-109.
	
Jones, B. (1995). "Processes associated with microbial biofilms in the twilight zone of caves: Examples from the Cayman Islands." Journal of Sedimentary Research Section A - Sedimentary Petrology and Processes 65(3): 552-560.
	
Jones, B. and I. G. Hunter (1989). "The Oligocene-Miocene Bluff Formation on Grand Cayman." Caribbean Journal of Science 25: 71-85.
	
Jones, B. and I. G. Hunter (1990). "Pleistocene paleogeography and sea levels on the Cayman Islands, British West Indies." Coral Reefs 9: 81-91.
	
Jones, B. and I. G. Hunter (1994). "Evolution of an isolated c arbonate bank during Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene times, Cayman Brac, British West Indies." Facies 30: 25-50.
	
Jones, B. and I. G. Hunter (1994). "Messinian (Late Miocene) karst on Grand Cayman, British West Indies: An example of an erosional sequence boundary." Journal of Sedimentary Research B64(4): 531-541.
	
Jones, B., et al. (1994). "Revised stratigraphic nomenclature for Tertiary strata of the Cayman Islands, British West Indies." Caribbean Journal of Science???: ???
	
Jones, B., et al. (1994). "Stratigraphy of the Bluff Formation (Miocene-Pliocene) and the newly defined Brac Formation (Oligocene), Cayman Brac, British West Indies." Caribbean Journal of Science???: ???
	
Jones, B. and C. F. Kahle (1995). "Origin of endogenetic micrite in karst terrains:  A case study from the Cayman Islands." Journal of Sedimentary Research Section A - Sedimentary Petrology and Processes 65(2): 283-293.
	
Jones, B. and R. W. MacDonald (1989). "Micro-organisms and crystal fabrics in cave pisoliths from Grand Cayman, British West Indies." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 59: 387-396.
	
Jones, B. and A. Motyka (1987). "Biogenic structures and micrite in stalactites from Grand Cayman Island, British West Indies." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 24: 1402-1411.
	
Jones, B. and D. S. Smith (1988). "Open and filled karst features on the Cayman Islands: implications for the recognition of paleokarst." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 25: 1277-1291.
	
Jones, H. P. (1968). The geology of the Herrera Sands in the Moruga West Oilfield of south Trinidad. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean Printers, Arima, Trinidad and Tobago.
	
Jones, S. M. (1950). "Geology of Gatún Lake and vicinity." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 61: 893-920.
	
Jordan, B. R. (2004). Geochemical correlation, variation, and petrogenesis, of ignimbrites in Central America and associated Caribbean Sea tephra layers, University of Rhode Island: 279.
	The Central American Tertiary Ignimbrite Province covers an area of 170,000 km<super>2</super>. A total of 112 marine tephra and 79 terrestrial samples from Nicaragua and Honduras were analyzed during this study, using an electron microprobe for major oxides and laser ICP-MS for trace elements. Cluster analysis resulted in the division of the samples into 6 geochemical groups. Visual inspection of these groups resulted in the reclassification of these 6 into 14 distinct geochemical groups. The geochemical correlation is strengthened using factor analysis in which the REE values for each sample were reduced to 2 factors. The Lesser Antilles can be ruled out as contributing to the Western Caribbean tephra due to the lack of any large-volume ignimbrite sheets within the arc, the atmospheric circulation patterns that transport tephra to the east, as well as the distinctly different REE trends of the magmas. The Sierra Madre Igneous Province in Mexico is also ruled out as a potential source, due mainly to a significant age difference between Sierra Madre ignimbrites and the Caribbean Sea tephra layers. There is evidence for sediment-derived fluid contamination, which includes a positive Eu-anomaly in two of the ignimbrite geochemical groups as well as the plotting of the ignimbrite magmas within mixing fields between NMORB and oceanic sediments. A plot of Ba/La along the inferred paleoarc shows a strong enrichment in Nicaragua. Evidence of the influence of the continental crust in the formation of the Central American ignimbrites include: (1)&nbsp;The very large volume of the rhyolite ignimbrites in comparison to occurrences of mafic magmas. (2)&nbsp;The majority of the ignimbrites fall within the classification fields of S-type granites. (3)&nbsp;All of the ignimbrites analyzed for &delta;<super>18</super>O and <super>87</super>Sr/<super> 86</super> Sr isotopes have values within the range of continental crustal rocks. (4)&nbsp;REE and other trace element trends are similar to those of average lower continental crust. (5)&nbsp;Fractional crystallization models fail to explain the major and trace element compositions of the ignimbrites. (6)&nbsp;AFC and continental crustal melt mixing models produce evolutionary trends that are consistent with the compositions of the ignimbrites. 

Jordan, T. H. (1975). "The present-day motions of the Caribbean plate." Journal of Geophysical Research 80(32): 4433-4439.
	
Jordanov, J. A. and M. de los Angeles Iriarte (1986). "Rare earth contents in volcanic rocks from the former Camaguey Province, Cuba." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(12): 26-35.
	
Jorgensen, K. M. (1966). Seismological History of the Canal Zone and Panama. Balboa Heights, Canal Zone, Panama Canal Company.
	
Joukowsky, E. and M. Clerc (1906). "Sur quelques affleurements nouveaux de roches tertiares dans l'isthme de Panama [About some new outcrops of Tertiary rocks wintin the Isthmus of Panama]." Memoire de la Societe de Physique et de Histoire Naturale de Geneve 35: 155-178.
	
Joyce, J. (1982). The lithology and structure of the eclogite and glaucophane-bearing rocks on the Samana Peninsula, Dominican Republic. Transactions of the Ninth Caribbean Geological Conference. W. Snow, N. Gil, R. Llinas et al. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: 417-422.
	
Joyce, J. (1989). "The metamorphic mineralogy and P/T conditions of metamorphism of the Samana Peninsula, Dominican Republic." Transactions, 10th Caribbean Geological. Conference, Cartagena, Colombia, (August 14-19, 1983): 459-466. .
	
Joyce, J. (1991). Blueschist metamorphic and deformation on the Samana Peninsula - a record of subduction and collision in the Greater Antilles. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 47-76.
	
Joyce, J. (1992). Geology of the East Coast of Puerto Rico - Field Guide. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Dept. of Geology, University of Puerto Rico: 11.
	
Joyce, J. (2002). Field Guide - 20thAnnual Symposium of Caribbean Geology: Geology and Tectonics of Puerto Rico. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Dept. of Geology, University of Puerto Rico: 16 + cover.
	
Joyce, J. and J. Aronson (1989). "K-Ar ages for blueschist metamorphism on the Samana Peninsula, Dominican Republic." Transactions, 10th Caribbean Geological. Conference, Cartagena, Colombia, (August 14-19,  1983): 454-458.
	
Joyce, J., et al. (1996). Geology of Puerto Rico (with discussions of select infrastructure projects) - Field Guide. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Dept. of Geology, University of Puerto Rico: 58.
	
Joyce, J. and J. H. Schellekens (1984). Field Guide - 3rd Annual Symposium of Caribbean Geology. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Dept. of Geology, University of Puerto Rico: 19.
	
Joyce, J. J. (1985). High pressure-low temperature metamorphism and tectonic evolution of the Samana Peninsula, Dominican Republic (Greater Antilles). Evanston, Illinois, Northwestern University: 246.
	
Julivert, M. (1961). "Geologia de la Vertiente Oeste de la Cordillera Oriental en el sector de Bucaramanga, Colombia (Geology of the Vertiente Oeste of the Cordillera Oriental in the Bucaramanga, Colombia sector)." Boletin Geologico (Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga) 8: 39-42.
	
Julivert, M. (1961). "Las estructuras del Valle Medio del Magdalena y su significacion (The structures of the Middle Valley of Magdalena and their significance)." Boletin de Geologia, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga (Colombia) 6: 33-42.
	
Julivert, M. (1970). "Cover and basement tectonics in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, South America, a comparison with some other folded chains." Geological Society of America Bulletin 87: 481-495.
	
Jull, A., et al. (2004). "Radiocarbon dating of extinct fauna in the Americas recovered from tar pits." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 223-224: 668-671.
	
Jundgren, P. R., et al. (1993). "GPS measurements of crustal deformation associated with 22 April, 1991, Valle de la Estrella, Costa Rica earthquake." Geophysical Research Letters 20: 407-410.
	
Jung, P. (1965). "Miocene Mollusca From the Paraguana Peninsula, Venezuela." Bulletin of American Paleontology 49(223): 258.
	
Jung, P. (1969). "Miocene and Pliocene Mollusks From Trinidad." Bulletin of American Paleontology 5(247): 381.
	
Jung, P. (1970). "Torreites sanchezi (Douville) from Jamaica." Palaeontographica America 7(42): 13.
	
Jung, P. (1971). "Fossil Mollusks From Carriacou, West Indies." Bulletin of American Paleontology 61(269): 119.
	
Jung, P. (1974). "Eocene mollusks from Curaçao, West Indies." Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel 84: 483-500.
	
Jung, P. (1986). "Neogene Paleontology in the Northern Dominican Republic: 2. The Genus Strombina (Gastropoda: Columbellidae)." Bulletin of American Paleontology 90(324): 42.
	
Jung, P. (1987). "Giant gastropods of the genus Campanile from the Caribbean Eocene." Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae 80(3): 889-896.
	
KacKay, M. E. and G. F. Moore (1990). "Variation in deformation of the south Panama accretionary prism: Response to oblique subduction and trench sediment variation." Tecotnics 9(4): 683-698.
	
Kaczor, L. and J. Rogers (1990). "The Cretaceous Aguas Buenas and Rio Maton Limestones of southern Puerto Rico." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 3: 1-8.
	
Kafka, A. L. (1980). Caribbean Tectonic Processes:  Seismic Surface Wave Source and Path Property Analysis. Department of Earth & Space Sciences. Stony Brook, NY, State University of New York: 294.
	
Kafka, A. L. and D. J. Weidner (1979). "The focal mechanisms and depths of small earthquakes as determined from Rayleigh wave radiation patterns." Seismological Society of America Bulletin 69: 1379-1390.
	
Kafka, A. L. and D. J. Weidner (1981). "Earthquake focal mechanisms and tectonic processes along the southern boundary of the Caribbean plate." Journal of Geophysical Research 86: 2877-2888.
	
Kahn, L. M., et al. (1996). "Surficial evidence of fluid expulsion from the Costa Rica accretionary prism." Geophysical Research Letters 23(8): 887-890.
	
Kalliokoski, J. (1965). "Geology of north-central Guayana Shield, Venezuela." Geological Society of America Bulletin 76: 1027-1050.
	
Kalliokoski, J. (1965). "The metamorphosed iron ore of El Pao, Venezuela." Economic Geology 60: 100-116.
	
Kameo, K. (2002). "Late Pliocene Caribbean surface water dynamics and climatic changes based on calcareous nannofossil records." Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 179(3-4): 211-226.
	
Kameo, K. and T. J. Bralower (2000). Neogene calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphy of sites 998, 999, and 1000,  Caribbean Sea. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Caribbean Ocean history and the  Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary event; covering Leg 165 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Miami, Florida, to San Juan Puerto Rico, sites 998-1002, 19 December 1995-17 February 1996,. R. M. Leckie, H. Sigurdsson, G. D. Acton et al. College Station, TX, Texas A & M University, Ocean Drilling Program. 165: 3-17.
	
Kameo, K. and T. Sato (2000). Biogeography of Neogene calcareous nannofossils in the Caribbean and the eastern Equatorial Pacific: Floral response to the emergence of the Isthmus of Panama. Marine Micropaleontology. J. R. Young, H. R. Thierstein and A. Winter. 39: 201-218.
	
Kaminshi, M. A., et al. (1987). Flysch-type Agglutinated, Foraminiferal Assemblages From Trinidad:  Taxonomy Stratigraphy and Paleobathymetry, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution: 59.
	
Kanamori, H. and M. Kikuchi (1993). "The 1992 Nicaragua earthquake: A slow tsunami earthquake associated with subducted sediments." Nature 361: 714-716.
	
Kanamori, H. and G. S. Stewart (1978). "Seismological aspects of the Guatemala earthquake of February 4, 1976." Journal of Geophysical Research 83(B7): 3427-3434.
	
Kaneps, A. G. (1970). Late Neogene (Late Miocene to Recent) Biostratigraphy (Planktonic Foraminifera), Biogeography and Depositional History, Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico. Department of Geological Sciences. Palisades, NY, Columbia University: 188.
	
Kang, J. K. and A. Kosakevitch (1987). Etude texturale des encroutements ferro-manganesiferes thalassiques et hydrothermaux de l'Est-Caraibe (Textural study of thalassic and hydrothermal ferromanganese encrustation in the eastern Caribbean). Documents, B.R.G.M. 118: 203.
	
Kanjorski, N. M. (2003). Cocos plate structure along the Middle America subduction zone off Oaxaca and Guerrero, Mexico: Influence of subducting plate morphology on tectonics and seismicity. San Diego, University of California, San Diego: 202.
	Two new bathymetric and magnetic surveys are presented from which the history and recent tectonics of the Cocos plate off the Middle America subduction zone are determined. The East O'Gorman fracture zone, a previously proposed outer rise feature, is not present along the Oaxaca trench outer rise near the trench axis.

Several parallel ridges of seamounts are entering the subduction zone 15-20° from orthogonal to the trench axis. These ridges lie roughly parallel to the spreading direction and were created as off-axis volcanism. The southern Mexico trench outer rise exhibits reactivation of the inherited abyssal-hill and trench-parallel faults to accommodate extension from plate flexure. Plate boundary forces also produce a new unusual family of normal faults parallel to and flanking the seamounts. An anomalous increase in outer rise earthquakes accompany these faults indicating they are seismically active.

Trench-parallel extension related to the geometry of the trench axis bend and increasing plate convergence angle may contribute to their genesis. Unusual outer-rise faulting off of the Japan trench (Kobayashi et al., 1998) which is coincident with a trench axis bend is used to argue that specific conditions at subduction zones may activate inherited fracture-zone-parallel weakness. This controls fault orientation at the Japan and Mexico outer rises.

Seafloor morphology and seismicity evidence leads to a "slivered" ocean-crust model that is broken along the seamount-parallel faults at the subduction zone. This accounts for the consistent rupture geometry (40-100 km fault failure) and the uniformity in the character of the thrust waveforms. Limited magnitudes of shallow thrust earthquakes appear to be a consequence of the subducted slivering crust.

A review of regions whose structures and forces are similar to those present in the subducting Cocos plate off Oaxaca indicates that crustal slivering is not unique. Forces other than a trench axis bend must be present to furnish the entirely unique seamount-parallel outer-rise faulting. Either/both convergence direction and spreading-parallel inherited weakness orientation may determine outer-rise fault strike. Methods for resolving ambiguous data are proposed.

Kantshev, I. and et al. (1976). Geología de la provincia de Las Villas. Resultado de las investigaciones y levantamiento geológico a escala 1:250 000 (Geology of the Province of Las Villas. Results of the investigations and geologic uplift at scale 1:250,000). La Habana, Academia de ciencias de Cuba y Bulgaria, Instituto de Geología y Paleontología: 1-1480.
	
Karig, D. E., et al. (1978). "Late Cenozoic subduction and continental margin truncation along the northern Middle America Trench." Geologic Society of America Bulletin 89: 265-276.
	
Karson, J. A. and P. J. Fox (1986). "Geological and geophysical investigation of the Mid-Cayman spreading center: Seismic velocity measurements and implications for the constitution of layer 3." Geophysical Journal of the Royal astronomy Society 85(2): 389-411.
	
Kashfi, M. (1983). " Geology and hydrocarbon prospects of Jamaica." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 67: 2117-2124.
	
Kasper, D. C. and D. K. Larue (1986). "Paleogeographic and tectonic implications of quartzose sandstones of Barbados." Tectonics 5: 837-854.
	
Kauffman, E. G. and A. E. Burgess (1929). The Tertiary Stratigraphy of the North American Coastal Plain and the Caribbean Region. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
Kauffman, E. G., et al. (1990). Field Guide to the Cretaceous-Cenozoic Carbonate Platforms and Reefs of  Western Puerto Rico. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Dept. of Geology, University of Puerto Rico: 103.
	
Kauffman, E. G., et al. (1989). "A Field Guide to the Cretaceous Carbonate Platforms and Rudistid Reefs of Jamaica." 117.
	
Kauffman, E. G., et al. (1989). A Field Guide to the Cretaceous Carbonate Platforms and Rudistid Reefs of Jamaica.
	
Kauffman, E. G., et al. (1993). A Field Guide to Cretaceous Facies and Sequence Stratigraphy of Northeastern Venezuela, INTEVEP, Filial de Petroleos de Venezuela.
	
Kaufman, R. L. and B. A. patterson (1994). Applications of reservoir geochemistry to development and production problems. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 468.
	
Kawakatsu, H. and G. Proaño Cadena (1991). "CMT inversion with a first motion constraint Focal mechanisms of the March 6 1987 Ecuador earthquakes." Journal of Physical Earth 39: 589-597.
	
Kay, S. M. and C. Mpodozis (2002). "Magmatism as a probe to the Neogene shallowing of the Nazca plate beneath the modern Chilean flat-slab." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 15(1): 39-57.
	
Kaye, C. A. (1969). Shoreline Features and Quaternary Shoreline Changes, Puerto Rico, U.S. Geological Survey: 49-139.
	
Kazakov, P., et al. (1974). "Estructura geológica y recursos minerales de la parte central y  nororiental del anticlinorio Holguín. Empresa de Geología de Santiago de Cuba (Geologic Structure and Mineral Resources of the Central Part and Northeast of the Holguin Anticlinorium)." Fonfo Geológico Nacional.
	
Kazcor, L. and J. Rogers (1990). "The Cretaceous Aguas Buenas and Río Matón limestones of southern Puerto Rico." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 3: 1-8.
	
Kearey, P. (1974). "Gravity and seismic reflection investigations into the crustal structure of the Aves Ridge, eastern Caribbean." Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 38: 435-448.
	
Kearey, P., et al. (1975). "Geophysical maps of the eastern Caribbean." Journal of the Geological Society of London 131: 311-321.
	
Keen, A. M. and T. F. Thompson (1946). "Notes on the Gatún Formation (Miocene), Panama." Geological Society of America Bulletin 57: 1260.
	
Keigwin, L. D., Jr. (1978). Late Cenozoic paleoceanography of the Panama, Colombia and Venezuela basins. CICAR II; Symposium on progress in marine research in the Caribbean and adjacent regions. J. Harris B. 2: 387-392.
	
Keigwin, L. D., Jr. (1978). "Pliocene closing of the Isthmus of Panama, based on biostratigraphic evidence from nearby Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea cores." Geology 6: 630-634.
	
Keigwin, L. D., Jr. (1982). "Isotopic paleoceanography of the Caribbean and East Pacific: Role of Panama uplift in Late Neogene time." Science 217: 350-353.
	
Keigwin, L. D., Jr. (1982). Stable isotope stratigraphy and paleoceanography of sites 502 and 503. W. L. Prell, J. V. Gardner and et al. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. 68: 445-453.
	
Keijzer, F. G. (1945). Outline of the Geology of the Eastern Part of Province of Oriente, Cuba. Utrecht, Holland, Instituut der Rijksuniversiteit.
	
Kelleher, J. and W. McCann (1976). "Bouyant zones, great earthquakes, and unstable boundaries of subduction." Journal of Geophysical Research 81: 4885-4896.
	
Kelleher, J. A. (1972). Possible Criteria For Predicting Earthquake Locations and Their Application to Major Plate Boundaries of the Pacific and the Caribbean. Columbia Univerisy, Department of Geological Sciences. Palisades, NY: 113.
	
Kelleher, J. L., et al. (1973). "Possible criteria for predicting earthquake locations and their application to major plate boundaries of the Pacific and the Caribbean." Journal of Geophysical Research 78: 2547-2585.
	
Keller, G. (1985). Depth stratification of planktonic foraminifers in the Miocene Ocean. The Miocene Ocean. J. P. Kennett. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 163: 177-196.
	
Keller, G. and T. A. Barron (1983). "Paleocenaographic implications of Miocene deep-sea hiatuses." Geological Society of America Bulletin 94: 590-613.
	
Keller, G., et al. (1996). "The Cretaceous Tertiary boundary stratotype section at El Kef, Tunisia: How catastrophic was the mass extinction?" Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 119(3-4): 221-254.
	
Keller, G., et al. (1993). "Is there evidence for Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary-age deep-water deposits in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico? [with Suppl. Data 9331]." Geology 21(9): 776-780.
	
Keller, G. and W. Stinnesbeck (1997). "Yucatan subsurface stratigraphy: Implications and constraints for the Chicxulub impact: Comment - Reply." Geology 25(1): 93-93.
	
Keller, G., et al. (2003). "Spherule deposits in Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary sediments in Belize and Guatemala." Journal of the Geological Society 160: 783-795.
	
Keller, G., et al. (1989). "Late Neogene history of the Pacific-Caribbean gateway." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 2(1): 73-108.
	
Kellog, J. N. and V. Vega (1995). Tectonic development of Panama, Costa Rica, and the Colombian Andes:  Constraints from global positioning system geodetic studies and gravity. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 75-90.
	
Kellogg, J. N. (1980). Cenozoic Basement Tectonics of the Sierra de Perija, Venezuela and Colombia. Department of Geological and Geophysical Sciences. Princeton, NJ, Princenton University: 246.
	
Kellogg, J. N. (1981). The Cenozoic Basement Tectonics of the Sierra de Perija, Venezuela and Colombia, Princeton University: 268.
	
Kellogg, J. N. (1982). Cenozoic basement tectonics of the Sierra de Perija, Venezuela and Colombia. Transactions of the Ninth Caribbean Geological Conference. W. Snow, N. Gil, R. Llinas et al. Santo Domingo, Domincan Republic. 1: 107-117.
	
Kellogg, J. N. (1984). Cenozoic tectonic history of the Sierra de Perijá, Venezuela-Colombia and adjacent basins. The Caribbean-South American plate boundary and regional tectonics. W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 239-261.
	
Kellogg, J. N. and W. E. Bonini (1982). "Subduction of the Caribbean Plate and basement uplifts in the overriding South American plate." Tectonics 1: 251-276.
	
Kellogg, J. N. and W. E. Bonini (1985). "Reply to Comment on "Subduction of the Caribbean plate and basement uplifts in the overriding South American plate"." Tectonics 4: 785-790.
	
Kellogg, J. N. and T. Dixon (1990). "Central and South American GPS geodesy - CASA UNO." Geophysical Research Letters, CASA UNO Special Issue 17: 195-198.
	
Kellogg, J. N., et al. (1989). "Central and South America GPS Geodesy - CASA." EOS (American Geophysical Union Transactions) 70: 649-656.
	
Kellogg, J. N. and H. S. Duque (1994). Crustal scale deformation in the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 365-372.
	
Kellogg, J. N., et al. (1983). Gravity anomalies and tectonic evolution of northwestern South America. 10a Conferencia Geologica del Caribe: Memoria (10th Caribbean Geological Conference: Transactions). Colombia : La Conferencia, 10th Caribbean Geological Conference: 18-31.
	
Kellogg, J. N., et al. (1991). Gravity Field Map of Colombia, Eastern Panama, and Adjacent Marine Areas. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America.
	
Kellogg, J. N., et al. (1986). Cenozoic tectonics of the Panama and North Andes blocks. Memoirs of the 6th Latin American Geological Congress, Bogota, Colombia, October, 1985. J. Valdiri Wagner. Bogota, Colombia, INGEOMINAS: 41-59.
	
Kellogg, J. N. and V. Vega (1995). Tectonic development of Panama, Costa Rica, and the Colombian Andes: Constraints from global positioning system geodetic studies and gravity. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the Caribbean Plate Boundary in Southern Central America: 75-90.
	
Kelly, R. K. (2003). Subduction Dynamics at the Middle America Trench: New Constraints From Swath Bathymetry, Multichannel Seismic Data, and 10Be. Cambridge, MA, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
	The cosmogenic radionuclide 10 Be is a unique tracer of shallow sediment Subduction in volcanic arcs. The range in 10 Be enrichment in the Central American Volcanic Arc between Guatemala and Costa Rica is not controlled by variations in 10 Be concentrations in subducting sediment seaward of the Middle America Trench. Sedimentary 10 Be is correlated negatively with 143 Nd/ 144 Nd, illustrating that 10 Be concentrations varied both between and within cores due to mixing between terrigenous clay and volcanic ash endmember components. This mixing behavior was determined to be a function of grain size controls on 10 Be concentrations. A negative correlation of bulk sedimentary 10 Be concentrations with median grain size and a positive correlation with the proportion of the sediment grains that were <32 μm in diameter demonstrated that high concentrations of 10 Be in fine-grained, terrigenous sediments were diluted by larger grained volcanogenic material.

The sharp decrease in 10 Be enrichment in the Central American Volcanic Arc between southeastern Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica correlates with changes in fault structure in the subducting Cocos plate. Offshore of Nicaragua, extensional faults associated with plate bending have throw equal to or greater than the overlying subducting sediment thickness. These faults enable efficient Subduction of the entire sediment package by preventing relocation of the décollement within the downgoing sediments. Offshore of Costa Rica, the reduction of fault relief results in basement faults that do not penetrate the overlying sediment. A conceptual model is proposed in which the absence of significant basement roughness allows the decollement to descend into the subducting sediment column, leading to subsequent underplating and therefore removal of the bulk of the sediment layer that contains 10 Be.

Basement fault relief was linearly related to plate curvature and trench depth. The systematic shoaling of the plate from southeastern Nicaragua to northwestern Costa Rica is not explained by changes in plate age for this region. Instead, it is hypothesized that the flexural shape of the plate offshore of southeastern Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica represents a lateral response to a buoyant load caused by the thick crust and elevated thermal regime in the Cocos plate offshore of southeastern Costa Rica.

Kemp, A. W. (1971). The Geology of the Southwestern Flank of the Blue Mountains, Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies: 307.
	
Kemp, J. F. and H. A. Meyerhoff (1926). Scientific survey of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, parts I and II. New York, New York Acadamy of Sciences.
	
Kemper, E. and H.-S. Weber (1979). "Über einige Cenoman-Fossilien aus El Salvador und ihre biostratigraphische und paläogeogrphische Bedeutung." Geologisches Jahrbuch, Reihe B Heft 37: 3-29.
	
Kenarev, I. (1967). "Sobre la relación genética de las cromitas con las facies de hiperbasitas (On the genetic relation of the chromites with the hyperbasaltic facies)." Revista Tecnológica V 2: ?
	
Kendall, J. M. and C. Nangini (1996). "Lateral variations in D" below the Caribbean." Geophysical Research Letters 23(4): 399-402.
	
Kent, D. V. and J.-M. R. Maurrasse (1980). Paleomagnetic results from the Cretaceous Dumisseau Formation of Haiti. Presetnations/Transactions ler Colloque Sur la Geologie d'Haiti. J.-M. R. Maurrassse. Port-au-Prince, Haiti: 236-244.
	
Kent, K. (1979). Two-Dimensional Gravity Model of the Southeast Georgia Embayment - Blake Plateau, University of Delaware.
	
Keppie, J. D. (2004). "Terranes of Mexico revisited: A 1.3 billion year odyssey." International Geology Review 46(9): 765-794.
	During the Precambrian and Paleozoic, Mexican terranes were either part of or proximal to Laurentia and Middle America (basements of Mesozoic Maya, Oaxaquia, and Chortis terranes that bordered Amazonia). Obduction of the Sierra Madre proximal terrane in the Late Ordovician was followed by Permo-Carboniferous amalgamation of all proximal terranes into Pangea. Middle Jurassic breakup of Pangea resulted in two continental terranes, Maya and Chortis, which were surrounded by small ocean-basin/arc terranes: Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, Juarez, Motagua terranes, and the Guerrero composite terrane. All of these terranes were obducted onto North America during the Late Cretaceous-Early Cenozoic, Laramide orogeny. Neogene propagation of the East Pacific Rise into the North American margin has led to separation and northwest translation of the Baja California terrane.

Keppie, J. D. and J. Dostal (2001). "Evaluation of the Baja controversy using paleomagnetic and faunal data, plume magmatism, and piercing points." Tectonophysics 339(3-4): 427-442.
	
Keppie, J. D., et al. (2003). "Geochronology and geochemistry of Grenvillian igneous suites in the northern Oaxacan Complex, southern Mexico: tectonic implications." Precambrian Research 120(3-4): 365-389.
	
Keppie, J. D. and D. J. Moran-Zenteno (2005 ). "Tectonic implications of alternative Cenozoic reconstructions for southern Mexico and the Chortis block " International Geology Review 47(5): 473-491.
	Most Current Eocene reconstructions juxtapose the Chortis block of northern Central America against Southern Mexico, and invoke similar to 1100 km Cenozoic sinistral displacement on the Acapulco-Motagua-Cayman fault zone, the inferred northern margin of the Caribbean plate. Such a hypothesis is incompatible with the presence of undeformed Upper Cretaceous-Recent sediments that cross the projected it-ace of the Motagua fault zone in the Gulf of Tehuantepec, minimal offset of the Permian Chiapas batholith, and the absence in Honduras of several major features in southern Mexico. These problems may be overcome if the Chortis block is back-rotated anticlockwise about a pole near Santiago, Chile, i.e. similar to 1100 km along the Cayman transform faults during the Cenozoic. Such a reconstruction when combined with reconstructions of features in the Pacific Ocean, suggests that Middle Miocene collision of the Tehuantepec aseismie ridge with the Acapulco Trench led to: (1) asymmetric flattening of the subduction zone; (2) an anticlockwise rotation of the Mexican magmatic are to its present location by the Middle Miocene; (3) the development of a volcanic are gap in southeastern Mexico, in which the late Middle Miocene Chiapas fold-and-thrust belt developed: as the Tehuantepec Ridge swept westward, are volcanism was re-established in the gap. Eocene collision of the Chumbia Seamount Ridge (inferred mirror image of the Moonless Mountains-unnamed seamount ridge between the Molokai and Clarion fracture zones) with the Acapulco Trench followed by its ESE migration during the Oligocene led to: (a) flattening of the subducting slab inducing subduction erosion and exhumation of the southern Mexican margin, (b) anticlockwise rotation of the volcanic are; and (e) sinistral strike-slip faulting in the Sierra Madre del Sur. This contrasts with the region north of the projected Molokai fracture zone where the dip of the subduction zone appears to have steepened, producing extension. Eocene(-Late Cretaceous) subduction along the southern coast of Mexico explains the remnants of a Late Cretaceous are in the Gulf of Tehuantepec and neighboring Guatemala.  

Kerr, A. C., et al. (2002). "The nature and provenance of accreted oceanic terranes in western Ecuador: geochemical and tectonic constraints." Journal of the Geological Society 159: 577-594.
	
Kerr, A. C., et al. (1999). "A new plate tectonic model of the Caribbean: Implications from a geochemical reconnaissance of Cuban Mesozoic volcanic rocks." Geological Society of America Bulletin 111(11): 1581-1599.
	
Kerr, A. C. and J. J. Mahoney (2007). "Oceanic plateaus: Problematic plumes, potential paradigms." Chemical Geology 241( 3-4): 332-353.
	Oceanic plateaus are vast areas (> 2 × 105 km2) of thicker than average oceanic crust (up to 38 km) that typically are elevated 2–3 km above the surrounding seafloor. Because of their thick, relatively high-standing crust, portions of oceanic plateaus can accrete to convergent continental margins and thus have contributed to continental growth over time. Through studies of accreted oceanic plateau sections and from drilling of in-situ plateaus, knowledge of plateau structure, composition and age has increased considerably over the last 20 years. However, models for the origin of oceanic plateaus are still not without significant problems. Mantle plume models can explain many of the observed chemical and physical features, but other characteristics are not readily explicable by conventional thermal plume models. This is particularly true of the largest plateau, the Cretaceous Ontong Java Plateau in the western Pacific. If formed by a plume head, much of the surface of this plateau should have become subaerial, but instead largely appears to have erupted at water depths > 1000 m; furthermore, post-eruption subsidence was much less than predicted by thermal plume models. Other models, such as meteorite impact-induced melting and spreading-induced upwelling of eclogite, are also fraught with problems. A solution to the anomalous uplift and subsidence of the Ontong Java Plateau may lie in its derivation from a thermochemical mantle plume. Modelling suggests such plumes can consist of large amounts of compositionally dense material, thereby reducing net plume buoyancy. Future work should explore in detail the capabilities of thermochemical plumes, the role of oceanic plateaus in continental growth, and links between the formation of plateaus and major environmental crises such as oceanic anoxic events.

Kerr, A. C., et al. (1996). "The petrogenesis of Gorgona komatiites, picrites and basalts: New field, petrographic and geochemical constraints." Lithos 37(2-3): 245-260.
	
Kerr, A. C., et al. (1996). "The petrogenesis of komatiites, picrites and basalts from the Isle of Gorgona, Colombia: New field, petrographic and geochemical constraints." Lithos 37(2-3): 245-260.
	
Kerr, A. C., et al. (1997). "Cretaceous basaltic terranes in western Colombia: Elemental, chronological and Sr-Nd isotopic constraints on petrogenesis." Journal of Petrology 38(6): 677-702.
	
Kerr, A. C. and J. Tarney (2005). "Tectonic evolution of the Caribbean and northwestern South America: The case for accretion of two Late Cretaceous oceanic plateaus." Geology 33(4): 269-272.
	It is widely accepted that the thickened oceanic crust of the Caribbean plate, its basaltic accreted margins, and accreted mafic terranes in northwestern South America represent the remnants of a single ca. 90 Ma oceanic plateau. We review geologic, geochemical, and paleomagnetic evidence that suggests that the Caribbean-Colombian oceanic plateau in fact represents the remnants of two different oceanic plateaus, both dated as ca. 90 Ma. The first of these plateaus, the Caribbean Plateau, formed ca. 90 Ma in the vicinity of the present-day Galapagos hotspot. Northeastward movement of the Farallon plate meant that this plateau collided with the proto-Caribbean arc and northwestern South America < 10 m.y. after the plateau's main phase of formation. Paleomagnetic evidence suggests that the second of these plateaus, the Gorgona Plateau, formed at 26< degrees >-30< degrees >S, possibly at the site of the present-day Sala y Gomez botspot. Over the next < similar-to >45 m.y., this plateau was carried progressively northeastward on the Farallon plate and collided in the middle Eocene with the proto-Andean subduction zone in northwestern South America. The recognition of a second ca. 90 Ma Pacific oceanic plateau strengthens the link between plateau formation and global oceanic anoxic events. 

Kerr, A. C., et al. (2002). "Pervasive mantle plume head heterogeneity: Evidence from the Late Cretaceous Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Plateau." Journal of Geophysical Research 107(7).
	
Kerr, A. C., et al. (1996). "The geochemistry and petrogenesis of the late-Cretaceous picrites and basalts of Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles: A remnant of an oceanic plateau." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 124(1): 29-43.
	
Kerr, A. C., et al. (1996). "The geochemistry and tectonic setting of late Cretaceous Caribbean and Colombian volcanism." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 9(1-2): 111-120.
	
Kerr, A. C., et al. (1997). The Caribbean-Colombian Cretaceous Igneous Province:  The internal anatomy of an oceanic plateau. Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism. J. J. Mahoney and M. F. Coffin. Washington, D.C., American Geophysical Union. 100: 123-144.
	
Kerr, A. C., et al. (1998). "The internal structure of oceanic plateaus: Inferences from obducted Cretaceous terranes in western Colombia and the Caribbean." Tectonophysics 292(3-4): 173-188.
	
Kerr, A. C., et al. (2000). "Recognising oceanic plateaux in the geological record." Journal of Petrology 41(7): 1041-1056.
	
Kerr, A. C., et al. (2003). No oceanic plateau; no Caribbean Plate? The seminal role of an oceanic plateau in Caribbean Plate evolution. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, Buffler, Richard T. Blickwede, Jon F. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 126-168.
	Oceanic plateaus are areas of elevated and anomalously thick oceanic crust that are believed to form by enhanced partial melting in a mantle plume that is hotter than ambient upper asthenosphere. They are regarded as the oceanic equivalent of continental flood-basalt provinces. Because of the continual subduction of oceanic crust, the oldest known oceanic plateaus occurring in situ are Cretaceous in age. In order for oceanic plateaus to be preserved in the geologic record, they must be accreted onto continental margins. This process, involving their preservation as tectonic slices, depends on the fact that oceanic plateaus are more buoyant than normal ocean floor; thus, they are not easily subducted. If these plateaus encounter an oceanic arc, subduction polarity reversal may occur, and/or the locus of subduction may step back behind the trailing edge of the advancing plateau. At a continental subduction zone, only subduction back-step occurs. Geochemical evidence shows that basaltic and picritic rocks exposed in the thickened part of the Caribbean plate and around its margins (including northern South America) are parts of an accreted oceanic plateau that originated in the Pacific Ocean during the middle-to-late Cretaceous. Cretaceous subduction-related rocks also occur around the Caribbean margins and possess geochemical signatures (e.g., lower Nb and Ti) that are distinct from those of the oceanic plateau rocks. This arc material represents the remnants of the subduction-generated rocks with which the plateau collided at 80-90 Ma. Both island arc tholeiite and calc-alkaline magmatism occurred in these Cretaceous arcs, but the changeover between the two types appears to be gradual and cannot be used to determine the timing of subduction polarity reversal. Many Cretaceous tonalitic batholiths around the Caribbean margins appear to have formed during or shortly after accretion of the plateau rocks. In addition to the arc and oceanic plateau assemblages, Jurassic to Early Cretaceous fragments of the preexisting oceanic crust also occur around the region. The environmental impact of oceanic plateau volcanism around the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary and its link to the formation of organic-rich black shales is 

Kerr, J. M., Jr. (1978). The Volcanic and Tectonic History of La Providencia Island, Colombia. New Brunswick, N.J., Rutgers University: ?
	
Kerr, R. A. (1990). "Commotion over Caribbean impacts." Science 250(4984): 1081.
	
Kerr, R. A. (1990). "Dinosaurs' death blow in the Caribbean Sea?" Science 248(4957): 815.
	
Kersting, A. B. and R. J. Arculus (1995). "Pb isotope composition of Klyuchevskoy volcano, Kamchatka and North Pacific sediments: Implications for magma genesis and crustal recycling in the Kamchatkan arc." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 136(3-4): 133-148.
	
Kesel, R. H. (1983). "Quaternary history of the Rio General Valley, Costa Rica." National Geographic Society Research Report 15: 339-358.
	
Kesel, R. H. (1985). "Alluvial fan aystems in a wet - tropical environment, Costa Rica." National Geographic Society Research Report 1: 450-470.
	
Kesel, R. H. and D. R. Lowe (1987). "Geomorphology and sedimentology of the Toro Amarillo alluvial fan in a humid tropical environment, Costa Rica." Geografisker Annaler 69(A): 85-99.
	
Kesel, R. H. and B. Rouge (1973). "Notes on the Lahar landforms of Costa Rica." Z. Geomorph. N. F. 18: 78-91.
	
Kesel, R. H. and B. E. Spicer (1985). "Geomorphologic relationships and ages of soils on alluvial fans in the Rio General Valley, Costa Rica." Catena 12: 149-166.
	
Kesel, R. H. and B. E. Spicer (1985). "Geomorphologic relationships and ages on alluvial fans in the Rio General Valley, Costa Rica." Catena 12: 149-166.
	
Kesler, S., et al. (1991). Geology of the Maimon Formation, Dominican Republic. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 173-185.
	
Kesler, S. E. (1968). "Contact-localized ore formation at the Meme Mine, Haiti." Econocmic Geology 63: 541-552.
	
Kesler, S. E. (1971). "Nature of ancestral orogenic zone in nuclear Central America." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 55: 2116- 2129.
	
Kesler, S. E. (1971). Petrology of the Terre-Neuve igneous province, northern Haiti. Caribbean geophysical, tectonic, and petrologic studies. T. W. Donnelly. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 130: 119-137.
	
Kesler, S. E. (1978). "Metallogenesis of the Caribbean Region." Journal of the Geological Society, London 135(4): 429-441.
	
Kesler, S. E. and R. Ascarrunz-K. (1973). "Lead-zinc mienralizatin in carbonate rocks." Economic Geology 68: 1263-1274.
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1972). Exploration guides for Pb-Zn mineralization in the Chiantla district, southern Altos Cuchumatanes, Guatemala. Caribbean Geologica Conference 6th, Transactions: 141-145.
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (2005). "Age of the Los Ranchos Formation, Dominican Republic: Timing and tectonic setting of primitive island arc volcanism in the Caribbean region." Geological Society of America Bulletin 117(7-8): 987-995.
	This study reports U-Pb ages for zircons from the Los Ranchos Formation, which is part of the primitive island arc sequence, the oldest volcanic rocks in the Greater Antilles. Zircons were analyzed from three samples: quartz porphyry (quartz keratophyre) from the lower part of the formation (Quita Sueno Member), fragmental quartz porphyry from the upper part of the formation (Pueblo Viejo Member), and the Cotui quartz diorite stock that intrudes the lower part of the formation. The lower part of the Los Ranchos Formation, represented by the Quita Sueno sample, formed at either 113.9 +/- 0.8 or 118.6 +/- 0.5 Ma depending on interpretation of the data, whereas the upper part, represented by the Pueblo Viejo sample, formed ca. 110.9 +/- 0.8 Ma. The Cotui stock (RD-73-601) was emplaced ca. 111.8 +/- 0.6 Ma or 112.9 +/- 0.9 Ma depending on whether eight grains reflect subtle inheritance. These results show that the Los Ranchos Formation was emplaced during the Aptian-Albian transition, that the Cotui stock could have supplied magma to the volcanic sequence and fluids to the Pueblo Viejo gold-silver deposit in the upper part of the formation, and that carbonaceous sediments in the upper part of the formation formed at the same time as ocean anoxic event 1b (Paquier). Caribbean plate tectonic models involving invasion of anomalous Pacific crust into the Caribbean region appear to agree best with this age because they provide a mechanism for the change from primitive island arc (PIA) to cale-alkaline magmatism and account for the restricted ocean circulation necessary to generate regional anoxic conditions.

Kesler, S. E., et al. (2005). "CM Age of the Los Ranchos Formation, Dominican Republic: Timing and tectonic setting of primitive island arc volcanism in the Caribbean
region." Geological Society of America Bulletin 117: 987-995.
	This study reports U-Pb ages for zircons from the Los Ranchos Formation, which is part of the primitive island arc sequence, the oldest volcanic rocks in the Greater Antilles. Zircons were analyzed from three samples: quartz porphyry (quartz keratophyre) from the lower part of the formation (Quita Sueño Member), fragmental quartz porphyry from the upper part of the formation (Pueblo Viejo Member), and the Cotui quartz diorite stock that intrudes the lower part of the formation. The lower part of the Los Ranchos Formation, represented by the Quita Sueño sample, formed at either 113.9 ± 0.8 or 118.6 ±0.5 Ma depending on interpretation of the data, whereas the upper part, represented by the Pueblo Viejo sample, formed ca. 110.9 ± 0.8 Ma. The Cotui stock (RD-73-601) was emplaced ca. 111.8 ± 0.6 Ma or 112.9 ± 0.9 Ma depending on whether eight grains reflect subtle inheritance. These results show that the Los Ranchos Formation was emplaced during the Aptian-Albian transition, that the Cotui stock could have supplied magma to the volcanic sequence and fluids to the Pueblo Viejo gold-silver deposit in the upper part of the formation, and that carbonaceous sediments in the upper part of the formation formed at the same time as ocean anoxic event 1b (Paquier). Caribbean plate tectonic models involving invasion of anomalous Pacific crust into the Caribbean region appear to agree best with this age because they provide a mechanism for the change from primitive island arc (PIA) to calcalkaline magmatism and account for the restricted ocean circulation necessary to generate regional anoxic conditions.

Kesler, S. E., et al. (2004 ). "Age of the Camagüey gold-silver district, Cuba:Tectonic evolution and preservation of epithermal mineralization in volcanic arcs " Economic Geology 99 869-886 
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1975). "Intrusive rocks associated with porphyry copper mineralization in island-arc areas." Economci Geology 70: 515-526.
	
Kesler, S. E. and W. L. Josey (1973). Comparison of the pre-late Paleozoic basement complex on opposite sides of the Cuico-Chixoy-Polochic fault zone in western Guatemala and southern Mexico. Informe y trabajos técnicos presentados en la Tercera Reunión de Geólogos de América Central. IV: 115-123.
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1970). "Basement rocks of western nuclear Central America:  The western Chuacús Group,  Guatemala." Geological Society of America Bulletin 81: 3307-3322.
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1990 ). Metallogenic evolution of the Caribbean region The Caribbean Region G. Dengo and J. E. Chase. Boulder, Colorado Geological Society of America. H 459- 482 
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1990). Metallogenic evolution of the Caribbean region. The Geology of North America, Vol. H, The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 459-482.
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1977). "Early island arc intrusive activity, Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 65: 91-99.
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1981). "Geology and Geochemistry of sulfide mineralization underlying the Pueblo Viejo gold-silver oxide deposit, Dominican Republic." Economic Geology 76: 1096-1117.
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1996 ). Gold-silver mineralization in Cuba and its geologic setting in the Greater Antilles. Geology and Ore Deposits of the American Cordillera Proceedings Volume III, Geological Society of Nevada Symposium Proceedings, Reno/Sparks, Nevada, April, 1995 1433-1441 
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1991). Geology and geochemistry of the Early Cretaceous Los Ranchos Fromation, central Dominican Republic. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 187-201.
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1992). Geology and geochemistry of the Early Cretaceous Los Ranchos formation, central Dominican Republic Geological Society of America 262 187-201.
	
Kesler, S. E. and J. F. Sutter (1979). "Compositional evolution of intrusive rocks in the eastern Greater Antilles island arc." Geology 7: 197-200.
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1991). Age of intrusive rocks in Northern Hispaniola. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 165-172.
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1977). "Evolution of a porphyry copper mineralization in an island arc: Panama." Economic Geology 72: 1142-1153.
	
Kesler, S. E., et al. (1977). "Early Cretaceous basement rocks in Hispaniola." Geology 5: 245-247.
	
Ketns, P. (1975). Geology and mineralization of the Cerro Colorado copper-porphyry deposit, Republic of Panama. AIME, Society of Mining Engineers.
	
Kettler, R., M. , et al. (1992). "Gold deposition by sulfidation of ferrous Fe in the lacustrine sediments of the Pueblo Viejo district (Dominican Republic)  - the effect of Fe-C-S diagenesis on later hydrothermal mineralization in a maar-diatreme complex." Chemical Geology 99: 9-50.
	
Khain, V. Y. (1975). Problems of the tectonics of the Mexican-Caribbean region. Tektonika, seismichnost i geodinamika yugovostochnogo orbramleniya Tikhogo Okeana. Geodinamicheskiye issledovaniya (Tectonics, seismicity, and geodynamics of the southeastern margin of the Pacific Ocean. Geodynamic investigations), Sov. radio: 11-13.
	
Khan, F. (1991). Exploitation of Trintopec's McKenzie Field - Case study of geology and field development. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 169-?
	
Kharin, G. S. and D. V. Eroshenko (2001). "History of eruptive magmatism in the Caribbean Basin." Petrology 9(6): 545-559.
	
Khudoley, C. M., et al. (1963). Map of Mineral Deposits in Cuba. La Habana, Cuba, Ministerio de Industria.
	
Khudoley, K. M. (1967). "Principal features of Cuban geology." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 51: 668-677.
	
Khudoley, K. M. and A. A. Meyerhoff, Eds. (1971). Paleogeography and geological history of the Greater Antilles. Geological Society of America Memoir. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Kier, P. M. (1984). "Fossil spatangoid echinoids of Cuba." Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology 55: 336.
	
Kievman, C. M. (1998). "Match between late Pleistocene Great Bahama Bank and deep-sea oxygen isotope records of sea level." Geology 26(7): 635-638.
	
Kim, J. J., et al. (1982). "A crustal section of northern Central America as inferred from wide-angle reflections from shallow earthquakes." Seismological Society of America Bulletin 72: 925-940.
	
Kimura, G., et al. (1997). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial Reports. College Station, TX, Ocean Drilling Program.
	
Kindler, P. and P. J. Hearty (1995). "Pre-Sangamonian eolianites in the Bahamas? New evidence from Eleuthera Island." Marine Geology 127(1-4): 73-86.
	
Kindler, P. and P. J. Hearty (1995). "Pre-Sangamonian eolianites in the Bahamas? New evidence from Eleuthera Island%J Marine Geology."  127(1-4): 73-86.
	
Kindler, P. and A. Strasser (1997). "Rapid sea-level changes at the close of the last interglacial (substage 5e) recorded in Bahamian island geology: Comment." Geology 25(12): 1147-1147.
	
Kindler, P. and A. Strasser (2000). "Palaeoclimatic significance of co-occurring wind- and water-induced sedimentary structures in the last-interglacial coastal deposits from Bermuda and the Bahamas." Sedimentary Geology 131(1-2): 1-7.
	The late Pleistocene stratigraphic record from the Bahamas and Bermuda archipelagoes includes peculiar V-shaped coastal ridges and wedges of seaward-dipping planar beds showing fenestral porosity up to 40 m above present sea level. Judging from this porosity, these landforms were till now interpreted as resulting from the action of giant waves during a period of climatic instability at the end of the last interglacial period. The occurrence of widespread mm-thick laminae of aeolian origin (subcritically climbing translatent stratification) throughout these deposits does not agree with this hypothesis. It rather suggests that the V-shaped ridges and seaward-dipping beds represent fossil parabolic and climbing aeolian dunes, respectively. The occurrence of fenestrae high above the intertidal zone could be related to both wave splashing and rainfall action. Parabolic dunes are restricted to the NW Bahamas. They were probably formed during a time interval (ca. 500-5000 yr), when regional climatic conditions were dryer than today, and characterized by persistently blowing NE trade winds.

King, A. P. (1972). Geology of the Talanga and Cedros Quadrangles, Honduras, Central America. Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Instituto Geográfico Nacional: 68.
	
King, A. P. (1972). Mapa Geologica de Honduras, Talanga sheet (Geologic Map of Honduras, Talanga sheet), Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
King, A. P. (1973). Mapa Geologica de Honduras, Cedros sheet (Geologic Map of Honduras, Cedros sheet), Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
King, J. W., et al. (2000). Magnetic studies of selected sediments. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Caribbean Ocean history and the  Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary event; covering Leg 165 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Miami, Florida, to San Juan Puerto Rico, sites 998-1002, 19 December 1995-17 February 1996,. R. M. Leckie, H. Sigurdsson, G. D. Acton et al. College Station, TX, Texas A & M University, Ocean Drilling Program. 165: 143-147.
	
King, P. B. (1969). Tectonic Map of North America, United States Geological Survey: 2.
	
King, P. B. (1969). The tectonics of North America - a discussion to accompany the Tectonic Map of North America, United States Geological Survey.
	
King, S. D. (2002). "Geoid and topography over subduction zones; the effect of phase transformations." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 107(1): 10.
	
Kingston, J. (1994). Undiscovered petroleum resources of South America, U.S. Geological Survey: 443.
	
Kiremidjian, A. S., et al. (1979). Seismic Hazard Analysis of Honduras, The John A. Blume Earthquake Engineering Center, Stanford University: 190.
	
Kirkpatrick, R. Z. (1939). "Trigger forces - Canal Zone earthquakes." Seismological Society of America Bulletin 28: 15-22.
	
Kirmani, K. U. (1985). Geology of the Inniss, Catshill and Balata East oilfields in Trinidad, West Indies. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, July 7-15, 1979. 4: 700-713.
	
Kiser, G. D. (1994). Santa Marta Massif:  A major element in the tectonic-sedimentary evolution of northern South America. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 317-355.
	
Klaus, J. S. and A. F. Budd (2003). "Comparison of Caribbean coral reef communities before and after plio-Pleistocene faunal turnover: Analyses of two Dominican Republic reef sequences." Palaios 18(1): 3-21.
	
Klaver, G. T. (1987). The Curaçao Lava Formation:  An ophiolitic analogue of the anomalous thick layer 2B of the mid-Cretaceous oceanic plateaus in the western Pacific and central Caribbean. ? ? Amsterdam, Stichting GUA. 27: 168.
	
Klaver, G. T. (1987). The Curaçao Lava Formation:  An Ophiolitic Analogue of the Anomalously Thick Layer 2B of the Mid-Cretaceous Oceanic Plateaus in the Western Pacific and Central Caribbean, University of Amsterdam.
	
Klein, E. M. and C. H. Langmuir (1987). "Global correlations of ocean ridge basalt chemistry with axial depth and crustal thickness." Journal of Geophysical Research 92: 8089-8115.
	
Klein, E. M., et al. (2005). "Counter-rotating microplates at the Galapagos triple junction." Nature, Issue 7028, pp. 855-858(C7028): 855-858.
	An ‘incipient’ spreading centre east of (and orthogonal to) the East Pacific Rise at 28 400 N has been identified as forming a portion of the northern boundary of the Galapagos microplate1,2. This spreading centre was described as a slowly diverging, westward propagating rift, tapering towards the East Pacific Rise. Here we present evidence that the ‘incipient rift’ has also rifted towards the east and opens anticlockwise about a pivot at its eastern end. The ‘incipient rift’ then bounds a second microplate, north of the clockwise-rotating Galapagos microplate. The Galapagos triple junction region, in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean, thus consists of two counter-rotating microplates partly separated by the Hess Deep rift. Our kinematic solution for microplate motion relative to the major plates indicates that the two counter-rotating microplates may be treated as rigid blocks driven by drag on the microplates’ edges  

Kleschov, K. and and others (1977). "Types of sedimentary basins in Cuba." La Mineria en Cuba 3: ???
	
Kleshchev, K. A. (1982). "The geodynamics and oil potential of the Greater Antilles." Tex. dokl. 5 Vses. shkoly morsk. geol. 2(1): 32.
	
Klitgord, K. D. and D. R. Hutchinson (1988). U. S. Atlantic continental margin; structural and tectonic framework, Geological Society of America. 1-2: 19-55.
	
Klitgord, K. D. and J. Mammerickx (1982). "Northern East Pacific Rise: Magnetic anomaly and bathymetric framework." Journal of Geophysical Research 87(B8): 6725-6750.
	
Klitgord, K. D. and P. Popenoe (1984). "Florida:  A Jurassic transform plate boundary." Journal of Geophysical Research 89(B9): 7753 - 7772.
	
Klitgord, K. D. and H. Schouten (1980). Mesozoic evolution of the Atlantic, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. The Origin of the Gulf of Mexico and the early opening of the Central North Atlantic, proceedings of a symposium at Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, March 3-4-5, 1980. R. H. Pilger, Jr. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University: 100-101.
	
Klitgord, K. D. and H. Schouten (1988). Plate kinematics of the central Atlantic. The Western North Atlantic Region, Geological Society of America. M: 351-378.
	
Klonsky, L. F. (1977). A Preliminary Study of the Origin of the Physiographic Boundary Between the Nicaraguan Rise and Colombian Basin, Caribbean Sea. Department of Geological Sciences. New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers, The State University: ???
	
Knight, J. C., et al. (2002). The Devil's Woodyard Mud Volcano of Trinidad: Chemistry and mineralogy. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 221-228.
	
Knipper, A. (1975). "Oceanic crust in the structure of alpine folded zones (inluding Europe, western Asia and Cuba) " Edit. Nauka: 1-235.
	
Knipper, A. and R. Cabrera (1972). "Tectonic position of ultramafic bodies of Cuba." Transactions VI Caribbean Geological Conference, Margarita, Venezuela: 315-317.
	
Knipper, A. and M. Puig (1967). "Protrusiones de las serpentinitas en el noroeste de Oriente (Protrusions of the serpentinites in the northwest of Oriente)." Revista de Geología 1(1): 122-137.
	
Knipper, A., et al. (1967). "Estructura tectónica de las montañas de la Sierra de los Organos en la zona del pueblo de Viñales y situación en ella de los cuerpos de serpentinita (Tectonic structure of the montains of La Sierra de los Organos in the zone of the town of Vinales and situated in the place of serpentinite bodies)." Revista de Geología 1(1): 138-146.
	
Knipper, A. L. and R. Cabrera (1972). "Tectonic position of ultramafic bodies of Cuba." VI Conferencia Geologica del Caribe, Margarita Venezuela, Memorias: 167-170.
	
Knipper, A. L. and R. Cabrera (1974). Tectónica y geología histórica de la zona de articulación entre el mio- y eugeosinclinal de Cuba y del cinturón hiperbasítico de Cuba (Tectonics and geological history of the suture zone between the mio and eugeosynclinal and the ultramafic belt of Cuba). Contributions to the Geology of Cuba. La Habana, Cuba, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba. 2: 14-77.
	
Knowlton, F. W. (1918). "Relations between the Mesozoic floras of North and South America." Geological Society of America Bulletin 29: 607-614.
	
Knudson, C. F. (1975). Latin American and Caribbean strong-motion programs (Seismic Engineering Program report, January-March 1975). Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey: A2-A7.
	
Kobluk, D. R. and M. A. Lysenko (1987). "Southern Caribbean cryptic scleractinian reef corals from Bonaire, N.A." Palaios 2(3): 205-218.
	
Kobluk, D. R. and M. A. Lysenko (1992). "Storm features on a southern Caribbean fringing coral reef." Palaios 7(2): 213-221.
	
Kobluk, D. R. and R. W. M. van Soest (1989). "Cavity-dwelling sponges in a southern Caribbean coral reef and their paleontological implications." Bulletin of Marine Science 44(3): 1207-1235.
	
Koch, R. (1969). "Berichtigung und Erganzung zu der Notiz "Tertiarer Faraminiferankalk von der Insel Curaçao"." Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae 22: 159-161.
	
Kocurko, M. J. (1974). "Modern and ancient reef complexes and associated limestone diagenesis of San Andres Island, Colombia." Transactions, Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies 24: 107-128.
	
Kohl, B. (1985). "Early Pliocene benthic foraminifers from the Salina Basin, southeastern Mexico." Bulletin of American Paleontology 88: 173.
	
Kohl, B. and E. Robinson (1998). Foraminifera and biostratigraphy of the Bowden shell bed, Jamaica, West Indies. The Pliocene Bowden shell bed, Southeast Jamaica. S. K. Donovan. 35: 29-46.
	
Kohn, B. P., et al. (1984). Mesozoic-Pleistocene fission-track ages on rocks of the Venezuelan Andes and their tectonic implications. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. Bonini, R. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 365-384.
	
Kolarsky, R. and P. Mann (1995). Structure and neotectonics of an oblique-subduction margin, southwestern Panama. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 131-157.
	
Kolarsky, R. A. (1992). Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic Tectonics and Sedimentary in Southern Central America (Costa Rica and Panama). Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 351.
	
Kolarsky, R. A. and P. Mann (1995). East Panama deformed belt: Structure, age, and neotectonic significance. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the Caribbean Plate Boundary in Southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 111-130.
	
Kolarsky, R. A., et al. (1995). Stratigraphic development of southwestern Panama as determined from integration of marine seismic data and onshore geology. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean Plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 159-200.
	
Kolarsky, R. A., et al. (1995). Island arc response to shallow subduction of the Cocos Ridge, Costa Rica. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean Plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 235-262.
	
Koldewijn, B. W. (1958). Sediment of the Paria-Trinidad Shelf. Reports of the Orinoco Shelf Expedition, The Hague Mouton Co. 3: 109.
	
Kolla, V., et al. (1984). "Seismic stratigraphy and sedimentation of the Magdalena Fan, southern Colombian Basin, Caribbean Sea." American Association of Petoleum Geologists 68: 316-332.
	
Kondakov, L. A. and A. V. Kuz'-menko (1992). "Nekotorye cherty al'piyskoj geologii i metallogenii yuzhnoy chasti Karibskogo regiona (Some features of Alpine geology and metallogeny of the southern part of the Caribbean region)." Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR. Seriya Geologicheskaya 7: 124-138.
	
Kondakov, L. A. and A. V. Kuz'-menko (1992). "Some features of alpine-stage geology and metallogeny in the southern Caribbean region." International Geology Review 34(12): 1241-1254.
	
Konev, P. N. and R. S. Segura (1979). "The presence of olistostromes in the region Varadero-Cardenas." La Mineria en Cuba 5(4): 48-52.
	
Kononov, V. I., et al. (1990). Kompleksnaya kharakteristika Karibsko-Meksikanskogo regiona:  Litologiya, gidrogeokhimiya, geotermiya (Complex characteristics of the Caribbean-Mexican region:  Lithology, hydrochemistry, geothermia). Geotermal'naya aktivnost' i osadochnyy protsess v Karibsko Meksikanskom regione (Geothermal activity and sedimentary processes of the Caribbean Mexican region). P. P. Timofeyev. Moscow, USSR, Akad. Nauk SSSR, Geol. Inst., USSR. Trudy Geologicheskiy Institut. 448: 169-184.
	
Kononov, V. I., et al. (1989). "Novyye dannyye po geologii i geotermii spredingovoy zony troga kayman (karibskoye morye) (New data on the geology and heat flow of expansion zones of the Cayman abyssal trench (Caribbean Sea))." Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 340(4): 939-944.
	
Kopf, A. and K. M. Brown (2003). "Friction experiments on saturated sediments and their implications for the stress state of the Nankai and Barbados subduction thrusts." Marine Geology 202(3-4): 193-210.
	The Nankai and Barbados forearcs have low-stress subduction thrusts. The sediments entering the subduction zone, and namely the material in the decollement zones, have been well characterized by numerous deep-sea drilling legs and studies of the recovered cores. Nankai has high heat flow and significant amounts of illite, while Barbados is a smectite-dominated system. Based on results from ring shear (< 2 MPa normal stress) and direct shear (< 30 MPa) tests on marine sediments and mineral standards, this translates into a residual frictional resistance of < mu ><inf>r</inf> = < similar-to >0.25 and < mu ><inf>r</inf> = < similar-to >0.11 in clay horizons, respectively. Such values agree with theoretical estimates from critical wedge theory (Nankai: < mu ><inf>b</inf> = < similar-to >0.16-0.26 and Barbados: < mu ><inf>b</inf> = < similar-to >0.06-0.09) and fault spacing geometries from seismic profiles (Nankai < mu ><inf>b</inf> = < similar-to >0.12-0.23 and Barbados: < mu ><inf>b</inf> = < similar-to >0.11-0.19). Maximum pore pressure ratios of < lambda >* = 0.85 and 0.73 for Nankai and Barbados, respectively, allow us to estimate effective shear stresses as a function of friction coefficient and density of the sediment gouge to reach only < similar-to >10 MPa or less in the frontal < similar-to >50 km of the decollement zone, respectively. Our data support the contention that fluid pressure transients and sediment composition contribute equally to the weakness along plate boundary faults down to the seismogenic zone, with the first probably dominating the shallow decollement. Shear velocity stepping tests show that the clay-dominated gouges strengthen velocity irrespective of the clay mineralogy, and hence suggest that clay transformation does not affect the onset of seismogenesis. < copyright > 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Kopf, A., et al. (2000). "Evidence for deep fluid circulation and gas hydrate dissociation using boron and boron isotopes of pore fluids in forearc sediments from Costa Rica (ODP Leg 170)." Marine Geology 167(1-2): 1-28.
	Drilling a transect of holes across the Costa Rica forearc during ODP Leg 170 demonstrated the margin wedge to be of continental, non-accretionary origin, which is intersected by permeable thrust faults. Pore waters from four drillholes, two of which penetrated the decollement zone and reached the underthrust lower plate sedimentary sequence of the Cocos Plate, were examined for boron contents and boron isotopic signatures. The combined results show dilution of the uppermost sedimentary cover of the forearc, with boron contents lower than half of the present-day seawater values. Pore fluid "refreshening" suggests that gas hydrate water has been mixed with the sediment interstitial water, without profoundly affecting the delta (super 11) B values. Fault-related flux of a deeply generated fluid is inferred from high B concentration in the interval beneath the decollement, being released from the underthrust sequence with incipient burial. First-order fluid budget calculations over a cross-section across the Costa Rica forearc indicate that no significant fluid transfer from the lower to the upper plate is inferred from boron fluid profiles, at least within the frontal 40km studied. Expulsed lower plate pore water, which is estimated to be 0.26-0.44 km (super 3) per km trench, is conducted efficiently along and just beneath the decollement zone, indicating effective shear-enhanced compaction. In the upper plate forearc wedge, dewatering occurs as diffuse transport as well as channelled flow. A volume of approximately 2 km (super 3) per km trench is expulsed due to compaction and, to a lesser extent, lateral shortening. Pore water chemistry is influenced by gas hydrate instability, so that it remains unknown whether deep processes like mineral dehydration or hydrocarbon formation may play a considerable role towards the hinterland.

Kornicker, L. S. and W. R. Bryant (1969). Sedimentary on continental shelf of Guatemala and Honduras. Tectonic Relations of Northern Central America and the Western Caribbean—the Bonacca Expedition. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 244-257.
	
Korobeinikov, A. F. and N. N. Pertsev (1998). "Gold, palladium, paltinum in diabases of sheet-complexes of Costa Rica rift zone in Pacific Ocean." Doklady Akademii Nauk 359(5): 663-667.
	
Koschmann, A. H. and M. Gordon, Jr. (1950). "Geology and mineral resources of the Maimon-Hatillo district, Dominican Republic." U.S. Geologica Survey Bulletin 964-D: 307-359.
	
Kostoglodov, V. and W. Bandy (1995). "Seismotectonic constraints on the convergence rate between the Rivera and North American plates." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 100(9): 17977-17989.
	
Kostoglodov, V., et al. (2002). "Long-baseline fluid tiltmeter for seismotectonic studies of Mexican subduction zone." Geofisica International 41(1): 11-25.
	
Kostoglodov, V., et al. (2003). "A large silent earthquake in the Guerrero seismic gap, Mexico - art. no. 1807." Geophysical Research Letters 30(15): 1807.
	
Koutsoukos, E. A. M. (1995). "The Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in southern low-latitude regions: Preliminary study in Pernambuco, northeastern Brazil - Reply." Terra Nova 7(3): 378-382.
	
Koutsoukos, E. A. M. and K. A. Merrick (1986). Foraminiferal paleoenvironments from the Barremian to Maestrichtian of Trinidad, W.l. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago. K. Rodrigues. San Juan, Trinidad, General Printers: 85-101.
	
Kovas, E. J., et al. (1982). "Seismic interpretation of back thrusts and a displacement transfer zone between two en echelon thrust faults, Middle Magdalena Valley." Quinto Congreso Latinoamericano de Geologia, Argentina, Actas I: 565-582.
	
Kozak, M. (1996). Vulcanitas de la region de Holguin (Volcanics of the Holguin region). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 212-217.
	
Kozák, M., et al. (1988). "Desarrollo estructural del arco insular volcánico del Cretácico en la región de Holguín (Structural development of the Cretaceous volcanic insular arc in the region of Holguin)." Revista de Minería y Geología 6(1): 33-55.
	
Kozary, M. (1954). Supplementary Fieldwork in the Fomento and Sancti Spiritus Areas (Geological Memorandum MK-10). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 6.
	
Kozary, M. (1955). Geology of the Campo Florido Section of the Habana-Matanzas Anticline (Geological Memorandum MK-3). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 18.
	
Kozary, M. (1955). Geology of the Ciego de Avila-Tamarindo Area, Camaguey (Geological Memorandum MK-4). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 12.
	
Kozary, M. (1955). Habana-Matanzas Anticline Area (Geological Memorandum MK-2). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 7.
	
Kozary, M. T. (1968). "Ultramafic rocks in thrust zones of northwestern Oriente Province, Cuba." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 52: 2298-2317.
	
Kozuch, M. J. (1989). Geology of the San Francisco de Becerra Quadrangle, Honduras, Central America. Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Instituto Geográfico Nacional: 55.
	
Kozuch, M. J. (1989). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, San Francisco de Becerra sheet (Geologic Map of Honduras, San Francisco de Becerra sheet). Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Kozuch, M. J. (1991). Mapa Geológico de Honduras (Geologic Map of Honduras). Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Kozuch, M. J. (1995). Earthquake Hazard Analysis of Venezuela Using Site-Specific Attenuation. Boulder, University of Colorado: 154.
	The seismic hazard of western Venezuela is evaluated using a novel approach to calculate site-specific intensities from historic intensity data. Similarities and differences between deterministic seismic hazard maps and the intensity recurrence maps generated in this work are analyzed. As a prelude to the hazard analysis, a new method is presented to estimate isoseismal distributions for earthquakes of any given magnitude and location in Venezuela. The synthetic predictions have been constructed from, and tested against, historic earthquakes with known intensity distributions. The success of this study stems from the availability of an historic earthquake catalog with a large number of reported intensities for earthquakes throughout a region. From this catalog, site-specific corrections, which represent the deviation from the observations of calculated intensities derived from an azimuthally symmetric attenuation relation to observed intensities, are binned into an array. The correction or residual term varies with magnitude, distance and azimuth from the earthquake source to the target site. Embedded in this correction term are all the heterogeneous path effects that deviate from an isotropic decay of ground shaking. The site-specific intensity corrections reduced the scatter between observed and calculated intensities to less than 1 intensity unit overall as compared to the 24 intensity units of scatter using standard attenuation laws. The method generally supports prior work using standard seismic hazard analysis approaches, however, important differences remain. The final products are maps of computed intensities for an average return period of 475 years. In general, the patterns of intensity follow the structural trends of western Venezuela. An additional study is presented in this thesis in which the relationship between vertical crustal deformation as observed by tide gauges, and the generation of earthquakes in the southeast Caribbean is explored using a viscoelastic model. The models show that dip-slip earthquakes in the Lesser Antilles and the geometry of the subduction zone play a major role in the vertical deformations observed along the southern Caribbean plate margin. In addition, the uplift rate observed at the tide gauges largely follows the anticipated flexure of the Caribbean plate due to the subduction process.

Kozuch, M. J., et al. (1996). "Southeastern Caribbean sea level variability and viscoelastic relaxation." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 101(B4): 8579-8593.
	
Kozuch, M. J., et al. (???). "Southeastern Caribbean sea level variability and viscoelastic relaxation." Journal of Geophysical Research???: ???
	
Krason, J. (1982). Exploration Programme for Gold Deposits in the Miches Area, Dominican Republic, UNDP and DGM, New York.
	
Krause, A. (1988). Poster session at the American Association of Petroleum Geologists Research Conference, Petroleum potential of sedimentary basins -methods, techniques and approaches. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Research Conference, Leesburg, Virginia, April 26-29.
	
Kravchenko, G. G. and O. Vazquez (1985). "Estructura y perspectivas cromíferas de algunas regiones de los macizos ultramáficos de Cuba (Structure and chromiferous perspectives of some regions of the ultramafic massifs of Cuba)." Revista de Ciencias de la Tierra y del Espacio 10: 37-55.
	
Kreemer, C. W. (2001). A Global Strain Rate Model. Stony Brook, NY, State University of New York at Stony Brook: 170.
	This dissertation presents a global strain rate model in which the style, direction and magnitude of crustal strain rates are determined jointly with a model surface velocity field as well. The model includes 2933 geodetic velocities from 50 different studies. Some Quaternary fault slip rates as well as the style and direction of the seismic strain rate field are also used incorporated. The direction and style of the model strain rates are generally in good agreement with geologic and seismologic data. I find significantly slower motion between Eurasia and the Indian, Arabian and Nubian plates compared to the geologically estimated plate motions. The model also confirms the proposed deceleration between the Nazca and South American plates, as well as the relatively fast motion of the Caribbean plate with respect to the Americas. I have determined minimum tectonic moment rates from the strain rate model. I found that for ridge-transform systems with low spreading rates the seismic coupling is 5&ndash;20%, whereas for fast spreading rates it is 1&ndash;3%. There is a strong correlation between tectonic moment rates inferred from the global strain rate model and seismicity rates (i.e. the number of events with <italic>M</italic><sub>W </sub> &ge; 5.8) along subduction zones, and, to a lesser extent, for continental areas. For ridge-transform systems I found that a spreading rate of about 55&ndash;60 mm yr<super>&minus;1</super> marks the transition from slow spreading ridges with higher-than-expected seismicity rates to faster spreading rates with lower-than-expected seismicity rates. The model velocity field has allowed me to determine a new non-net-rotation (NNR) model. Unlike previous NNR models, the new NNR model includes velocity gradients within plate boundary zones and velocities are, geodetically-derived, present-day surface motions instead of geologically-derived plate motions. For many plates (e.g., India, Arabia, Nazca, Caribbean, and Philippine Sea) the difference in angular velocity when compared to the current NNR model can be attributed to the disagreements between geodetically-derived surface motions and geologic estimates. The effect of including velocity gradients in diffuse plate boundary zones in the definition of the NNR reference frame is significant as well, in particular for the Eurasian plate and North and South America.

Krijnen, J. P. and A. C. Lee Chin (1978). "Geology of the northern, central and southeastern Blue Mountains, Jamaica, with a provisional compilation map of the entire inlier." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 243-250.
	
Krishna, J. H., et al., Eds. (1990). Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Hydrology and Fourth Caribbean Islands Water Resources Congress. American Water Resources Association Technical Publication Series.
	
Kriz, S. (1990). "Tectonic evolution and origin of the Golfo Dulce gold placers in southern Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 11: ?
	
Kriz, S. J. (1958). Geologic Map of the Caldera Segment and Vicinity. Panama, ?
	
Kroehler, M. (2007). Tectonics and Sequence Stratigraphy of the Venezuelan Basin, Caribbean Sea. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 108.
	The central core of the Caribbean plate is the 3-4-km-deep Venezuelan Basin that is underlain by late Cretaceous oceanic plateau and oceanic crust. The Venezuelan Basin is obliquely subducted to the east-southeast beneath the continental South American plate at the east-west-trending South Caribbean deformed belt (SCDB), a 50-100-km-wide wedge of accreted sedimentary rocks. I have mapped the structure and sequence stratigraphy of five late Cretaceous to recent sedimentary sequences overlying a 230,000 km2 area of the Venezuelan Basin. The dataset includes ~5900 km of 2D seismic reflection data acquired during five separate surveys from 1974-2004; these seismic data are tied to DSDP drill sites 146/149 and 150 which provide age and lithologic control on the interpreted sequences. I use these data to document older Cretaceous faults formed soon after the formation of the plateau and oceanic crust; to explain the along-strike variations in structural style of the actively subducting Caribbean plate; and to constrain the age and tectonic mechanism for the initiation of subduction along the SCDB. The earliest set of faults are normal faults, only affect rocks of Late Cretaceous age, and approximately parallel a set of seafloor-spreading magnetic anomalies described by previous workers. These normal faults are widely spaced in the area of smooth-topped lava flows making up the 15-km-thick oceanic plateau, but they are much more densely distributed in the area of abnormally thin (3-5-km-thick), rough-surfaced, oceanic crust in the eastern Venezuelan Basin. The faults are interpreted as the result of back-arc extension behind the Aves volcanic arc during the late Early to Late Cretaceous. Selective reactivation of inherited faults and new bending-related faults affecting late Cretaceous to recent sedimentary sequences strike east-west and parallel the trend of the SCDB. The age of the initiation of subduction at the SCDB has been determined based on the age of onlapping, wedge-shaped, sedimentary sequences in the Venezuelan Basin. Subduction began in the western Venezuelan Basin in the middle Eocene in the western study area, in the early Miocene in the central study area, and in the post-early Miocene-Recent in the eastern study area. The ages of subduction agree with a similar eastward younging in the age of folding and thrusting in northern South America. From this observation I infer that subduction of the Caribbean plate beneath the SCDB initiated as a backthrust response to collision between the Caribbean arc and the South American continent that began in the early Eocene and youngs in an eastward direction.

Krushensky, R. D. (1978). "Unconformity between Cretaceous and Eocene rocks in central-western Puerto Rico:  A concept rejected." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 227-232.
	
Krushensky, R. D. and Curet (???). Geologic Map of the Monte Guilarte Quadrangle, Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Krushensky, R. D. and W. H. Monroe (1975). Geologic Map of the Ponce Quadrangle, Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Krushensky, R. D. and W. H. Monroe (1978). Geologic Map of the Yauco and Punta Verraco Quadrangle, Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Krushensky, R. D. and W. H. Monroe (1979). Geologic Map of the Penuelas and Punta Cuchara Quadrangle, Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Kuang, J. and R. L. Williams (???). Mapa geologico, Rivas, Nicaragua (Geologic Map, Rivas, Nicaragua), Parsons Corporation//Marshall & Stevens, Inc.//International Aero Service Corporation.
	
Kuarsingh, H. B. (1986). Geochemistry of the northern basin sediments of Trinidad. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 237-242.
	
Kubovics, I., et al. (1989). "Comparative petrology and geochemistry of high pressure metamorphic rocks from eastern Cuba and western Alps." Acta Min.-Petr., Szeged 30: 35-54.
	
Kudelasek, V., et al. (1984). "On the problem of Cuban ophiolites." Krystalimkum 17: 159-173.
	
Kudelásek, V., et al. (1984). "On the problem of Cuban ophiolites." Krystalimkum 17: 159-173.
	
Kudelásek, V., et al. (1962). "A contribution to the geochemistry and petrology of the ultrabasics of Cuba." Acta Univ. Carolina, Geol. 2: 119-131.
	
Kudelasek, V., et al. (1989). "REE and transition elements geochemistry of Cuban ophiolites." Krystalinikum 20: 65-83.
	
Kudelasek, V., et al. (1967). "La mineralogia de la corteza de intemperismo de las rocas ultrabasicas de la costa norte de la provincia de Oriente, Nicaro, Moa (The mineralogy of the 'intemperismo' crust of the ultrabasic rocks of the north coast of the province of Oriente, Nicaro, Moa)." Revista Geologia (Academia Ciencias Cuba) 1(1): 48-76.
	
Kugler, H. G. (1936). "Summary digest of the geology of Trinidad." American Association of Petroleum Geologists 20: 1439-1452.
	
Kugler, H. G. (1938). "The Eocene of the Soldado Rock near Trinidad." Boletin de Geologia y Mineria II: ?
	
Kugler, H. G. (1950). "Report of the geologic history of Trinidad (Resumen de la historia geologica de Trinidad)." Boletin de Geologia y Mineria 2(1): 48-78.
	
Kugler, H. G. (1953). "Jurassic to recent sedimentary enviroments in Trinidad." Bulletin for the Association of Swiss Geology, Ing, Petrole 20: 27-60.
	
Kugler, H. G. (1956). Trinidad. Handbook of South American Geology. W. F. Jenks. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 65: 351-365.
	
Kugler, H. G. (1959). Geological Map of Trinidad and Geological Section Through Trinidad, Orell Fussli S.A., Zurich and E. Stanford Ltd., London.
	
Kugler, H. G. and H. M. Bolli (1967). "Cretaceous biostratigraphy in Trinidad." Bol. Informativo 10: 209-236.
	
Kugler, H. G. and et al. (1956). "Stratigraphic lexicon of Trinidad." Lexique stratigraphique Internationale: Cinq Center Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique: 42-125.
	
Kuijpers, E. P. (1979). La geologia del Complejo Ofiolitico de Nicoya, Costa Rica, Informe Semestral, Julio a Diciembre 1979 (The Geology of the Ophiolitic Complex of Nicoya, Costa Rica, Semestral Report, July to December 1979), ?: 15-76.
	
Kuijpers, E. P. (1980). "The geologic history of the Nicoya ophiolite complex, Costa Rica, and its geotectonic significance." Tectonophysics 68: 233-255.
	
Kuijpers, E. P. and P. Denyer (1979). "Volcanic exhalative manganese deposits of the Nicoya ophiolite complex, Costa Rica." Economic Geology 74: 672-678.
	
Kuijpers, E. P. and C. Geert Jager (1979). "Mineralizaciones de cromita en la peninsula de Santa Elena, Costa Rica (Chromite mineralizations in the peninsula of Santa Elena, Costa Rica)."??? ???: 99?-108.
	
Kuipjers, E. P. (???). "La geologia de Complexo de Nicoya, Costa Rica (The geology of the Nicoya Complex, Costa Rica)."??? ???: 15-?
	
Kuman, V. E. and R. R. Gavilan (1965). "Geology of the Isle of Pines." Revista Tecnológica 3(4): 20-38.
	
Kumpera, O. (1968). "Contribución a la geología de la Sierra de Nipe (Contribution to the geology of the Sierra de Nipe)." Univ. de Oriente, Serie Tecnología y Ciencias 1: 1-23.
	
Kumpera, O. and V. Skvor (1969). "Contribution to the information on the geological development and structure of Cuba and the Caribbean region." Vest. Ostred. ust. geol. 44: 39-51.
	
Kupfer, D. H. and J. Godoy (1967). "Strike-slip faulting in Guatemala." EOS, Transactions of the American Geophysica Union 48: 215.
	
Kusovkov, G. N. and et al. (1977). Informe sobre los resultados del levantamiento geológico a escala 1:100 000 en el Sector Sur de la cresta Turquino, en la parte occidental de la provincia Stgo. de Cuba (Report on the results of the geologic uplift at scale 1:100000 in the south Sector of the Turquino crest, in the western part of the Stgo. de Cuba province). La Habana, CNFG.
	
Kussmaul, S. (1987). "Petrology of the Neogene intrusive igneous rocks of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 7: ?
	
Kussmaul, S. and P. Sprechmann (1982). Estratigrafia de Costa Rica (America Central), II: Unidades litoestratigraficas igneas (Stratigraphy of Costa Rica (Central America), II:  lithostratigraphic igneous units). Quinto congresso Latinamericano de geologia, Argentina, 1982, Actas, I: 73-78.
	
Kutek, J., et al. (1976). "The Francisco Formation and an Oxfordian ammonite faunule from the Artemisa Formation, Sierra del Rosario, western Cuba." Acta Geologic Polonika 26: 299-320.
	
Kuznetsov, V. I., et al. (1980). Stratigraphy of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments in Cuba. Geologic Structure of the Republic of Cuba and its Marine Platform with Views on the Evaluation of Hydrocarbon Prospects. A. Shein and and others. La Habana, Cuba, C.N.F.G. 1: ??
	
Kuznetsov, V. I., et al. (1977). "Review of the stratigraphy of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments of Cuba." La Mineria en Cuba 3(4): 44-62.
	
Kuznetsov, V. I., et al. (1985). "New data on the thrust sheets of the north coast of Cuba." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba???: 106-118.
	
Kysar Mattietti, G. (2001). The role of Paleogene magmatism in the evolution of the northern Caribbean margin: The Sierra Maestra (southern Cuba), The George Washington University: 187.
	
Kyte, F. T. and J. A. Bostwick (1995). "Magnesioferrite spinel in Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary sediments of the Pacific basin: Remnants of hot, early ejecta from the Chicxulub impact?" Earth and Planetary Science Letters 132(1-4): 113-127.
	
Lachkar, G., et al. (1989). "Nouvelles données palynologiques sur le Jurassique supérieur et le Crétacé inférieur du Sud-Est du Mexique (Formation Jerico, Chiapas) [New palynology data for the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous of southeast Mexico ( Jerico Formation, Chiapas)]." Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 59: 93-107.
	
Lachniet, M. S. (2001). Quaternary Geology and Paleoclimate of Costa Rica: Evidence From Glaciation, Stable Isotopes of Surface Waters, and a Speleothem. Syracuse, NY, Syracuse University: 140.
	
Ladd, J. (1974). South Atlantic Seafloor Spreading and Caribbean Tectonics. New York, New York
Columbia University: 251.
	
Ladd, J., et al. (1990). Caribbean marine geology: Active margins of the plate boundary. The Geology of North America, Volume H, The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 261-290.
	
Ladd, J. and J. Watkins (1979). Tectonic development of trench-arc complexes on the northern and southern margins of the Venezuelan Basin. Geological and Geophysical Investigations of Continental Margins. J. S. Watkins, L. Montadert and P. W. Dickerson. Tulsa, Oklahoma, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 29: 363-372.
	
Ladd, J., et al. (1977). Multifold seismic reflection records from the northern Venezuelan Basin and the northern slope of the Muertos Trench. Island Arcs, Deep Sea Trenches, and Back-arc Basins. M. Talwani and W. C. Pitman, III. Washington, D.C., American Geophysical Union. 1: 41- 56.
	
Ladd, J. W. (1974). South Atlantic Sea-floor Spreading and Caribbean Tectonics. New York City, Columbia University: ???
	
Ladd, J. W. (1976). "Relative motion of South America with respect to North America and Caribbean tectonics." Geological Society of America Bulletin 87: 969-976.
	
Ladd, J. W., et al. (1982). Interpretation of seismic reflection data or the Middle America Trench offshore Guatemala. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. J. Aubouin and and others. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. 53: 675-690.
	
Ladd, J. W. and R. E. Sheridan (1987). "Seismic stratigraphy of the Bahamas." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 71: 719-736.
	
Ladd, J. W., et al. (1981). "Cenozoic tectonics of central Hispaniola and adjacent Caribbean Sea." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 65: 466-489.
	
Ladd, J. W., et al. (1984). Seismic reflection profiles across the southern margin of the Caribbean. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics: Geological Society of America Memoir 162. W. E. Bonina, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagan. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 153-160.
	
Ladd, J. W. and J. S. Watkins (1978). Active margin structures within the north slope of the Muertos Trench. Transactions of the 8th Caribbean Geological Conference, Curaçao. H. J. MacGillavry and D. J. Beets. Delft, Netherlands, Geologie en Mijnbouw, v. 57, p. 97-384. 57: 255-260.
	
Ladd, J. W. and J. S. Watkins (1980). "Seismic stratigraphy of the western Venezuelan Basin." Marine Geology 35: 21-41.
	
LaForge, R. C. and W. R. McCann (2005). A seismic source model for Puerto Rico, for use in probabilistic ground motion hazard analyses. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 223–248.
	
Lagaay, R. A. (1969). Geophysical investigations of the Netherlands Leeward Antilles, North Holland Publishing Company.
	
Laguna, J. (1984). "Effects of hydrothermal alteration and weathering on volcanic rocks from the Aguacate Group, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 1: ???
	
Laguna-Morales, J. (1977). Geology and Sedimentology of Three Paleocene Units near Sámara, Nicoya Peninsula, Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 79.
	
Lamar, M. E. (1990). Structure and Stratigraphy of Pliocene Evaporites, Enriquillo Valley, Dominican Republic. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 181.
	
Lamb, J. L. and J. A. Sulek (1968). Miocene turbidites in the Carapita Formation of eastern Venezuela. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean Printers, Arima, Trinidad and Tobago.
	
Lamb, W. C., et al. (1949). Report Cuba-S-623: Refraction seismograph exploration of Cuba project, Cuba. New York, Gulf Research and Development Co.: 17.
	
Lambeck, K., et al. (2002). Into and out of the last glacial maximum; sea-level change during oxygen isotope stages 3 and 2. Ice sheets and sea level of the last glacial maximum. P. U. Clark and A. C. Mix. Oxford, United Kingdom, Pergamon. 21: 343-360.
	Sea-level data from seven different regions have been used to estimate the global change in ocean and ice volumes for the time interval leading into and out of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). The estimates are earth-model dependent and parameters are chosen that minimize discrepancies between the individual estimates for each region. Good coherence between estimates from different localities has been found. The main conclusions are: (i) Ice volumes approached their maximum values 30000 (calendar) years ago and remained nearly constant until 19000 years ago. This defines the period of maximum global glaciation. (ii) The post-LGM sea-level rise is marked by changes in rates with maximum rates of about 15 mm/year occurring from 16,000 to 12,500 years ago and again from 11,500 to 9000 years ago. Ice volumes in the interval between these two periods of rapid rise, corresponding to the Younger Dryas, is nearly constant. (iii) The melting at the end of the LGM is characterized by an initially high rate over about 500 years followed by about 2500 years of a comparatively slow increase in ocean volume. (iv) The lead into the LGM is characterized by a sea-level fall of about 50 m occurring within a few thousand years. Similar rates of falling and rising sea levels occur during the earlier part of the oxygen isotope stage 3 interval.

Lamy, A. (1986). Plio-Pleistocene palynology and visual kerogen studies, Trinidad, W.l., with emphasis on the Columbus Basin. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Lance, S., et al. (1998). "Submersible study of mud volcanoes seaward of the Barbados accretionary wedge; sedimentology, structure and rheology." Marine Geology 145(3-4): 255-292.
	
Land, L. S. (1979). "The fate of reef-derived sediment on the north Jamaican island slope." Marine Geology 29: 55-71.
	
Lander, R., et al. (1990). Integrated methodology for the structural interpretation of complex geologic areas: Bosque, north of Monagas, Eastern Venezuela Basin (Metodología integrada para la interpretación estructural de áreas geológicas complejas: Bosque, norte de Monagas, cuenca oriental de Venezuela). Reunión del V Congreso Venezolano Geofísico, Caracas, Oct. 21-25.
	
Lang, H. R., et al. (1996). "Terrane deletion in northern Guerrero state." Geofísica Internacional 35,  p. 349-359.
	
Lang, H. R., et al. (1996). "Terrane deletion in northern Guerrero state
 p. 349-359." Geofísica Internacional 35.
	
Lang, H. R. and W. E. Frerichs (1998). "New planktic foraminiferal data documenting Coniacian age for Laramide Orogeny onset and paleooceanography in southern Mexico." Journal of Geology 106(5): 635-640.
	
Langer, C. J. and G. A. Bollinger (1979). "Secondary faulting near the terminus of a seismogenic strike-slip fault:  aftershocks of the 1976 Guatemala earthquake." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 69: 427-444.
	
Langseth, M. G. and E. A. Silver (1996). "The Nicoya convergent margin - A region of exceptionally low heat flow." Geophysical Research Letters 23(8): 891-894.
	
Lantz, J. R. and N. Ali (1990). Development of a mature giant offshore oil field, Teak Field, Trinidad. Proceedings Offshore Technology Conference. W. C. Kazokas. 22: 605-620.
	
Laó-Dávila, D. A. (2002). Tertiary Tectonics of Western Puerto Rico: Paleostress and Paleomagnetic Study. Miami, FL, Florida International University: 189.
	
Lapierre, H., et al. (2000). "Multiple plume events in the genesis of the peri-Caribbean Cretaceous oceanic plateau province." Journal of Geophysical Research   Solid Earth 105(B4): 8403-8421.
	
Lapierre, H., et al. (1999). "Late Jurassic oceanic crust and upper cretaceous Caribbean plateau picritic basalts exposed in the Duarte igneous complex, hispaniola: A reply." Journal of Geology 107(4): 509-512.
	
Lapierre, H., et al. (1997). "Is the lower Duarte Igneous Complex (Hispaniola) a remnant of the Caribbean plume-generated oceanic plateau?" Journal of Geology 105(1): 111-120.
	
Lapierre, H. and M. Tardy (1998). "The Early Cretaceous Arperos oceanic basin (western Mexico). Geochemical evidence for an aseismic ridge formed near a spreading center - Reply." Tectonophysics 292(3-4): 327-331.
	
Lara, M. E. (1993). "Divergent wrench faulting in the Belize Southern Lagoon; implications for Tertiary Caribbean Plate movements and Quaternary reef distribution." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 77(6): 1041-1063.
	
Lara, M. E. (1993). Tectonics and Sedimentation in Transtensional and Extensional Settings: Examples From Offshore Belize, Central America, and the Marajo Basin, Northern Brazil. Miami, FL, University of Miami: 149.
	
Lara, M. E. (1997). "Divergent wrench faulting in the Belize Southern Lagoon: Implications for tertiary Caribbean plate movements and Quaternary reef distribution: Reply." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 81(2): 334-337.
	
Laredo, M. and C. Schubert (1985). "Geophysical study of the sub-basement of the platform of Aves Island (Venezuela) (Estudio geofísico del subsuelo de la plataforma de Isla de Aves (Venezuela))." VI Cong. Geol. Venezolano, Caracas 8: 5507-5519.
	
Larroque, C., et al. (1995). "Experimental modelling of forearc basin development during accretionary wedge growth." Basin Research 7(3): 255-268.
	
Larue, D. K. (1988). Field Guide - Tectonics and Petroleum Potential of the Caribbean Region. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Dept. of Geology, University of Puerto Rico: 45.
	
Larue, D. K. (1990). "Toa Baja drilling project, Puerto Rico." EOS 71: 233-234.
	
Larue, D. K. (1991). "Cross Section through the Toa Baja drillsite:  Evidence for northward change in late Eocene deformation intensity." Geophysical Research Letters 18: 561-564.
	
Larue, D. K. (1994). Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 151-165.
	
Larue, D. K. and G. Draper, Eds. (1990). Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, Chistianstead, St. Croix, -11 August 1989, Miami Geological Society.
	
Larue, D. K. and G. Draper, Eds. (1990). Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St Croix, Virgin Islands, August 7-11, 1989. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society.
	
Larue, D. K., et al. (1990). Neotectonics of the Puerto Rico trench: Extensional tectonism and forearc subsidence. Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 231-247.
	
Larue, D. K., et al. (1991). Cretaceous intra-Arc summit basin on Puerto Rico. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Larue, D. K. and H. Ryan (1990). Extensional tectonism in the Mona Passage, Puerto Rico and Hispaniola: A preliminary study. Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, Aug. 7 - 11, 1989, St Croix, U.S. Virgin Is. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 223-231.
	
Larue, D. K. and H. F. Ryan (1998). Seismic reflection profiles of the Puerto Rico Trench; shortening between the North American and Caribbean plates. Tectonics and geochemistry of the northeastern Caribbean. E. G. Lidiak and D. K. Larue. Boulder, Geological Society of America. 322: 193-210.
	
Larue, D. K., et al. (1991). "Oceanic island arc stratigraphy in the Caribbean region: don't take it for granite." Sedimentary Geology 74: 289-308.
	
Larue, D. K., et al. (1998). North Coast Tertiary basin of Puerto Rico; from arc basin to carbonate platform to arc-massif slope. Tectonics and geochemistry of the northeastern Caribbean. 322: 155-176.
	
Larue, D. K. and A. J. Warner (1991). "Sedimentary basins of the NE Caribbean Plate boundary zone and their petroleum potential." Journal of Petroleum Geology 14(3): 275-290.
	
Lasemi, Y. (1995). "Platform carbonates of the upper Jurassic Mozduran formation in the Kopet Dagh Basin, NE Iran - Facies, palaeoenvironments and sequences." Sedimentary Geology 99(3-4): 151-164.
	
Lattimore, R. K., et al. (1971). "Marine geophysical reconnaissance of continental margin north of Paria peninsula, Venezuela." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 55(10): 1719-1729.
	
Lau, W. and W. Rajpaulsingh (1976). A structural review of Trinidad, West Indies, in the light of current plate-tectonics and wrench fault theory. Transactions of the 7th Caribbean Geological Conference, Trinidad, Trinidad, ???
	
Laurito, C. (1988). "Ichthyology of marine sediments of the Carmen Formation, Cóbano District, Puntarenas, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, 9: ???
	
Laurito, C. (1990). "Study of a juvenile example of Cuvieronius hyodon Río Nacamoe, Guanacaste, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 11: ???
	
Laurito-Mora, C. A. (1988). Sedimentological Analysis of the El Fraile Formation on the Southwest, Pacific Coast of Nicaragua near Carmen and Punta Carballo. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 117.
	
Lavaut Copa, W. (1998). "Tendencias geologicas del intemperismo de las rocas ultramaficas en Cuba oriental (Geological trends of the weathering process of ultramafic rocks in eastern Cuba)." Mineria y Geologia 15(1): 9-16.
	
Lavenu, A., et al. (2000). Maps and Database of Quaternary Faults in Bolivia and Chile, U.S. Geological Survey: 50.
	
Lavenu, A., et al. (1995). "A Pliocene Quaternary compressional basin in the Interandean depression, central Ecuador." Geophysical Journal International 121(1): 279-300.
	
Laverde-M, F. and J. Clavijo (1985). Analisis facial de la Formacion los Santos segun el corte "Tu y Yo" (Zapatoca) (Facies analysis of the Los Santos Formation corresponding to the "Tu y Yo" (Zapatoca) section). Proyecto Cretacico Contribuciones. F. Etayo-Serna and F. Laverde-M. Bogota, Colombia, Publicaciones geologicas Especiales del Ingeominas. 16, VI: 9.
	
Laverov, N. and R. Cabrera (1967). "Algunas particularidades de la geología de los alrededores del yacimiento “El Cobre” relacionadas con su génesis (Some pecularities of the geology of the surroundings of the El Cobre deposits relative to their genesis)." Revista Geologia 1(1): 104-121.
	
Laverov, N. P., et al. (1967). "Estructura geologica y algunas cuestiones sobre la genesis del yacimiento de cobre "Matahambre" (Provincia de Pinar del Rio) (Geologic structure and some questions on the genesis of the "Matahambre" copper deposit (Pinar del Rio Province))." Academia Ciencias Revista Geologia 1(1): 147-164.
	
Laverov, N. P., et al. (1967). "Breve informe sobre la metalogenia de los yacimientos hidrothermales de cobre en Cuba (Brief report on the metallogeny of the hydrothermal deposits of copper in Cuba)." Revista Geologia (Academia de Ciencias Cuba) 1(1): 104-121.
	
Lavoie, D. L. and K. B. Briggs (1997). Geoacoustic and physical properties of carbonate sediments of the Lower Florida Keys. Geo-Marine Letters. 17: 316-324.
	
Lavoie, D. L., et al. (1997). "Benthic boundary layer processes in the Lower Florida Keys." Geo - Marine Letters 17(4): 232-236.
	
Lawhorn, T. W. (1957). A Seismic Study of the Shallow Sub-bottom Materials of the Eastern Caribbean. Houston, TX, Department of Geology & Geophysics. Rice University: ?
	
Lawrence, D. P. (1975). Petrology and Structural Geology of the Sanarate-El Progresso area, Guatemala. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York: 255.
	
Lawrence, S. R., et al. (1987). A geological and geophysical investigation of Barbados and the application of an accretionary prism model. Transactions of the 10th Caribbean Geological Conference, Cartagena, Colombia, Cartagena, Colombia, ???
	
Lawrence, S. R., et al. (1991). A new framework for hydrocarbon exploration in Trinidad. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Laydoo, R. and J. K. Griffith (1995). "Coral reef distribution in south-west Tobago." International Journal of Remote Sensing 16(8): 1367-1369.
	
Laznicka, P., et al. (1970). "Geología, petrografía y mineralogía de las pendientes meridionales de la Sierra Maestra al oeste de Santiago de Cuba (Geology, petrography and mineralogy of the meridional slopes of La Sierra Maestra to the west of Santiago of Cuba)." Serie Oriente 4: 1-46.
	
Laznicka, P. J. (1970). "Petrology and mineralogy of the meridonal pendants of the Sierra Maestra, east of Santiago de Cuba." Serié Oriente 4: ???
	
Le Guen de Kerneizon, M., et al. (1983). "L'ile de Sante Lucie: distinction des principales series magmaique a partir des donnes geochronologique [Saint Lucia: Separating principal magmatic series by geochronological data]." Bulletin Societe Geologie France 25: 845-853.
	
Le Pichon, X., et al. (1990). "Mud volcano field seaward of the Barbados accretionary complex: A submersible survey." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 95(6): 8931-8943.
	
Le Pichon, X. and P. J. Fox (1971). "Marginal offsets, fracture zones, and the early opening of the North Atlantic." Journal of Geophysical Research 76(26): 6294-6308.
	
Le Roux, J. P., et al. (2005). "Determining the Neogene behavior of the Nazca plate by geohistory analysis." Geology 33(3): 165-168.
	Geohistory analysis was performed on Neogene deposits south and north of La Serena, central Chile, to determine the behavior of the crust since the middle Miocene. The tectonic history of both study areas was found to be similar, but the timing of uplift and downwarp events at the two localities differs by 1.3 and 0.8 m.y., respectively, which we attribute to the approach and passing of the Juan Fernandez Ridge. From trigonometric relationships between the ridge trend, the plate vector, and the trend between the study areas, we calculated a plate-convergence rate of 6.2 cm/yr between 11.8 and 10.5 Ma and 10.1 cm/yr between 7.7 and 6.9 Ma. Rapid uplift commenced ca. 2.3 Ma, with a delay of 0.3 m.y. between the two study areas. Trigonometric constraints suggest the presence of a hitherto unsuspected oceanic plateau trending similar to014degrees, subducted below the present continental margin. Flat-plate subduction may thus be better developed where it is assisted by the combined buoyancy of ridge clusters instead of single subducting plateaus.

Le Roy, C. and C. Rangin (2008). "Cenozoic crustal deformation of the offshore Burgos basin region (NE Gulf of Mexico). A new interpretation of deep penetration multichannel seismic reflection lines " Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 179: 161-174.
	Along northeastern Mexico close to the Texas-Mexico border, the Burgos basin and its extension offshore was developed and deformed from the Paleocene up to Present time. This is a key triple junction between the sub meridian dextral transtensive coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico extending far to the south in Mexico, the NE Corsair fault zone offshore and the sinistral Rio Bravo fault zone, a reactivated segment of the Texas lineament. Offshore NE Mexico, in the main study area covered by available seismic profiles, we have evidenced below the main well known gravitational décollement level (5 to 7 s twtt -> 6 to 8 km) a Cenozoic deep-rooted deformation outlined by a N010° W trending deep-seated reverse fault zone and crustal folding down to the Moho (11 s twtt -> ~ 20 km). Based on extensive offshore 2D industrial multi-channel seismic reflection surveys, deep exploration wells and gravimetric data, we focus our study on the deep crustal fabric and its effects on the gravitational tectonics in the upper sedimentary layers: submeridian crustal transtensional normal faults and open folding of the identified Mesozoic basement were interpreted as Cenozoic buckling of the crust during a major phase of oblique crustal extension. This deformation has probably enhanced gravity sliding along N030° growth-faults related to salt withdrawal and halokinesis in the offshore Burgos basin. We have tentatively made a link between this crustal deformation episode and the Neogene tectonic inversion of the Laramide foredeep basin of the Sierra Madre Oriental. The latter is still affected by crustal strike slip faulting associated with basaltic volcanism observed into the gulf coastal plain. This study favours a dominant crustal Cenozoic tectonic activity along the gulf margin without any clear evidence of Mesozoic tectonic reactivation. We propose that the large gravity collapse of the gulf margin was triggered by subsequent crustal deformation.

Le Roy, C., et al. (2008). "Neogene crustal shear zone along the western Gulf of Mexico margin and its implications for gravity sliding processes. Evidences from 2D and 3D multichannel seismic data " Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 179: 175-193.
	No significant crustal deformation was registered along the western Gulf of Mexico margin since the late Jurassic except the well known Cenozoic gravity tectonics. This is marked by a major extension across the platform and the upper continental slope compensated downslope by shortening across the Mexican Ridges fold belt. Based on extensive offshore 2D and 3D industrial multichannel seismic reflection data provided to us by PEMEX, we have evidenced significant Neogene deep-rooted deformation below the main décollement level (5 to 7 s-twtt) related to these gravitational processes. The main crustal deformation is outlined by a N170° trending deep-seated reverse fault zone, which flattens downwards near the Moho and merges upwards near the main Oligo-Miocene décollement level, close to the Neogene Mexican Ridges fold belt. This deep seated fabric is interpreted as the result of a dextral strike slip fault zone rather steep and linear into the north and connecting southwards to a N150° trending dextral wrench zone east of the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt. We consider that this Neogene transpressive dextral motion could have triggered gravity sliding along the Mexican Gulf margin. It could be located at the continent-ocean boundary and is probably linked to conjugate dextral slip related to the late Neogene N140° trending left lateral slip along the Veracruz shear zone active since the Late Miocene. We discuss whether this deep thrust wrench zone is related with the eastward migrating Laramide orogeny front dated Paleocene-Eocene.

Leahy, K., et al. (2004). "Caribbean source rocks may point toward buried treasure." Oil-and-Gas-Journal 102(8): 35-39.
	Despite its significance as a source of oil and gas on the doorstep of the US market, the Caribbean offshore region is poorly explored, especially in the deep water. Till now, source rocks have not been systematically appraised for the Caribbean partly due to the paucity of exploration but also due to the complexity of its geodynamic evolution. The key to understanding regional source rock potential lies in placing the source rocks in a proper geotectonic context at the time of deposition.

Leandro-Montoya, C. E. (1987). Geophysical-Geotechnical Study for the Feasibility of a Tunnel Construction near Pejibaye, Cartago, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 76.
	
LeBlanc, G. (1958). Andean and Caribbean Surface Waves. Department of Geology & Geophysics. Boston, MA, Boston College: ???
	
Lebrat, M., et al. (1985). "Pre-orogenic volcanic assemblages and structure in the Western Cordillera of Ecuador between 1°40'S and 2°20'S." Geologische Rundschau 74: 343-351.
	
Lebron, M. C. (1989). Petrochemistry and Tectonic Significance of Late Cretaceous, Calc-alkaline Volcanic Rocks, Cordillera Oriental, Dominican-Republic. Gainesville, FL, University of Florida: 153.
	
Lebron, M. C. and P. Mann (1991). Geologic Map of the Eastern Dominican Republic. Geological Society of America Special Paper: Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America- Caribbean Plate in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: Plate 3.
	
Lebron, M. C. and P. Mann (1991). Geologic Map of the Eastern Dominican-Republic. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Lebron, M. C. and M. R. Perfit (1993). "Stratigraphic and petrochemical data support subduction polarity reversal of the Cretaceous Caribbean island arc." Journal of Geology 101: 389-396.
	
Leckie, M., et al., Eds. (2000). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling  Program scientific results, Leg 165. College Station,  Texas, Ocean Drilling Program.
	
Leckie, R. M., et al., Eds. (2000). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Caribbean Ocean history and the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary event; covering Leg 165 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Miami, Florida, to San Juan Puerto Rico, sites 998-1002, 19 December 1995-17 February 1996,. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. College Station, TX, Texas A & M University, Ocean Drilling Program.
	
Ledbetter, T. M. (1985). "Tephrochronology of marine tephra adjacent to Central America." Geological Society of America Bulletin 96: 77-82.
	
Ledesma Vazquez, J. and M. E. Johnson (2001). "Miocene pleistocene tectono-sedimentary evolution of Bahia concepcion region, Baja California sur (Mexico)." Sedimentary Geology 144(1-2): 83-96.
	
Lee, G. H., et al. (1996). "Bryant Canyon fan system: An unconfined, large river sourced system in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 80(3): 340-358.
	
Lee, I. (1982). Shallow Seismic Stratigraphy of Tongue of the Ocean and Exuma Sound, Bahamas, Based on Single Channel Seismic Reflection Data, University of Delaware.
	
Lee, V. J. B. (1974). Petrography, Metamorphism, and Geochemistry of the Bermeja Complex and Related Rocks in Southwestern Puerto Rico and their Significance in the Evolution of the Eastern Greater Antillian Island Arc, State University of New York at Albany: 244.
	
Leeman, W. P. and M. J. Carr (1995). Geochemical constraints on subduction processes in the Central American volcanic arc:  Implications of boron geochemistry. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 57-73.
	
Leeman, W. P., et al. (1994). "Boron geo-chemistry of the Central American volcanic arc: Constraints on the genesis of subduction-related magmas." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 58,: 149-168.
	
LeFemina, P. C. (2006). Investigating plate boundary zone deformation with geodetic GPS and modeling studies: A story of two ridges. Miami, FL, University of Miami: 130.
	The surface velocity field around plate boundaries and active faults contains information on a wide variety of processes and conditions, including the long-term fault slip rate, rheological properties of the crust and upper mantle and earthquake processes. Extracting this information requires not only high precision geodetic data, but also accurate models reflecting the critical properties of the crust and upper mantle, allowing us to relate the measurements (i.e., strain and strain rate) to the driving forces. The surface velocity field across two active plate boundaries was measured using high precision GPS geodesy and a combination of analytical elastic half-space models and numerical finite element modeling techniques were used to estimate lithospheric and fault parameters.

The surface velocity field and modeling results for southern Iceland indicate that this divergent plate boundary has a complex pattern of strain accumulation due to its propagating nature. Strain accumulation is partitioned between the Western and Eastern Volcanic zones, whereby the spreading rate increases and decreases to the southwest, respectively.

The surface velocity field and modeling results for the Central America, indicate that collision of the aseismic Cocos Ridge results in high degrees of coupling along the plate boundary. Strain is distributed in the upper plate across the forearc and back arc, resulting in terrane migration away from, and orogeny and subduction polarity reversal inboard of the rigid indenter.

Lefevre, L. V. and K. C. McNally (1985). "Stress distribution and subduction of aseismic ridges in the Middle America subduction zone." Journal of Geophysical Research 90: 4495-.
	
Leggett, T. H. (1889). "Notes on the Rosario Mine at San Juancito, Honduras, C.A." Transactions of the American Institution of Mining Engineers 17: 432-449.
	
Lehner, E. (1953). "Introduction to the geology of Trinidad (Introduction a la geologie de Trinidad)." Annales de l'office nat. des. Combust. Iquides 4: 693-730.
	
Lehner, P., et al. (1983). Active margins: Caribbean margin of South America, profiles C-1422, C-1412, and C-1413. Seismic Expression of Structural Styles: A Picture and Work Atlas. A. W. BAlly. Tulsa, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Studies in Geology. 3: 3.4.2111-2113.2114.2128.
	
Lengweiler, W. (1949). Mineralogical Studies in the Dominican Republic. Santo Domingo, Comision de Fomento.
	
Lengweiler, W. (1949). Oro Nativo en la Republica Dominicana, San Cristobal (Native ores in the Dominican Republic, San Cristobal), Comision de Fomento.
	
Leonard, R. (1983). "Geology and hydrocarbon accumulations, Columbus Basin, offshore Trinidad." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 68(7): 1081-1093.
	
León-Bonilla, C. G. (1983). Geologic-Geotechnical Study for the Feasibility of the Sandilla-Cañas Hydroelectric Project. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: ???
	
LePinay, B. M., et al. (1979). "Sedimentary chaotique et tectonique tangentielle maestrichtiennes dans la presqu'ile du sud d'Haiti (ile d'Hispaniola, Grandes Antilles) [Chaotic sediments and tangental Maastrichtian tectonics of the Presqu'ile du Sud of Haiti ( Island of Hispaniola, Greater Antilles)]." Comptes Rendus Academie Sciences Paris, Series D 187: 887-890.
	
Lerner, D. (1986). Microtektites from Gay's Cove, Barbados, West Indies, University of Delaware.
	
Leroux, H., et al. (1995). "The K/T boundary at Beloc (Haiti): Compared stratigraphic distributions of the boundary markers." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 131(3-4): 255-268.
	
Leroy, S. (1995). Structure and Origin of the Caribbean Plate:  Geodynamic Implications (Structure et Origine de la plaque Caraibe. Implications Geodynamiques). Paris, France, Universite P. & M. Curie: 250.
	
Leroy, S., et al. (1996). "Structural and tectonic evolution of the eastern Cayman Trough (Caribbean sea) from seismic reflection data." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 80(2): 222-247.
	
Leroy, S. and A. Mauffret (1996). "Intraplate deformation in the Caribbean region." Journal of Geodynamics 21(1): 113-122.
	
Leroy, S., et al. (2000). "An alternative interpretation of the Cayman trough evolution from a reidentification of magnetic anomalies." Geophysical Journal International 141(3): 539-557.
	
Lethiers, F., et al. (1995). "Permian ostracodes (Crustacea) from Guatemala (Central America): First data." Comptes Rendus de L Academie Des Sciences Serie II 320(11 Part 2): 1109-1116.
	
Levchenko, V. A. (1979). Tectonic evolution of the Mexican-Caribbean region as a result of Earth's expansion. Tektonika i geodinamika Karibskogo regiona (Tectonics and geodynamics of the Caribbean region). Y. M. Pushcharovskiy and et al.???, Nauka: 117-129.
	
Levi, B. (1981). "Low-grade non-deformational metamorphic in the Mesozoic and Tertiary sequences of Costa Rica." Pacific Geology 15: 65-70.
	
Levichenko, A. and A. G. Ryabukhin (1971). "Block structure of the northern shelf of Cuba." Geotectonics 6: 98-104.
	
Levy, E. (1971). Metallogenesis in Central America, AIME, Society of Mining Engineers: 20.
	
Levy, E. and G. J. Groetsch (1980). Road log to field trip F, second day, North Slope of Cordillera Central. Field Guide, 9th Caribbean Geological Conference. Dominican Republic: 197-203.
	
Lew, L. E. (1972). Geologic Map of Parts of the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica. ???, ???
	
Lew, L. R. (1983). The Geology of the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica:  Observations and Speculations About the Evolution of Part of the Outer Arc of the southern Central America Orogen, Pennsylvania State University. 128.
	
Lew, L. R. (1985). The Geology of the Santa Elena Peninsula, Costa Rica, and Its Implications For the Tectonic Evolution of the Central America-Caribbean Region. Department of Geosciences. University Park, PA, Pennsylvania State University: 509.
	
Lewis, D. N. and S. K. Donovan (1998). "Fossils explained; 23, Palaeozoic echinoids." Geology Today 14(6): 235-240.
	
Lewis, G. E. and J. A. Straczek (1955). "Geology of south-central Oriente Province, Cuba." U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 975-D: 171-336.
	
Lewis, J. F. (1980). Cenozoic tectonic evolution and sedimentation in Hispaniola. Transactions of the 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, 9th, Aug. 16-19, 1980, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic, ???
	
Lewis, J. F., Ed. (1980). Field Guide, 9th Caribbean Geological Conference. Amigo del Hogar, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, Unknown.
	
Lewis, J. F. (1980). Resume of the Geology of Hispaniola. Field Guide, 9th Caribbean Geological Conference. J. F. Lewis. Amigo del Hogar, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, Unknown: 5-32.
	
Lewis, J. F. (1982). "Ultrabasic and associated rocks in Hispaniola." Transactions of the 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, July 1980: 403-408.
	
Lewis, J. F. (1990). Geological and tectonic evolution of the northern Caribbean Margin. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, Co, The Geological Society of America. H: 77-140.
	
Lewis, J. F., et al. (1991). Lithology and stratigraphy of Upper Cretaceous volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks of the Tireo Group, Dominican-Republic, and correlations with the Massif du Nord, Haiti. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America- Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 143-163.
	
Lewis, J. F., et al. (1992). Lithology and stratigraphy of Upper Cretaceous volcanic and vulcaniclastic rocks of the Tireo Group, Dominican Republic and correlation with the massif du Nord in Haiti. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean plate boundary in Hispaniola, Geological Society of America.
	
Lewis, J. F. and G. Draper (1990). Geological and tectonic evolution of the northern Caribbean margin. Decade of North American Geology, The Caribbean, Geol. Soc America. H: 77-140.
	
Lewis, J. F. and G. Draper (1990). Geology of the Greater Antilles. The Geology of North America, Volume H, The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H.
	
Lewis, J. F., et al. (in press). Ultramafic rocks (serpentinites) in the Caribbean region: A review of their composition, origin, emplacement and nickel laterite soils. The Ecology of Serpentinite  Soils in the Caribbean. J. C. Figuero. England, Intercept-Hanover.
	
Lewis, J. F., et al. (2006). Ophiolite-Related Ultramafic Rocks (Serpentinites) in the Caribbean Region: A Review of their Occurrence, Composition, Origin, Emplacement and Ni-Laterite Soil Formation. Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 237-264.
	
Lewis, J. F., et al. (1999). "Late Jurassic Ocean Crust and Upper Cretaceous Caribbean Plateau picritic basalts exposed in the Duarte Complex, Hispaniola: A discussion,." Journal of Geology 107: 505-508.
	
Lewis, J. F., et al. (1999). "Late Jurassic oceanic crust and upper cretaceous Caribbean plateau picritic basalts exposed in the Duarte igneous complex, hispaniola: A discussion." Journal of Geology 107(4): 505-508.
	
Lewis, J. F., et al. (1973). "Potassium argon retention ages for some Cretaceous rocks from Jamaica." Geological Society of America Bulletin 84: 335-340.
	
Lewis, J. F. and J. G. J. (1991). Geologic Map of the Janico-Jarabacoa-La Vega Area. Geological Society of America Special Paper: Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America- Caribbean Plate in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: Plate 5.
	
Lewis, J. F. and J. G. Jiménez G. (1991). Duarte Complex in the La Vega-jarabacoa-Janico area, central Hispaniola:  Geologic and geochemical features of the sea floor during the early stages of arc evolution. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 115-141.
	
Lewis, J. F., et al. (1989). "Paleogene stratigraphy of the Padre Las Casas and adjacent areas in the southeast Cordillera Central, Dominican-Republic." Transactions of the 10th Caribbean Geological Conference, Cartagena, Colombia: 229-237.
	
Lewis, J. M. (1932). "Geology of Cuba." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 16(6): 533-555.
	
Lewis, W. M., Jr. and J. F. Saunders, III (1989). "Concentration and transport of dissolved and suspended substances in the Orinoco River." Biochemistry 7: 203-240.
	
Leyden, B., et al. (1998). "Cultural and climatic history of Coba, a lowland Maya city in Quintana Roo, Mexico." Quaternary Research 49: 111-122.
	
Leyden, B. W., et al. (1993). Late Pleistocene climate change in the Central American Lowlands. Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records. Washington, D. C., American Geophysical Union. 78: 165-178.
	
Leyden, B. W., et al. (1994). "Orbital and internal forcing of climate on the Yucatan Peninsula for the past ca. 36 ka." Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology 109: 193-210.
	
Lezama-Fernández, G. (1983). Geophysical Study for the Savegre Hydroelectric Project. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 147.
	
Li, C., et al. (1997). "Lagoon-shelf sediment exchange by storms - Evidence from foraminiferal assemblages, east coast of Grand Cayman, British West Indies." Journal of Sedimentary Research 67(1): 17-25.
	
Liaw, H.-B. (1981). Seismic Velocity Modeling from an Ensemble of Earthquakes. Dallas, TX, University of Texas at Dallas: 135.
	
Liaw, H. B. (1982). Modified Regularization Method Applied to Joint Determination of Hypocenters and Velocity Structure and its Application to Earthquake Data from Northern Costa Rica. Dallas, TX, University of Texas at Dallas: 135.
	
Liddell, W. D., et al. (1988). The significance of Halimeda as a space-occupier and sediment producer, 1-750 m north Jamaica. 6th International Coral Reef Symposium, Proceedings, Townsville, Australia, 1988, Townsville, Australia, ???
	
Liddle, R. A. (1928). The Geology of Venezuela and Trindad. Fort Worth, TX, MacGowan, J.P.
	
Liddle, R. A. (1946). The Geology of Venezuela and Trindad. Ithaca, N.Y., Paleontological research institution.
	
Liddle, R. A., et al. (1943). "The Rio Cachiri Section in the Sierra de Perija, Venezuela." Bulletin of American Paleontology 27(108): 101.
	
Lidiak, E. G. (1990). Depth of emplacement of granitoid plutonic rocks in the eastern Greater Antilles island arc. Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, Aug. 7-11, 1989, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 259-267.
	
Lidiak, E. G., et al. (1998). Geochemistry of intrusive igneous rocks, St. Croix, U. S. Virgin Islands. Tectonics and geochemistry of the northeastern Caribbean, Geological Society of America. 322: 133-153.
	
Lidiak, E. G. and D. K. Larue (1998). Tectonics and Geochemistry of the Northeastern Caribbean. Boulder, Co, Geological Society of America.
	
Lidz, B. and F. Nagle, Eds. (1979). Hispaniola: Tectonic Focal Point of the Northern Caribbean: Three Tectonic Studies in the Dominican-Republic. Miami, Miami Geological Society.
	
Lidz, B. H. (1984). "Oldest (early Tertiary) subsurface carbonate rocks of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, revealed in turbidite-mudball." Journal of Foraminiferal Research 14: 213-227.
	
Lidz, B. H. (1988). "Upper Cretaceous (Campanian) and Cenozoic stratigraphic sequence, Northeast Caribbean (St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands)." Geological Society of America Bulletin 100(2): 282-298.
	
Lidz, B. H. and D. F. McNeill (1998). "New allocyclic dimensions in a prograding carbonate bank: Evidence for eustatic, tectonic, and paleoceanographic control (Late neogene, Bahamas)." Journal of Sedimentary Research 68(2): 269-282.
	
Lighty, R., et al. (1982). "Acropora palmata reef framework: A reliable indicator of sea level in the western Atlantic for the past 10,000 years." Coral Reefs 1: 125-130.
	
Lima, C. (2003). "Ongoing compression across South American plate: Observations, numerical modelling and some implications for petroleum geology." Geological Society Special Publication 209: 87-100.
	The South American plate is now in horizontal compression and shortening. This is shown by stress data compilations, intraplate stress field numerical models and space-based geodetic results. Consistent with the compressive scenario, analyses of leak-off and hydraulic fracturing data indicate that the maximum principal stress is horizontal for most Brazilian basins. The observed compression/shortening is probably mostly due to the convergence of the South American and the Nazca plates and the divergence of the South American and the African plates. Plate-wide deformation related to the Andean tectonics has been evidenced by analyses of integrated visualizations of available plate-scale information on tectonics, continental geology, topography/bathymetry, seismicity, stresses, active deformation, residual isostatic anomalies, fission track analyses, and seismically derived Moho depths and P and S wave velocity anomalies. Here, some results of these analyses are presented and some implications of the ongoing compression for petroleum exploitation and exploration are discussed. A conceptual model for the plate-wide deformation is presented and numerically tested using elasto-plastic rheologies. The model states that in response to the compression, the lithosphere as a whole (or only the crust if thermal gradients are high enough) tends to fold and fracture. This tendency is stronger during peaks of the Andean orogeneses. The forming antiforms are responsible for uplift along the erosional basin borders, whereas the forming synforms are sites of continental sedimentation, at basin centres. The denudation of sedimentary covers promotes the exhumation of deeper and deeper rocks, cropping out at the foot of retreating scarps. Consequently, the erosional borders of the basins form local topography highs with respect to the adjacent basement. In exploration, neotectonics is usually simply disregarded, at least with regard to the exploratory activities developed in 'passive' margin basins. Nevertheless, we infer that neotectonics has an important role in the distribution and preservation of petroleum accumulations, since: (i) accumulations are ephemeral in a geological time scale, being strongly dependent on the seals's fine geometry and biodegredation, (ii) a strong positive correlation exists between permeability anisotropy and maximum horizontal stress, (iii) the source rocks of the most important Subandean and intraplate petroleum systems are still in the oil generation window, and (iv) the disruption of 'kitchens' of generation is a positive factor to primary migration. This inference seems to be confirmed, since the most important South American petroleum accumulations are found along the actively deforming border between the South American and Caribbean plates. Indeed, the most important accumulations in marginal basins are found in the southeastern Brazilian margin (the Campos basin), which has been deformed the most with respect to other margins during the Cenozoic, and continues to be the most seismically active.

Lin, H.-L. (1992). Late Quaternary Faunal and Isotopic Records From the Anozic Cariaco Basin, Venezuela. Miami, FL, University of Miami: 273.
	
Linares Cala, E. (1997). Magmatismo jurásico. Estudios sobre Geología de Cuba. G. Furrazola-Bermúdez and K. Nuñez Cambra. Habana, Centro Nacional de Información Geológica: 289-300.
	
Linares, E., et al. (1985). "Mapa geológico de la República de Cuba escala 1: 500 000 (Geologic Map of the Republic of Cuba scale 1:500000)."
	
Linares, L. M. (1992). Sequence stratigraphy of late Miocene-Pleistocene of northern Monagas, Eastern Venezuela Basin. Austin, Texas. University of Texas at Austin: 82.
	
Linares, L. M. (1994). Morichito Formation:  A resolved enigma? Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 147-160.
	
Linares-Cala, E., et al. (1989). "New geological data on the Puerto Padre - Gibara region and hydrocarbons possiblities." Revista Tecnológica 19(2): 13-22.
	
LIndholm, C. D., et al. (2004). Two earthquake databases for Central America. Natural hazards in El Salvador. W. I. Rose, J. J. Bommer, D. L. Lopez, M. J. Carr and J. J. Major, Geological Society of America. 375: 357-362.
	The 1990s was a period of improved cooperation between the Central American countries, including the field of seismology. As part of the regional cooperation and data integration, two seismological databases for the region were established: (1) a database of all available earthquake focal mechanisms for the region, and (2) a database in which all data from national seismological observatories were integrated, leading to a published regional earthquake bulletin. These databases are potentially valuable for a wide range of analyses, albeit with some limitations. The objective of this paper is to attract attention to the existence of these databases and to encourage the wider use of them.

Lindsay, J. M., et al. (2003). "Geological history and potential hazards of the late-Pleistocene to Recent Plat Pays volcanic complex, Dominica, Lesser Antilles." Bulletin of Volcanology 65(2-3): 201-220.
	During 1998-2000, the island of Dominica in the Lesser Antilles experienced a major volcanic earthquake swarm spatially associated with volcanic centres in the south of the island. This swarm provided the motivation for a major re-assessment of geologic history and volcanic hazards in this region. This has led to a reinterpretation of the south-western-most corner of the island as a large volcanic complex, termed the Plat Pays volcanic complex, which has exhibited a wide range of past eruptive activity and which, in the Quaternary, experienced a major caldera collapse triggered by a voluminous pyroclastic eruption. Stratigraphy and new <sup>14</sup>C age determinations reveal a complicated history of development. The earliest activity is represented by the formation of the Plat Pays stratovolcano and associated parasitic domes. A major explosive eruption < similar-to > 39,000 years B.P. produced the Grand Bay ignimbrite and triggered a major caldera collapse of the summit and south-western flank of the Plat Pays stratovolcano. Following the major eruption, re-injection of Plat Pays magma resulted in the extrusion of approximately 12 lava domes both within and outside the resulting depression. Caldera collapse was followed by at least one catastrophic flank collapse, but it is unclear whether or not this was triggered by caldera formation. The only on-shore evidence of flank collapse is the breach of the caldera rim and truncation of post-caldera deposits emplaced on or near the caldera rim, we find no evidence of on-shore large-magnitude rock avalanche deposits within the stratigraphic framework of the Plat Pays volcanic complex. Frequent seismic swarms of volcanic earthquakes and vigorous geothermal activity indicate that south Dominica is still underlain by an active magma reservior system. Our new geological observations, combined with an interpretation of recent seismic swarm activity, suggest that an eruption (probably dome-forming) from the Plat Pays volcanic complex is probable within the next 100 years.

Link, W. K. (1952). "Significance of oil and gas seeps in world oil
exploration." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 36: 1505-1540.
	
Liska, R. D. (1991). "The history, age and significance of the Globorotalia menardii Zone in Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies." Micropaleontology 37(2): 173-182.
	
Littlefield, M. (1950). Comments on Four Holes Drilled by Shell in the Punta Alegre - Cayo Coco Area, Camaguey Province, Cuba. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 14.
	
Littlefield, M. (1950). Generalized Log of Cayo Coco #2 and Comments on Relationships to Florida and Bahamas Andros Island #1. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 24.
	
Littlefield, M. (1952). Summary Report: Cuban Gulf Oil Co. Blanquizal III #1. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 40.
	
Ljunggren, P. (1959). "Granitic rocks of the crystalline core of the Antillean Cordillera, Central America." Geol. Fören. Förhandl. 81(3): 467-477.
	
Llinas, R. (1971). Geology of the area of Polo-Duverge, Enriquillo Basin, Dominican Republic (Geología del area Polo-Duvergé, Cuenca de Enriquillo, República Dominicana). Mexico City, Mexico, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (Facultad de Ingeniera): 83.
	
Llinas, R. A. (1971). "Geologia del area Polo-Duverge, Cuenca de Enriquillo (Geology of the Polo-Duverge area, Enriquillo Basin)." Publicacion de Colegio Dominicano de Ingenieros Arquilectosa, y Agrimensores 31; 32: 55-65; 40-53.
	
Llinas, R. A. (1972). "Geology of the Polo-Duverge area, Enriquillo Basin (Geología del area Polo-Duvergé, Cuenca de Enriquillo)." Codia, Publication of Colegio Dominicana de Ingenieros, Arquitectosa, y Agrimensores: part 1 in no. 3, p.55-65;  part 52 in no. 32, p. 40-53.
	
Llinas, R. A. (1978). El potencial minero de la Republica Dominicana, Santo Domingo SIC-DGM, 1979 (The Mining potential of the Dominican Republic, Santo Domingo SIC-DGM, 1979). Memoria Primer Seminario Sobre el Sector Minero: 43-79.
	
Llinas, R. A., et al. (1980). Geology and road log of the southern edge of the Enriquillo basin. 9th Caribbean Geological Conference guidebook, field trip. Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic: 91-101.
	
Llinas, R. A., et al. (1980). Description of Santo Dominigo to Garahona overflight. Field Guide, 9th Caribbean Geologic Conference. Santo Dominigo, Dominican Republic: 83-89.
	
Lloyd, D. K. (1978). "Pliocene closing of the Isthmus of Panama, based on biostratigraphic evidence from nearby Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea cores." Geology 6: 630-634.
	
Lobeck, A. K. (1917). Physiography in Puerto Rico. New York, NY, Columbia University, Teachers College.
	
Lobeck, A. K. (1922). "The physiography of Porto Rico." Scientific Survey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands 1(Part 4): 301-379.
	
Locke, B. D. (2001). Thermal evolution of the eastern Serrania del Interior foreland fold and thrust belt, northeastern Venezuela, based on apatite fission track analyses. Houston, TX, Rice University: 167.
	Apatite fission track data show a gradual decrease in age (~30 Ma to ~15 Ma) from north to the south in the eastern SerranIa del Interior, northeastern Venezuela. Based on a previous study, a model for the tectonic evolution of the eastern SerranIa is proposed in which two stages of deformation occurred. Stage 1 (45 Ma-20 Ma) involves the internal deformation of fault blocks. Stage 2 (20 Ma-12 Ma) involves envelopment thrusting, doubling the thickness of the thrust sheet. Shortening within the SerranIa del Interior ceased at 12 Ma. In stage 1, cooling and exhumation rates were 5.8 degrees C/km and 0.26 km/my, respectively, and in stage 2, cooling and exhumation rates were 4.25 degrees C/km and 0.2 km/my, respectively. The deformation of the SerranIa prior to the collision of the Caribbean plate with South America is probably related to the convergence of the North and South American plates.

Locke, B. D. and J. I. Garver (2005). Thermal evolution of the eastern Serrania del Interior foreland fold and thrust belt, northeastern Venezuela, based on apatite fission-track analyses. Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 315-328.
	
Locker, S. D. and S. K. Chatterjee (1984). Seismic velocity structure. Ocean Margin Drilling Program, Regional Atlas Series,  Atlas 6. Gulf of Mexico. R. T. Buffler, S. D. Locker, W. R. Bryant, S. A. Hall and R. H. Pilger. Woods Hole, MA, Marine Science International: 4-4.
	
Logan, B. W. (1969). Coral Reefs and Banks, Yucatan Shelf, Mexico. Carbonate Sediments and Reefs, Yucatan Shelf, Mexico. ??? Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 129-195.
	
Logan, B. W., et al. (1969). Carbonate sediments and reefs, Yucatan Shelf, Mexico. Carbonate Sediments and Reefs, Yucatan Shelf, Mexico. ??? Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 1-198.
	
Logan, B. W., et al. (1969). Late Quaternary Carbonate Sediments of Yucatan Shelf, Mexico. Carbonate Sediments and Reefs, Yucatan Shelf, Mexico. ??? Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 5-128.
	
Logan, W. S. (1983). Geology of the Agalteca Magnetite Skarn Deposit, Central Honduras. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 118.
	
Longoria, J. F. and M. A. Gamper (1995). "Planktonic foraminiferal faunas across the Cretaceous-Tertiary succession of Mexico: Implications for the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary problem." Geology 23(4): 329-332.
	
Lonsdale, P. (1977). "Inflow of bottom water to the Panama Basin." Deep - Sea Research 24: 1065-1101.
	
Lonsdale, P. (1980). "Manganese-nodule bedforms and thermohaline density flows in a deep-sea valley on Carnegie Ridge, Panama Basin." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 50(4): 1033-1048.
	
Lonsdale, P. (2005). "Creation of the Cocos and Nazca plates by fission of the Farallon Plate." Tectonophysics 404(3-4): 237-264.
	Throughout the Early Tertiary the area of the Farallon oceanic plate was episodically diminished by detachment of large and small northern regions, which became independently moving plates and microplates. The nature and history of Farallon plate fragmentation has been inferred mainly from structural patterns on the western, Pacific-plate flank of the East Pacific Rise, because the fragmented eastern flank has been subducted. The final episode of plate fragmentation occurred at the beginning of the Miocene, when the Cocos plate was split off, leaving the much reduced Farallon plate to be renamed the Nazca plate, and initiating Cocos-Nazca spreading. Some Oligocene Farallon plate with rifted margins that are a direct record of this plate-splitting event has survived in the eastern tropical Pacific, most extensively off northern Peru and Ecuador. Small remnants of the conjugate northern rifted margin are exposed off Costa Rica, and perhaps south of Panama. Marine geophysical profiles (bathymetric, magnetic and seismic reflection) and multibeam sonar swaths across these rifted oceanic margins, combined with surveys of 30-20 Ma crust on the western rise-flank, indicate that (i) Localized lithospheric rupture to create a new plate boundary was preceded by plate stretching and fracturing in a belt several hundred km wide. Fissural volcanism along some of these fractures built volcanic ridges (e.g., Alvarado and Sarmiento Ridges) that are 1-2 km high and parallel to "absolute" Farallon plate motion; they closely resemble fissural ridges described from the young western flank of the present Pacific-Nazca rise. (ii) For 1-2 m.y. prior to final rupture of the Farallon plate, perhaps coinciding with the period of lithospheric stretching, the entire plate changed direction to a more easterly ("Nazca-like") course; after the split the northern (Cocos) part reverted to a northeasterly absolute motion. (iii) The plate-splitting fracture that became the site of initial Cocos-Nazca spreading was a linear feature that, at least through the 680 km of ruptured Oligocene lithosphere known to have avoided subduction, did not follow any pre-existing feature on the Farallon plate, e.g., a "fracture zone" trail of a transform fault. (iv) The margins of surviving parts of the plate-splitting fracture have narrow shoulders raised by uplift of unloaded footwalls, and partially buried by fissural volcanism. (v) Cocos-Nazca spreading began at 23 Ma; reports of older Cocos-Nazca crust in the eastern Panama Basin were based on misidentified magnetic anomalies. There is increased evidence that the driving force for the 23 Ma fission of the Farallon plate was the divergence of slab-pull stresses at the Middle America and South America subduction zones. The timing and location of the split may have been influenced by (i) the increasingly divergent northeast slab pull at the Middle America subduction zone, which lengthened and reoriented because of motion between the North America and Caribbean plates; (ii) the slightly earlier detachment of a northern part of the plate that had been entering the California subduction zone, contributing a less divergent plate-driving stress; and (iii) weakening of older parts of the plate by the Galapagos hotspot, which had come to underlie the equatorial region, midway between the risecrest and the two subduction zones, by the Late Oligocene.

Lonsdale, P. and K. D. Klitgord (1976). Bathymetry of the Panama basin.
	
Lonsdale, P. and K. D. Klitgord (1978). "Structure and tectonic history of the eastern Panama Basin." Geological Society of America 89: 981-999.
	
Lonsdale, P. F., et al. (1992). "The RRR triple junction at the southern end of the Pacific-Cocos East Pacific Rise." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 109(1-2): 73-85.
	
Lopez, A. (2001). Neo and paleostress partitioning in the SW corner of the Caribbean plate and its fault reactivation potential. Tübingen, Germany, University of Tübingen.
	
Lopez, A. M. (2006). Tectonic studies of the Caribbean: Pure GPS Euler vectors to test for rigidity and for the existence of a Northern Lesser Antilles Forearc block; constraints for tsunami risk from reassessment of the April 1, 1946 Alaska-Aleutians and August 4, 1946 Hispaniola events, Northwestern University: 249.
	New Global Positioning System (GPS) data from nine sites within stable portions of the Caribbean (CA) plate have been used to constrain its motion in the International GPS Service reference frame (IGSb00) and with respect to North (NA) and South (SA) American plates. A comparison of GPS velocities between eastern and western Caribbean sites shows that there is no significant internal deformation occurring within the plate (0.9 mm/yr). The CA-NA Euler vector was used to predict azimuths at the northern Lesser Antilles arc, which slip vectors still misfit (~ 5°--25°). This confirms slip partitioning in the forearc, where a forearc sliver, for the first time introduced here as the Northern Lesser Antilles Forearc block (NLAF) moves counter-clockwise with respect to Caribbean crust. Seismicity of the plate in conjunction with historical records of tsunamis in the Caribbean serves as evidence the region is prone to tsunamis. The Hispaniola August 4, 1946 earthquake generated a tsunami that 5 resulted in great loss of lives. A quantitative comparison of this event with that of the Aleutians April 1, 1946 show the tsunami originated from a submarine landslide and not as a "tsunami earthquake". The April 1, 1946 earthquake stands out as an exceptional case of slow rupture velocity. With a re-computed fault area of 181 × 115 km from aftershock relocations, and seismic moment of 5 × 10 27  dyn-cm, the event features the smallest radiated energy to moment ratio ([Theta] = -7.03) ever recorded to date. Tsunami earthquakes, such as the Hispaniola 1946, may have already occured in the past and could occur again in the Caribbean. Hence, potential rupture segments have been identified and used as loci of possible events in an effort to help assess the tsunami risk in the Caribbean and Atlantic region.

Lopez, C., et al. (1991). Edad y origen de los diapiros de sal de la Sabana de Bogota (Age and origin of the salt diapirs of the Savana of Bogota). Memoria del IV Simposio Bolivariano Exploracion Petrolera en las Cuencas Subandinas. Bogota, Colombia, Asociacion Colombiana de Geologos y Geofisicos del Petroleo: not paginated.
	
Lopez, M., et al. (2004). Seismic hazard assessments, seismic design codes, and earthquake engineering in El Salvador. Natural hazards in El Salvador. W. I. Rose, J. J. Bommer, D. L. Lopez, M. J. Carr and J. J. Major, Geological Society of America. 375: 301-320.
	Seismic hazard is very high in parts of El Salvador, with destructive earthquakes occurring on average at least once per decade. Probabilistic estimates of the hazard published by various researchers differ appreciably, in large part due to the uncertainties associated with the earthquake catalog and the sparse database of strong-motion accelerograms. Proposals have been put forward to create two seismic zonation maps, one for upper crustal events and another for earthquakes in the subducted Cocos plate. Observed differences in the spatial distribution and specific characteristics of ground shaking caused by the two types of earthquakes support this proposal, but it is clear that site effects are also of great importance, hence seismic microzonation is also required for urban areas. The high level of seismic hazard in El Salvador makes an appropriate code for the earthquake-resistant design of buildings a vital tool for risk mitigation. Seismic codes have been published in 1966, 1989, and 1994, the most recent being a reasonably comprehensive and technically robust set of guidelines. The effectiveness of the current code to reduce seismic risk in El Salvador is low, but not because of technical deficiencies in the requirements for structural design. The most serious deficiency is clearly defined as the complete lack of any effective mechanism for the enforcement of the code requirements for minimum levels of seismic resistance. Another important element of the risk in El Salvador, which is due to the frequency of destructive events, is lack of adequate repair and strengthening of damaged buildings, an issue not addressed by the code.

Lopez, R., et al. (2001). "Evidence for Paleoproterozoic, Grenvillian, and Pan-African age Gondwanan crust beneath northeastern Mexico." Precambrian Research 107(3-4): 195-214.
	
Lopez Ramos, E. (1969). "Marine Paleozoic rocks of Mexico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 52: 2399-2417.
	
López Rivera, J. G. and R. Rodriguez Hernández (1984). "Some particularities of the tectonics of the Mariel region." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba???: 63-71.
	
López Rivera, J. G., et al. (1987). "General scheme of geologic construction of the western half of Pinar del Rio province." Boletin de Geociences 2(1): 72-75.
	
López Riveria, J. G., et al. (19??). "Análisis geológico del corte del pozo Paramétrico Pinar 1 (Geologic analysis of the cuttings of the Paramétrico Pinar 1 well)."??? ???: 40-45.
	
Lopez Venegas, A. M. (2001). Microplate behavior in the northeastern Caribbean plate boundary zone as constrained by Global Positioning System geodesy. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez: 114.
	
Lopez-Ramos, E. (1975). Geological summary of the Yucatan Peninsula. Ocean Basins and Margins, Volume 3, The Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. A. E. M. Nairn and F. G. Stehli. New York City, Plenum Press. 3: 257-282.
	
Lopez-Ramos, E. (1979). Geologia de Mexico, Tesis Resendiz, Mexico D.F.
	
Lopez-Ramos, E. (1981). Geologia de Mexico: Volume III. Mexico City, (private).
	
Los Alamos National Laboratory (1987). Geochemical Atlas of the San Jose and Golfito Quadrangles, Costa Rica. Springfield, Va., NTIS, 5285 Portland Rd., Springfield, Va. 22161.
	
Losilla, M. (1986). "Technical note: Hydrogeologic map of the Valle Central, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 4.
	
Losilla-Penón, M. (1977). "Subterranean waters in the Río Virilla basin and a proposal for their exploitation." 45.
	
Loubet, M., et al. (1985). Geochemical and geochronological constraints on the geodynamical development of the Caribbean chain of Venezuela. Geodynamique Caraibes. A. Mascle. paris, Editions Technip: 553-566.
	
Lougheide, D. L. (1997). Assessing environmental impacts in the Gulf of Paria, Trinidad: An examination of technological applications and data availability, University of Manitoba (Canada): 256.
	 This study focused on issues and problems of assessing the environmental impact of the Pt. Lisas Industrial Estate on the Greater Couva area in Trinidad. The study had three focal points. First, it documented the chronological changes in land-use/land-cover and coastal vegetation patterns over a period of 25 years from 1962 to 1986; second, it analyzed the impacts of industrialization on this coastal environment; third, it evaluated the issues affecting environmental assessments in Trinidad. These focal points were developed in a number of ways. Aerial photography and ground truthing contributed to the development of a land-use/land-cover classification based on the Anderson Classification (Anderson, 1976). This classification accommodated all land-cover classes represented in the Greater Couva region, and made it possible to create (land-use/land-cover) audit maps. These maps were then introduced into a computer based Geographic Information System (GIS) to perform various Overlay and Time Series Analysis techniques. Changes were observed for the region in the interim years from 1962-1980, and 1980-1986, with major changes in the following land-use categories: residential; industrial; agricultural; mangrove; reclaimed land; and transport networks. These changes were then analyzed to ascertain their relationship to the Pt. Lisas Industrial Estate, while also taking into account impacts resulting from physical changes, such as population increase, pollution, fisheries, and the effects of dredging and reclamation. In establishing the potential for aerial photography, photogrammetry and GIS, in examining environmental impact assessment, this research also highlighted the problems of sparse and limited data.

Lowery, B. J. (1979). Sedimentology and Tectonic Implications of the Middle to Upper Miocene Curre Formation, Southwestern Costa Rica. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University: 100.
	
Lowrie, A. (1978). "Buried trench south of the Gulf of Panama." Geology 6: 434-436.
	
Lowrie, A., et al. (1979). "Fossil spreading center and faults within the Panama fracture zone." Marine Geophysical Researches 4: 153-166.
	
Lowrie, A., et al. (1982). "Location of the eastern boundary of the Cocos plate during the Miocene." Marine Geology 45: 261-279.
	
Lozej, G. P. (1976). Introduction to the Stratigraphy and Petrography of the Limestone Sequence at El Mochito Mine, Central Honduras. ???, Rosario Resources Corp.: 37.
	
Lu, R. S., et al. (1983). Multichannel seismic survey of the Colombia Basin and adjacent margins. Studies in Continental Margin Geology. J. S. Watkins and C. L. Drake. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 34: 395-410.
	
Lucas, S. and G. Alvarado (1991). "Technical note: Comment of the mastodon of the Barra Honda (Río Nacaome), Guanacaste, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 13: ???
	
Lucas, S. and G. Avarado (1991). "The most southern occurrence of a Mammut americanum: The case of the mastodon of San Pedro Sula, Honduras." Geological Magazine of Central America 13: ???
	
Lucas, S. G. (1986). "Pyrthere systematics and a Caribbean route for land mammal dispersal during the Paleocene." Geological Magazine of Central America 5: ???
	
Ludwig, W., et al. (1975). "Profile-sonobuoy measurements in the Colombian and Venezuelan Basins, Caribbean Sea." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 59(1): 115- 123.
	
Lugo, F. A. (1989). Wave Height Changes and Mass Transport on Tague Reef, a Caribbean Reef, North Coast of St. Croix, U. S. Virgin Islands. Department of Geology & Geophysics. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University: 205.
	
Lugo, J. and S. A. Lagoven (1994). The Merida Arch:  Tectonic control on deposition from Late Mesozoic to Early Cenozoic in western Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 291-310.
	
Lugo, J. and P. Mann (1992). Colision obliqua y formacion de una cuenca foreland durante el Paleoceno tardio al Eoceno medio, Cuenca de Maracaibo, Venezuela [Oblique collision and formation of a foreland basin during the Late Paleocene to Middle Eocene, Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela]. Transactions of the 8th Latin American Geological Congress, ???, Salamanca, Spain, Salamanca, Spain, ???
	
Lugo, J. and P. Mann (1995). Jurassic-Eocene tectonic evolution of Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. Petroleum Basins of South America. A. J. Tankard, R. S. Soruco and H. J. Welsink, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 62: 699-725.
	
Lugo, J. M. (1991). Cretaceous to Neogene Tectonic Control on Sedimentation: Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 219.
	
Luhr, J. F., et al. (1995). "San Quintin Volcanic Field, Baja California Norte, Mexico: Geology, petrology, and geochemistry." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 100(B6): 10353-10380.
	
Lundberg, N. (1982). Evolution of the slope landward of the Middle America Trench, Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. Trench-forearc Geology, Sedimentation, and Tectonics on Modern and Active Plate Margins. J. K. Leggett. Oxford, Blackwell. 10: 133-147.
	
Lundberg, N. (1983). "Development of forearcs of intraoceanic subduction zones." Tectonics 2(1): 51-61.
	
Lundberg, N. S. (1982). Evolution of the Forearc Landward of the Middle America Trench, Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica and Southern Mexico. Santa Cruz, California, University of California Santa Cruz: 256.
	
Luperto Sinni, E. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (1993). Lower Cretaceous algae from a Cuban carbonate platform sequence. Studies on Fossil Benthic Algae. R. Barattolo and et al. Mucchi, Modena, Bolletin Soc. Paleont. Ital. Spec. Vol. 1: 281-285.
	
Lutjens, G. P. (1971). "The curious case of the Puerto Rican copper mines." Engineering Mining Journal 71(2): 74-84.
	
Lutz, R., et al. (2004). "2D numerical modelling of hydrocarbon generation in subducted sediments at the active continental margin of Costa Rica." Marine and Petroleum Geology, June 2004, Vol. 21, Issue 6, pp. 753-766 21(6): 753-766.
	The Middle America Trench is the topographic expression of the subduction of the Cocos Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate. In this study, the subduction process was simulated in a numerical basin model to determine the fate of the organic matter. During subduction, temperature rises and the organic matter embedded in sediments generates hydrocarbons. However, equilibrium temperatures are not reached due to the fast subduction process, shifting the petroleum generation zone to depths exceeding 10,000 m. The average organic carbon content of the subducted sediments is low but the fast subduction leads to a high rate of hydrocarbon generation. For example, along a 1 km wide section along the subduction zone a methane generation rate of about 9X10 (super 5) m (super 3) /a is calculated. The hydrocarbon generation process occurs at much greater depth than in conventional sedimentary basins. Due to the low migration velocity, oil is transported from the kitchen area to a greater depth and finally transformed to methane. Interestingly, calculated migration velocities of methane are mostly lower than the current subduction velocity. Thus, even methane is further subducted. This modelling result is confirmed by published data on gas composition at the trench, where (almost) no thermogenic gas has been detected. The subduction of large amounts of methane to very great depths could have an effect on volcanism in the back arc region or on metamorphic processes.

Luzieux, L. D. A., et al. (2006). "Origin and Cretaceous tectonic history of the coastal Ecuadorian forearc between 1°N and 3°S: Paleomagnetic, radiometric and fossil evidence." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249(3-4): 400-414.
	The presence of at least one Block (Pallatanga Block) derived from the previous termCaribbeannext term–Colombian Oceanic Plateau has been proposed in the Western Cordillera of Ecuador. New 40Ar/39Ar dating of the basement of the coastal blocks (90–87 Ma) and fossil ages in the overlying Calentura Fm. (89–84 Ma) argue for late Turonian–Coniacian extrusion of the basement of the Piñon block. Paleomagnetic inclinations indicate that the mafic basement of the Piñon and San Lorenzo blocks extruded at equatorial, low southern latitudes. No subsequent significant latitudinal drift can be observed during the Cretaceous. Rapid changes in paleomagnetic declination between 73 and 70 Ma in both the Piñon and the San Lorenzo blocks indicate that the large igneous province, which originally hosted the coastal blocks experienced a major previous termtectonicnext term event during Late Campanian times. Similar Late Turonian–Coniacian basement ages and Late Campanian previous termtectonicnext term events are reported in the Pallatanga Block of the Western Cordillera. We propose that the Piñon, San Lorenzo and Pallatanga blocks all derive from a common large igneous province, the previous termCaribbeannext term–Colombian Oceanic Plateau, and were incorporated into the South American margin by collision during the Late Campanian (73–70 Ma).

Lynch, J. and S. Bodle (1948). "The Dominican earthquakes of August, 1946." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 38: 1-17.
	
Maack, G. A. (1874). Report on the geology and natural history of the Isthmus of Choco, of Darién, and of Panama. Reports of explorations and surveys to ascertain the practicability of a ship canal between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by way of the Isthmus of Darién. T. O. Selfridge. Washington, D. C: ?
	
Mac Gillavry, H. J. (1977). Field trip to the Eocene of Cer'i Cueba (Curaçao). Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdam - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 92-95.
	
Macari, E. J. and L. R. Hoyos (2005). Earthquake-induced liquefaction potential in western Puerto Rico using GIS technology. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 277–287.
	
MacDonald, D. F. (1913). Isthmian earthquakes. Canal Record, December 10. Isthmian Canal Commission (U.S.), Panama Canal: 144-149.
	
MacDonald, D. F. (1919). "Sedimentary formations of the Panama Canal Zone with specific reference to the stratigraphic relations of the fossiliferous beds." Bulletin of the United States National Museum 103: ?
	
MacDonald, D. F. (1937). "Contributions to Panama geology." Journal of Geology 45: 655-662.
	
MacDonald, H. C. (1969). "Geologic evaluation of radar imagery from Darien Province, Panama." Modern Geology 1: 1-63.
	
MacDonald, K. C. and T. L. Holcombe (1978). "Inversion of magnetic anomalies and sea-floor spreading in the Cayman Trough." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 40: 407-414.
	
Macdonald, K. C. and M. G. Melson (1969). "A late Cenozoic volcanic province in Hispaniola." Caribbean Journal of Science 9: 81-91.
	
Macdonald, R., et al. (2000). "The Lesser Antilles volcanic chain; a study in arc magmatism." Earth-Science Reviews 49(1-4): 1-76.
	
MacDonald, W. D. (1965). Geology of the Serrania De Macuria area, Guajira Peninsula, northeast Colombia. Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Trinidad. ??? ???, ???: 267-273.
	
MacDonald, W. D. (1972). Continental crust, crustal evolution, and the Caribbean. Studies in Earth and Space Sciences: A Memoir in Honor of Harry Hammond Hess: Geological Society of America Memoir 132. R. Shagam, R. B. Hargreaves and a. others. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America Memoir. 132: 351-362.
	
MacDonald, W. D. (1972). "Late Paleozoic tectonics of northern South America." Anais Academia Brasileira Ciencias 44 (supplement): 197-208.
	
MacDonald, W. D. (1976). Cretaceous-Tertiary evolution of the Caribbean. Transactions of the 7th Caribbean Geologic Conference, Guadaloupe. R. Causso. Paris, Bureau de Recherches Geologiques et Minieres (Publication No. 1524): 69-78.
	
MacDonald, W. D. (1976). The importance of Central America to the tectonic evolution of the Caribbean. Informe y trabajos técnicos presentados en la IV Reunión de Geólogos de América Central. V: 24-30.
	
MacDonald, W. D. (1978). "Paleomagnetism results from Cretaceous sediments in Honduras:  Tectonic implications: Comment on paper by W.A. Gose  and D.K. Swartz." Geology 6: 443-444.
	
MacDonald, W. D. (1980). "Anomalous paleomagnetic directions in late Tertiary andesitic intrusions of the Cauca depression, Colombian Andes." Tectonophysics 68: 339-348.
	
MacDonald, W. D. (1990). Survey of Caribbean paleomagnetism. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, Co, The Geological Society of America. H: 393-404.
	
MacDonald, W. D., et al. (1971). "Cretaceous-early Tertiary metamophic K-Ar age values from the south Caribbean." Geological Society of America Bulletin 82: 1381-1388.
	
MacDonald, W. D., et al. (1993). Cenozoic tectonics and paleomagnetism west of Romeral fault zone, Colombian Andes. Second ISAG, Oxford (UK), 21-23/9/1993. Oxford (UK): 219-220.
	
MacDonald, W. D. and P. M. Hurley (1969). "Precambrian gneisses from northern Columbia, South America." Geological Society of America Bulletin 80: 1867-1872.
	
MacDonald, W. D. and N. D. Opdyke (1972). "Tectonic rotations suggested by paleomagnetic results from northern Colombia, South America." Journal of Geophysical Research 77: 5720-5730.
	
MacDonald, W. D. and N. D. Opdyke (1974). "Triassic paleomagnetism of northern South America." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 58: 208-215.
	
MacDonald, W. D. and N. D. Opdyke (1984). "Preliminary paleomagnetic results from Jurassic rocks of the Santa Marta massif, Colombia." Geological Society of America Memoir 162: 295-298.
	
MacDonald, W. D. and J. Van Horn (1977). Paleomagnetism of the Hawk's Bill formation, Tobago. Proceeding V Congress Geologica Venezolano: 817-834.
	
Macellari, C. (1984). Late Tertiary tectonic history of the Tachira Depression, southwestern Venezuelan Andes. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. Bonini, R. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, Co, Geological Society of America. 162: 333-341.
	
Macellari, C. E. (1988). "Cretaceous paleogeography and depositional cycles of western South America." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 1: 373-418.
	
Macellari, C. E. (1995). Cenozoic sedimentation and tectonics of the southwestern Caribbean pull-apart basin, Venezuela and Colombia. Petroleum Basins of South America. A. J. Tankard, R. S. Soruco and H. J. Welsink, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 62: 757-780.
	
Macellari, C. E. and T. J. De Vries (1987). "Late Cretaceous upwelling and anoxic sedimentary in northwestern South America." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, and Palaeoecology 59: 2790-2292.
	
MacFall, C. (1958). Geology of the Quemado de Guines anticlinorium, Las Villas Province, Cuba. Fondo Geológico Nacional. La Habana.
	
MacGillavry, H. J. (1937). Geology of the Province of Camaguey, Cuba, with Revisional Studies in Rudist Paleontology. Utrecht, Holland, Instituut der Rijksuniversiteit.
	
MacGillavry, H. J. (1977). Tertiary Formations. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaco, Bonaire, and Aruba. ? Amsterdam - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 36-38.
	
MacGillavry , H. J. and D. Beets, Eds. (1978). Transactions of the 8th Caribbean Geological Conference, Willemstad, Curacao, 9-12 July 1977, Geologie en Minjnbouw, v. 57, p. 97-384.
	
MacGillavry, H. J. and D. Beets (1978). "Transactions of the 8th Caribbean Geological Conference, Willemstad, Curaçao, July 9-12, 1977." Geologie en Minjnbouw 57: 97-384.
	
Machare, J. and L. Ortlieb (1992). "Plio-Quaternary vertical motions and the subduction of the Nazca Ridge, central coast of Peru." Tectonophysics 205: 97-108.
	
Machel, H. G. (2000). "Dolomite formation in Caribbean Islands - Driven by plate tectonics?!" Journal of Sedimentary Research 70(5): 977-984.
	
Machorro Sagastume, R. A. (1993). Geology of the Northwestern Corner of the Granados Quadrangle, Central Guatemala. Department of Geological Sciences. El Paso, TX, University of Texas, El Paso: 89.
	
Macia, C. and J. Mojica (1981). "Nuevos puntos de vista sobre el magmatismo Triasico superior (Fm. Saldana), Valle Superior del Magdalena, Colombia (New view points on the upper Triassic magmatism (Saldana Formation), Upper Magdalena Valley)." Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie, Teil 1 3/4: 243-251.
	
Macias, J. L., et al. (2000). "Late Holocene pelean-style eruption at Tacana Volcano, Mexico and Guatemala: Past, present, and future hazards." Geological Society of America Bulletin 112(8): 1234-1249.
	Tacana volcano, located on the border between Mexico and Guatemala, marks the northern extent of the Central American volcanic chain. Composed of three volcanic structures, it is a volcanic complex that has had periodic explosive eruptions for at least the past 40 k.y. The most recent major eruption occurred at the San Antonio volcano, the youngest volcanic edifice forming the complex, about 1950 yr ago. The Pelean style eruption, issued from the southwest part of the dome, and swept a 30 degrees sector with a hot block and ash flow that traveled about 14 km along the Cahoacan ravine. Deposits from this event are well exposed around the town of Mixcun and were therefore given the name of that town, the Mixcun flow deposit. The Mixcun flow deposit is, in the channel facies, a light gray, massive, thick (>10 m), matrix-supported unit with dispersed lithic clasts of gravel to boulder size, divisible in some sections into a variable number of flow units. The overbank facies is represented by a thin (<1 m), massive, matrix-supported unit. In both of these facies the deposit has disseminated charcoal, fumarolic pipes, and juvenile lithics with cooling joints. The Mixcun flow deposit contains clasts of (1) light gray, dense andesite, (2) dark gray, glassy and banded andesite, and (3) minor altered red andesite from the edifice, set in a matrix of sand and silt. The Mixcun flow deposit covers an area of at least 25 km (super 2) and has a minimum estimated volume of 0.12 km (super 3) . Basaltic-andesite inclusions (54% SiO (sub 2) ) and various signs of disequilibrium in the mineral assemblage of the two-pyroxene andesitic products (60%-63% SiO (sub 2) ) suggest that magma mixing may have triggered the eruption. Following deposition of the Mixcun flow deposit andesitic to dacitic (62%-64% SiO (sub 2) ) lava flows were extruded and a dacitic dome (64.4% SiO (sub 2) ) at the San Antonio summit formed. Syn-eruptive and posteruptive lahars flooded the main drainages of the Cahoacan and Izapa-Mixcun valleys in the area of the present city of Tapachula (population 250000) and the pre-Hispanic center of Izapa. Three radiocarbon ages date this event between A.D. 25 and 72 (range + or -1sigma , 38 B.C.-A.D. 216), which correlates with a halt in construction at Izapa (Hato phase of ca. 50 B.C.-A.D. 100), probably due to temporary abandonment of the city caused by lahars. Another similar event would produce extensive damage to the towns (population of about 68000 people) now built upon the Mixcun flow deposit. The main summit of Tacana volcano continues to show signs of fumarolic activity; the most recent period of activity in 1985-1986 culminated in a minor phreatic explosion.

MacIlvaine, J. and D. A. Ross (1973). "Surface sediments of the Gulf of Panama." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 43: 215-.
	
MacIntyre, I. G. (1972). "Submerged reefs of eastern Caribbean." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 56: 720-738.
	
Macintyre, I. G., et al. (1996). "Growth history of stromatolites in a Holocene fringing reef, Stocking Island, Bahamas." Journal of Sedimentary Research Section A - Sedimentary Petrology and Processes 66(1): 231-242.
	
MacKay, M. E. (1988). Accretionary Response to Trench Sediment Variation Along the South Panama Margin. Department of Geosciences. Tulsa, OK, The University of Tulsa: 44.
	
Mackay, M. E. and G. F. Moore (1990). "Variation in deformation of the South Panama accretionary prism: Response to oblique subduction and trench sediment variation." Tectonics 9(4): 683-698.
	
Mackenzie, G. D. (1999). The shallow crustal structure of the Chicxulub Impact Crater from surface wave dispersion studies. Leicester, University of Leicester.
	
MacMillan, D. S. and C. Ma (1999). "VLBI measurements of Caribbean and South American motion." Geophysical Research Letters 26(7): 919-922.
	
MacMillan, I., et al. (2004). "Middle Miocene to present plate tectonic history of the southern Central American Volcanic Arc." Tectonophysics 392(1-4): 325-348.
	New mid Miocene to present plate tectonic reconstructions of the southern Central American Volcanic Arc (CAVA) reveal that the inception of Cocos Ridge subduction began no earlier than 3 Ma, and possibly as late as 2 Ma. The Cocos Ridge has been displaced from the Malpelo Ridge to the southeast since similar to 9 Ma along the Panama Fracture Zone (PFZ) system. Ambiguous PFZ and Coiba Fracture Zone (CFZ) interaction since similar to 9 Ma precludes conclusively establishing the age of initial Cocos Ridge subduction. Detailed reconstructions based on magnetic anomalies offshore reveal several other variations in subduction parameters beneath southern Central America that preceded subduction of the Cocos Ridge, including southeastward migration of the Nazca-Cocos-Caribbean triple junction along the Middle America Trench (MAT) from 12 Ma to present, and subduction of less than or equal to 2 km high scarps both parallel and perpendicular to the trench from 6 to similar to 1 Ma. The timing of changes in subduction processes has commonly been determined by (and correlated with) geologic changes in the upper plate. However, reliable Ar-40/Ar-39 dating of these events has become available only recently [Abstr. Programs-Geol. Soc. Am. (2002)]. These new dates better constrain the magmatic and structural history of southern Costa Rica. Observations from this data set include: a gap in the volcanic record from 11 to 6 Ma, which coincides temporally with emplacement of most plutons in southern Costa Rica, normal arc volcanism ceased after 3.5 Ma in southern Costa Rica, and Pliocene (mostly similar to 1.5 Ma) adakite volcanism was widely distributed from central Panama to southern Costa Rica (though volumetrically insignificant). This new data reveals that many geologic phenomena, commonly attributed to subduction and underplating of the buoyant Cocos Ridge, in fact precede inception of Cocos Ridge subduction and seem to correlate more favorably in time with earlier tectonic events. Adakite volcanic activity corresponds in space and time with the subduction of a large scalp associated with a tectonic boundary off southern Panama. Regional unconformities and an 11-6 Ma gap in arc volcanism match temporally with oblique subduction of the Nazca plate beneath central and southern Costa Rica. Cessation of volcanic activity, low-temperature cooling of plutons in the Cordillera de Talamanca (CT), and rapid increases in sedimentation in the fore-arc and back-arc basins coincide with passage of the Nazca-Cocos-Caribbean triple junction and initiation of subduction of "rough" crust associated with Cocos-Nazca rifting 3.5 Ma, closely followed by initial subduction of the Cocos Ridge 2-3 Ma. None of the aforementioned geologic events occurred at a time that would allow for underplating by the Cocos Ridge. Rather they are probably related to complex interactions with subduction of complicated plates offshore. All of the aforementioned events indicate that the southern Central American subduction system has been in flux since at least similar to 12 Ma. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

MacNeil, A. and B. Jones (2003). "Dolomitization of the Pedro Castle Formation (Pliocene), Cayman Brac, British West Indies." Sedimentary Geology 162(3-4): 219-238.
	The Pedro Castle Formation (Pliocene) on Cayman Brac is variably dolomitized by texture preserving but non-mimetic and texture destructive replacive dolomite. Mimetic replacement of skeletal grains is limited to echinoderm plates, and with few rare exceptions, there is no mimetic replacement of red algae, foraminifera, green algae, or any other type of skeletal grain. The lack of mimetic dolomite is atypical of "island dolostones" found in the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean.Dolostones in the Pedro Castle Formation are formed entirely of high-Ca calcian dolomite (average of 57.4 mol% CaCO<inf>3</inf>). Oxygen isotopes (mean 1.25< per-mille > PDB) from the dolomite indicate that dolomitization was mediated by seawater or modified seawater. Carbon isotopes in the dolomite, which range from -1.81< per-mille > to 1.42< per-mille > PDB, were probably inherited from the precursor limestone. The average Sr content in the dolomite (360 ppm) is higher than that found in most other island dolomites.The sediments that now form the Pedro Castle Formation were deposited in shallow water on an open bank during the early Pliocene. Pre-dolomitization diagenesis of those sediments included syntaxial overgrowths around echinoderm fragments, dissolution of aragonitic bioclasts, stabilization to low-magnesium calcite, and local precipitation of vadose cements. Thus, the limestones had been extensively stabilized by the time that dolomitization took place during the late Pliocene. The general paucity of mimetic replacement in these dolostones can probably be attributed to the calcite stabilization that took place before dolomitization. < copyright > 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

MacPhee, D. D. E., et al. (2003). "Domo de Zaza, an early Miocene Vertebrate Locality in South-Central Cuba, with notes on the tectonic evolution of Puerto Rico and the Mona Passage." American Museum Novitates 3394: 42.
	
MacPhee, R. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (1994). First Tertiary Land Mammal from Greater Antilles: An Early Miocene Sloth (Xenarthra, Megalonychidae) From Cuba. New York, American Museum of Natural History.
	
MacPhee, R. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (1995). "Earliest monkey from Greater Antilles." Journal of Human Evolution 28: 197-200.
	
MacPhee, R. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (1995). Origin of the Greater Antilles Land Mammal Fauna, 1: New Tertiary Fossils from Cuba and Puerto Rico. New York, American Museum of Natural History.
	
MacPhee, R., et al. (1992). "Paleogeography, biogeography and land mammals of the Greater Antilles." Resúmenes 13va Conferencia Geológica de Cuba: 16-17.
	
MacPhee, R. D. E. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (2005). The interpretation of Caribbean paleogeography: reply to Hedges. Proceedings of the International Symposium :Insular Vertebrate Evolution: The paleontological Approachbalears, 12, 175-184. J. A. Alcover and P. Bover. 12: 175-184.
	
MacPhee, R. D. E., et al. (2003). Domo de Zaza, an early Miocene vertebrate locality in south-central Cuba: With notes on the tectonic evolution of Puerto Rico and the Mona Passage, American Museum of Natural History.
	
MacPhee, R. D. E. and A. R. Wyss (1990). "Oligo-Miocene vertebrates from Puerto Rico, with a catalog of localities." American Museum Novitates 2965: 45.
	
MacRae, G. and J. S. Watkins (1993). Basin Architecture, salt tectonics and Upper Jurassic structural development, Desoto Canyon Salt Basin, Northeastem Gulf of Mexico. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region:  A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration. J. L. Pindell and R. F. Perkins, Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation: 9-20.
	
MacRae, G. and J. S. Watkins (1995). "Early Mesozoic rift stage half graben formation beneath the DeSoto Canyon salt basin, northeastern Gulf of Mexico." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 100(B9): 17795-17812.
	
MacRae, G., et al. (1993). Basin architecture, salt tectonics and Upper Jurassic structural development, Desoto Canyon salt basin, northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region: Selected Papers Presented at the G.C.S.S.E.P.M Foundation Thirteenth Annual Research Conference. J. L. Pindell: 9-20.
	
Madrigal, R. (1982). Geologia de Santa Rosa (Geology of Santa Rosa). Universidad Estatal a Distancia. San Jose, Costa Rica: ?
	
Madrigal-Castro, O. (1980). Geology and Potential of Part of the Abangares Mineral District, Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San José, Costa Rica: 87.
	
Madrigal-Morales, C. (1985). Geologic-geotechnical Study for the Feasibility of the Guayabo Hydroelectric Project, Turrialba, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San José, Costa Rica: ?
	
Madsen, J. A., et al. (1992). "Kinematic framework of the Cocos-Pacific plate boundary from 13 degrees N to the Orozco transform fault: Results from an extensive magnetic and SeaMarc II survey." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 97(5): 7011-7024.
	
Magnier, C., et al. (2004). "Geochemical characterization of source rocks, crude oils, and gases of northwest Cuba." Marine and Petroleum Geology 21: 195-214.
	In order to characterize the Cuban petroleum system, we analyzed source rocks as well as crude oils and gases from carbonate producing reservoirs from northwest onshore Cuban fields. The geochemical oil and gas characterizations were based on bulk analyses, chromatography (liquid and gas), mass spectrometry and mass spectrometry-coupled to stable carbon isotope ratio determination. Analyses of sampled source rocks intervals were performed with Rock Eval 6 and provided valuable data for the appraisal of the active petroleum system in Northwest Cuba. Our paper focused on the genetic semblance between carbonate reservoired crude oils and source rocks to assess the offshore extension of the onshore Cuban carbonate petroleum system. Crude oils-source rocks and crude oils-offshore DSDP source rocks were correlated to a common type of carbonate depositional environment. An understanding of the geochemical compositions of carbonate crude oils, grouped in families including heavy sulphur rich oils, light or mixed and biodegraded fluids helped to underline the different processes operating in the reservoirs today. The high degree of anoxicity during the organic matter deposition in the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous was confirmed. We observed low hydrocarbon cracking levels and non biodegraded fluids of Type II/IIS organic matter in Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous reservoirs, while shallower Tertiary reservoirs, although more mature were altered by microbial biodegradation. There, reservoirs with temperatures below 80 degrees C provided a good habitat for aerobic/anaerobic bacteria and the possibility of hydrocarbon biodegradation.

Maharaj, R. (1991). Geotechnics and Zonation of 'Landslides ' in Upper St. Andrew, Jamaica, West Indies, University of the West Indies: ?
	
Maharaj, R. (1999). Palaeoclimatic and Stratigraphic Aspects of the Late Quaternary Geology of SW Jamaica, University of the West Indies: ?
	
Maharaj, R. and S. F. Mitchell (2000). Sequence Stratigraphy of Mixed Clastic-Carbonate Systems - A Case Example From the Eocene of Jamaica. GSTT 2000 SPE Conference. Port of Spain, Trinidad, 10-13 July, 2000, Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago. CDrom1-SG06: 7.
	
Mahmoudi, M., et al. (1994). Diagenesis and mineralogy of Tertiary/Cretaceous rocks Barinas Mountain front. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 216-218.
	
Makarov, V. I. (1988). Karibskiy basseyn: Oblast' razvitiya i vzaimodeystviya noveyshikh kontinental'nykh i okeanicheskikh struktur (The Caribbean Basin: An area of development and interaction of recent continental and oceanic structures). Neotektonika i sovremennaya geodinamika podvizhnykh poyasov (Neotectonics and Recent geodynamics of mobile belts). P. N. Kropotkin. Moscow, Trudy Geologicheskiy Institut. 427: 152-187.
	
Malane, G. and G. Suarez (1995). "Intermediate depth seismicity in northern Colombia and western Venezuela and its relationship to Caribbean Plate subduction." Tectonics 14(3): 617-628.
	
Malavassi, E. (1979). Geology and Petrology of Arenal Volcano, Costa Rica. Manoa, Hawaii, University of Hawaii: 111.
	
Malavassi, E. (1991). Magma Sources and Crustal Processes at the Southern Terminus of the Central American Volcanic Arc. Earth Sciences Board of Studies. Santa Cruz, CA, University of California: 192.
	
Malavassi-Rojas, L. R. (1985). General Geology of the Area South of Baja Talamanca in Relation to Coal Deposits, Limón Province, San José, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 89.
	
Malave, G. and G. Suarez (1995). "Intermediate-depth seismicity in northern Colombia and western Venezuela and its relationship to Caribbean plate subduction." Tectonics 14(3): 617-628.
	
Malcolm, F. L. (1979). Petrography, Mineral Chemistry and Microstructures of Gabbros from the Mid-Cayman Rise Spreading Center, State University of New York at Albany: 312.
	The suite of gabbroic rocks collected by the DSRV ALVIN in 1976 and 1977 from the walls of the Mid-Cayman Rise spreading center were studied in detail to provide the best available data on plutonic rocks sampled directly from the ocean floor. The rock types studied include variably deformed and altered gabbros, orthopyroxene gabbros, olivine gabbros and troctolites, and a few amphibolites. Mineral chemical analyses suggest that the various rock types are representative of a fractionation trend from magnesian troctolites through olivine and clinopyroxene gabbros to iron-enriched orthopyroxene gabbros. Within many individual samples, the primary mineral phases are apparently chemically homogeneous despite sometimes considerable alteration, which suggests reequilibration after original crystallization. Variation in mineral-chemistry across the suite is larger than previously reported for ocean-floor gabbros; this may be due to the larger population of this study. The primary or secondary nature of plagioclase and amphibole must be distinguished in discussions of the igneous processes involved in the genesis of these rocks. In this suite, textural evidence is often inconclusive, and although sodic chemistry is assumed to indicate a secondary origin for plagioclase, no chemical indicator was found to apply to amphiboles. Many different deformation textures are observed in the samples, indicating considerable variation in the conditions of deformation within this slowly accreting ridge environment. Ductile features range from mechanical twins and bent crystals (low strain) to complete recrystallization with a well-developed foliation (high strain). Textures suggestive of cataclasis include zones .1-10 mm wide containing very fine, irregular grains; kinked and cracked grains, usually very undulose; and crosscutting fractures. These textures may occur separately, or next to or overprinting each other. Of the variables controlling the formation of deformation features, temperature and water pressure are most easily estimated. Minimum temperature during deformation is suggested by minimum temperature of formation of mineral assemblages unaffected by this deformation. This temperature is greater than 550°C (epidote-amphibolite facies) for the majority of features observed, although sampling may have introduced a bias away from lower temperature features. Observations suggest enhanced recrystallization where the primary mineralogy has been hydrated to a greater extent. Theoretically, confining pressure for the gabbroic rocks in this suite may have varied from about .3-.9kb; fluid pressure should have been within these limits. Based on mineralogical evidence, cataclastic and ductile textures developed at both high and moderate temperatures. This suggests that strain rates and/or pressure vary considerably within regions where rocks are hot as well as where rocks are cooler, and that after high-temperature deformation some rocks cooled quickly enough to prevent significant recrystallization while others cooled more slowly. These interpretations indicate that the Cayman plutonics were raised to their present position by motions which varied from place to place and time to time, and suggests that the structural  history of plutonic.rocks formed at slowly accreting plate boundaries is highly variable and complex.

Maldonado-Koerdell, M. (1952). "Plantas del Retico-Liasico y otros fosiles Triasicos de Honduras, C.A. (Plants of the Retico-Liasico and other Triassic fossiles of Honduras, C.A.)." Ciencia 12: 294-296.
	
Maldonado-Koerdell, M. (1966). "Geological and geophysical studies in the Gulf of Fonseca - Nicaraguan Depression area, Central America." Canada Geological Survey 66(14): 220-238.
	
Maley, P. S., et al. (1974). "Topography and structure of the western Puerto Rico Trench." Geological Society of America Bulletin 85: 513-518.
	
Malfait, B. T. and M. G. Dinkleman (1972). "Circum-Caribbean tectonic and igneous activity and the evolution of the Caribbean plate." Geological Society of America Bulletin 83: 251-271.
	
Malin, P. E. and W. P. Dillon (1973). "Geophysical reconnaissance of the western Cayman Ridge." Journal of Geophysical Research 78(32): 7769-7775.
	
Malinovski, Y. M., et al. (1974). "New data on the lithology and stratigraphy of Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits of the north coast of Cuba [Habana-Matanzas]." Revista Tecnológica 2: 36-42.
	
Maliva, R. G. (1995). "Recurrent neomorphic and cement microtextures from different diagenetic environments, Quaternary to late neogene carbonates, Great Bahama Bank." Sedimentary Geology 97(1-2): 1-7.
	
Mallinson, D., et al. (1997). "A high resolution geological and geophysical investigation of the Dry Tortugas carbonate depositional environment." Geo - Marine Letters 17(4): 237-245.
	
Malone, M. J., et al. (2000). Geochemistry and mineralogy of periplatform carbonate sediments; sites 1006, 1008, and 1009
Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Bahamas Transect; covering Leg 166 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, San Juan, Puerto Rico, to Balboa Harbor, Panama, sites 1003-1009, 17 February-10 April 1996. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. G. Lowe. 166: 145-152.
	An intensive mineralogic and geochemical investigation was conducted on sediments recovered during Ocean Drilling Program Leg 166 from the western Great Bahama Bank at Sites 1006, 1008, and 1009. Pleistocene through middle Miocene sediments recovered from Site 1006, the distal location on the Leg 166 transect, are a mixture of bank-derived and pelagic carbonates with lesser and varying amounts of siliciclastic clays. A thick sequence of Pleistocene periplatform carbonates was recovered near the platform edge at Sites 1008 and 1009. Detailed bulk mineralogic, elemental (Ca, Mg, Sr, and Na), and stable isotopic (delta (super 18) O and delta (super 13) C) analyses of sediments are presented from a total of 317 samples from all three sites.

Maloney, N. and C. Schubert (1968). Aves Island: An island that disappears? (La Isla de Aves: una isla que desaparecerá?, Acta Cient. Venezolana.
	
Maloney, N., et al. (1968). Geology of Aves Island, Venezuela (Geología de la Isla de Aves, Venezuela), Bol. Inf. A.V.G.M.P.
	
Maloney, N., et al. (1971). Geology of Aves island, Venezuela. V Caribbean Geoogic. Conference.
	
Malovitskiy, Y., et al. (1989). "New data on the tectonics of the seaward periphery of Cuba." Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 308: 938-941.
	
Mamberti, M. (2001). Origin and evolution of two distinct Cretaceous oceanic plateau accreted in Western Ecuador (South America): Petrological, geochemical and isotopic evidence. Lausanne- Grenoble, Univ. Lausanne- Grenoble: 241.
	
Mamberti, M., et al. (2003). "Accreted fragments of the Late Cretaceous Caribbean-Colombian Plateau in Ecuador." Lithos 66(3-4): 173-199.
	The eastern part of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador includes fragments of an Early Cretaceous (nearly equal 123 Ma) oceanic plateau accreted around 85-80 Ma (San Juan-unit). West of this unit and in fault contact with it, another oceanic plateau sequence (Guaranda unit) is marked by the occurrence of picrites, ankaramites, basalts, dolerites and shallow level gabbros. A comparable unit is also exposed in northwestern coastal Ecuador (Pedernales unit). Picrites have LREE-depleted patterns, high epsilon Nd (sub i) and very low Pb isotopic ratios, suggesting that they were derived from an extremely depleted source. In contrast, the ankaramites and Mg-rich basalts are LREE-enriched and have radiogenic Pb isotopic compositions similar to the Galapagos HIMU component; their epsilon Nd (sub i) are slightly lower than those of the picrites. Basalts, dolerites and gabbros differ from the picrites and ankaramites by flat rare earth element (REE) patterns and lower epsilon Nd; their Pb isotopic compositions are intermediate between those of the picrites and ankaramites. The ankaramites, Mg-rich basalts, and picrites differ from the lavas from the San Juan-Multitud Unit by higher Pb ratios and lower epsilon Nd (sub i) . The Ecuadorian and Gorgona 88-86 Ma picrites are geochemically similar. The Ecuadorian ankaramites and Mg-rich basalts share with the 92-86 Ma Mg-rich basalts of the Caribbean-Colombian Oceanic Plateau (CCOP) similar trace element and Nd and Pb isotopic chemistry. This suggests that the Pedernales and Guaranda units belong to the Late Cretaceous CCOP. The geochemical diversity of the Guaranda and Pedernales rocks illustrates the heterogeneity of the CCOP plume source and suggests a multi-stage model for the emplacement of these rocks. Stratigraphic and geological relations strongly suggest that the Guaranda unit was accreted in the late Maastrichtian ( nearly equal 68-65 Ma).

Manea, M. (2004). Tehuantepec Ridge as a Tectonic Limit Between the Northern Part of Cocos Plate and Guatemala Basin: Structure and Origin. Mexico City, Mexico, IGEF, National Autonomous University of Mexico: 135.
	
Manea, M., et al. (2005). "Tectonic evolution of the Tehuantepec Ridge." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 238(1-2): 64-77.
	The Tehuantepec Ridge is one of the most prominent lithospheric structures of the Cocos Plate, yet its tectonic evolution has remained poorly constrained until now. Calculated ocean floor ages and spreading rates, morphostructural analysis of the ridge and the surrounding ocean floor are used to infer the tectonic evolution and pattern of the Tehuantepec Ridge and associated structures. The ocean floor age estimates south of the Tehuantepec Ridge suggest an age of approximately 26 Ma at the Middle America trench. A mean age difference across the Tehuantepec Ridge of approximately 7 Ma suggests that the Tehuantepec Ridge would be formed as a long transform fault on the Guadalupe plate, prior to 15 Ma. The full-spreading rate estimates show that there might be a differential full-spreading rate across the transform fault between 15 and 5 Ma, when the oceanic plate just south of Clipperton Fracture Zone was decelerating between 15 and 10 Ma, then accelerating for the next 5 Ma. We propose a model in which between 13 and 8 Ma temporarily transpressional intratransform-spreading centers would have been existing as a consequence of the East Pacific Rise onset with an angle of approximately 10 degrees clockwise with respect to the ceased Mathematician ridge. Our model estimates indicate that between 21 and 15 Ma a prominent pseudofault was formed south of the Tehuantepec Ridge due to an unstable offset on the Mathematician ridge that migrated northward. The Tehuantepec Ridge and the pseudofault trace bound a deeper oceanic basin than the surrounding area, with no corresponding anomalous depth on the western side of the East Pacific Rise. The complete absence of a pseudofault trace and a deeper oceanic basin on the western side of the East Pacific Rise, as well as the spreading rate changes, suggest the existence of a microplate embedded into the Cocos Plate just south of the Tehuantepec Ridge. Also, the asymmetric and sharp morphology of the Tehuantepec Ridge suggests that it may be the expression of a major transpressional structure along the former transform fault on the Guadalupe plate 15-20 Ma ago.

Manea, M., et al. (2003). "Sediment Fill of the Middle America Trench Inferred from the Gravity Anomalies." Geofisica International 42(4): 603-612.
	
Manea, V. C. (2004). Thermomechanical models for the subduction zones of Mexico and Kamchatka. Mexico City, Mexico, IGEF, National Autonomous University of Mexico: 200.
	
Manea, V. C., et al. (2004). "Thermal structure, coupling and metamorphism in the Mexican subduction zone beneath Guererro." Geophysical Journal International 158: 775-784.
	
Mann, P. (1983). Cenozoic Tectonics of the Caribbean: Structural and Stratigraphic Studies in Jamaica and Hispaniola, Pt. 1 and 2,. Department of Geological Sciences. Albany, NY, State University of New York: 688.
	
Mann, P. (1992). "Review of "Geological Map of the Caribbean" by A. Mascle and J. Letouzey." Journal of Marine and Petroleum Geology 9: 574.
	
Mann, P., Ed. (1995). Geologic and Tectonic Development of the Caribbean Plate Boundary in Southern Central America. Geological Society of America Special
Paper. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Mann, P. (1995). Preface. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: xi-xxxii.
	
Mann, P. (1997). "Model for the formation of large, transtensional basins in zones of tectonic escape." Geology 25(3): 211-214.
	
Mann, P., Ed. (1999). Caribbean Basins. Sedimentary Basins of the World. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V.
	
Mann, P. (1999). Caribbean sedimentary basins: Classification and tectonic setting from Jurassic to Present. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 3-31.
	
Mann, P., Ed. (2005). Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. GSA Special Paper, Geological Society of America.
	
Mann, P. (2005). Introduction and active tectonic setting. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 12.
	
Mann, P. and K. Burke (1980). Neogene wrench faulting in the Wagwater Belt, Jamaica. Transactions Caribbean Geological Conference, 9th, Santo Domingo: 95-97.
	
Mann, P. and K. Burke (1984). "Cenozoic rift formation in the northern Caribbean." Geology 12: 732-736.
	
Mann, P. and K. Burke (1984). "Neotectonics of the Caribbean." Review of Geophysics and Space Physics 22(4): 309-362.
	
Mann, P. and K. Burke (1990). "Transverse intra-arc rifting: Palaeogene Wagwater Belt, Jamaica." Marine and Petroleum Geology 17: 410-427.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1984). "Neotectonics of Hispaniola:  Plate motion, sedimentary, seismicity at a restraining bend." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 70: 311-324.
	
Mann, P., et al. (2004). "Earthquake shakes "big bend" region of North America-Caribbean boundary zone." EOS, Transactions AGU 85(8): 77,83.
	
Mann, P., et al. (2002). "Oblique collision in the northeastern Caribbean from GPS measurements and geological observations - art. no. 1057." Tectonics 21(6): 1057.
	
Mann, P. and J. C. Corrigan (1990). "Model for late Neogene deformation in Panama." Geology 18: 558-562.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1985). Neotectonics of a strike-slip restraining bend system, Jamaica:  Strike-slip deformation, basin formation, and sedimentary. K. T. Biddle and N. Christie-Blick, SEPM. 37: 211-226.
	
Mann, P., et al., Eds. (1991). Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. Special Paper. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1991). An overview of the geologic and tectonic development of Hispaniola. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Tulsa, OK, Geological Society of America. 262: 1-28.
	
Mann, P. and A. Escalona (2006). Introduction to the Maracaibo Basin theme issue. 3-D anatomy of a supergiant; Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. P. Mann and A. Escalona. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 90(4): 443-444.
	
Mann, P., et al. (2006). Regional geologic and tectonic setting of the Maracaibo supergiant basin, western Venezuela. 3-D anatomy of a supergiant; Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. P. Mann and A. Escalona. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 90(4): 445-477.
	his special issue contains eight topical studies on the structure, stratigraphy, and petroleum system of the Maracaibo Basin, a supergiant basin in western Venezuela. Most of the work reported in this special issue is the product of thesis-related research by master's and doctoral-level students at the Jackson School of Geosciences of the University of Texas at Austin during a collaborative relationship with the Venezuelan national oil company, Petroleos de Venezuela, S. A., that was initiated in the late 1980s. This introductory article presents a regional overview of the tectonic setting and geology of the Maracaibo Basin. With a cumulative oil production of more than 30 billion bbl, since the first production well was drilled in 1914 and estimated ultimate oil reserves of more than 44 billion bbl, the Maracaibo Basin is the most prolific hydrocarbon basin in the Western Hemisphere. Unlike the more extensive Gulf of Mexico giant hydrocarbon provinces, the relatively small size (50,000 km (super 2) ; 19,305 mi (super 2) ), relative simplicity in its structure and stratigraphy, and wealth of surface and subsurface data make the Maracaibo Basin an attractive target for basinwide synthesis. The objective of this article is to present a regional compilation of two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) seismic data, wells, and outcrop data at a basinwide scale to reveal the basin's 3-D structure and stratigraphy. Moreover, we show regional tectonic reconstructions, regional geologic maps, and basin subsidence history to better constrain four major tectonic events that affected the basin and that are critical for understanding the timing and distribution of major unconformities and clastic wedges, the distribution of the reservoir rocks, the reactivation of older fault trends, and the timing of maturation for underlying source rocks. Many of these topics are discussed in greater detail in the other eight articles in this special issue.

Mann, P. and M. Gordon (1996). Tectonic uplift and exhumation of blueschist belts along transpressional strike-slip fault zones. Subduction top to bottom. E. Gray, D. W. Scholl, S. H. Kirby and J. P. Platt. Washington, DC, American Geophysical Union. 96: 143-154.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1999). "Penrose conference report: Subduction to strike-slip transition on plate boundaries." GSA Today July: 14-16.
	
Mann, P., et al. (2000). Unpublished field guide distributed to meeting participants for two-day field trip accompanying Geological Society of America Penrose meeting "Subduction to Strike-slip Transitions on
Plate Boundaries," January 21-22, 1999, Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic. Austin, TX, http://www.ig.utexas.edu/research/projects/caribbean/publications/penrose/penrose_fg.pdf.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1983). "Development of pull-apart basins." Journal of Geology 91: 529-554.
	
Mann, P., et al. (2005). Neotectonics of southern Puerto Rico and its offshore margin. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 173–214.
	
Mann, P. and R. Kolarsky (1995). East Panama deformed belt:  Age, structure, neotectonic significance. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 111-129.
	
Mann, P. and S. R. Lawrence (1991). "Petroleum potential of southern Hispaniola." Journal of Petroleum Geology 14: 291-308.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1991). Geologic Maps of the Southern Dominican Republic. Geological Society of America Special Paper:  Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America- Caribbean Plate in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: Plates 4a, 4b, and  4c.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1991). Geologic Map of the Southern Dominican-Republic (3 Sheets) Scale 1:150,000. Geological Society of America Special Paper:  Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary Zone in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1991). Geology of the Azua and Enriquillo basins, Dominican-Republic, 2:  Structure and tectonics. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary Zone in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 367-389.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1999). Tectonic and eustatic controls on Neogene evaporitic and siliciclastic deposition in the Enriquillo Basin, Dominican Republic. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 287-342.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1998). Tectonic geomorphology and paleoseismology of the Septentrional fault system, Dominican Republic. Active Strike-Slip and Collisional Tectonics of the Northern Caribbean Plate Boundary Zone. J. F. Dolan and P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 326: 63-123.
	
Mann, P., et al. (2005). Reconnaissance study of Late Quaternary faulting along Cerro Goden fault zone, western Puerto Rico. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 115–137.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1990). Review of Caribbean neotectonics. The Geology of North America Vol H, The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 307-338.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1984). "Subaerially exposed Holocene coral reef, Enriquillo Valley, Dominican-Republic." Geological Society of America Bulletin 95: 1084-1092.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1995). "Actively evolving microplate formation by oblique collision and sideways motion along strike-slip faults: An example from the northeastern Caribbean plate margin." Tectonophysics 246(1-3): 1-69.
	
Mann, P., et al. (1991). "Neogene development of the Swan Islands restraining bend complex, Caribbean Sea." Geology 19: 823-826.
	
Manning, E. M. (1985). Ecology of Recent Foraminifera and Ostracods of the Continental Shelf of Southeastern Nicaragua, Louisiana State University: 451.
	
Manson, P., Ed. (1971). Transactions of the 5th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands, 1-5 July 1971, Oueens College, City University of New York.
	
Manspeizer, W., Ed. (1988). Triassic-Jurassic Rifting: Continental Breakup and the Origin of the Atlantic Ocean and Passive Margins, Ppart A: Developments in Geotectonics. Developments in geotectonics. New York, Elsevier.
	
Manton, W. and R. Manton (1984). Geochronology and Late Cretaceous-Tertiary tectonism of Honduras, Direccion General de Minas e Hidrocarburos, Honduras: 55.
	
Manton, W. I. (1987). "Tectonic interpretation of the morphology of Honduras." Tectonics 6: 633-651.
	
Manton, W. I. and R. S. Manton (1999). The southern flank of the Tela Basin, Republic of Honduras. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 219-236.
	
Marcano, E. and I. Tavares (1982). "Formación la Isabela, Pleistoceno temprano: Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic (The Isabela Formation, Early Pleistocene:  Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic)." Publicaciones Especiales del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural(3): 1-30.
	
Marcano, F. and F. Cassani (1994). Modelado de cuencas y biomarcadores en la reconstruccion de processos geoquimicos (Modelling of basins and biomarkers in the reconstruction of geochemical processes). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 414-431.
	
Marcha, L. M. (2004). The Paleocene of La Concepcion Field (Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela): Transition From Andean to Caribbean Active Margin. Houston, TX, Rice University: 245.
	The Paleocene Guasare Formation of La Concepci&oacute;n Field (Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela) consists of thin carbonates that were deposited in a dynamic near-shore marine setting greatly influenced by terrestrial siliclastics and muds. In seismic data, the Guasare Fm. shows uniform thickness and subparallel reflectors. Facies trends were not evident from the 3D seismic data set. Amplitude maps revealed one structurally-related anomaly. The regional setting of the Paleocene was clarified showing that Late Cretaceous foresets indicated a source from the Andean active margin to the west. These clinoforms were overlain by the Paleocene Guasare Formation and its western partial equivalent, the Marcelina Fm., a siliciclastic and coal sequence. Only the overlying Eocene Misoa Formation indicates a northeasterly clastic input and eastward thickening associated with the emplacement of the Lara nappes of the Caribbean active margin. This study is based on 3D seismic data, some well logs, and well cuttings. Cores were unavailable. 

Marchant, F. and L. Snodgrass (1975). Caribbean and North Pacific,  Navoceano Contour Sheet 0903(NAR-9) (NP-13).
	
Marcus, D. L. (1974). Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology of Barillas Quadrangle, Northwestern Guatemala. Arlington, TX, The University of Texas at Arlington: 117.
	
Maresch, W. V. (1974). "Plate tectonics origin of the Caribbean Mountain System of northern South America: Discussion and proposal." Geological Society of America Bulletin 85: 669-682.
	
Maresch, W. V. (1985). The significance of employing key minerals and mineral assemblages for a regional correlation of metamorphic rocks in the southeastern Caribbean area. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference. 4: 866-872.
	
Maresch-W.V. and Gerya-T.V. (2005). "Blueschists and blue amphiboles: How much subduction do they need? ." International Geology Review 47(7): 688-702.
	 We focus on blueschist formation in evolving, nascent intra-oceanic subduction zones where cessation of subduction, e.g., by collision with continental margins, preserves the first-formed blueschist products. The Caribbean area provides a case study for a tectonic regime that has led to obducted blueschist occurrences without obvious coeval volcanism, raising the question of the minimum subduction duration and amount of convergence necessary to produce them. Systematic numerical modeling shows that for slab ages of 20-100 Ma and subduction rates of 2-14 cm/yr blueschist-facies conditions can be attained in only 0.25 to 3 m.y., with amounts of total convergence ranging between 35 and 75 km. Because of the geometrical interplay between the subducting slab "nose" and the evolving array of isotherms, younger and hotter slabs can lead to earlier blueschist formation than older, cooler slabs. There is a distinct optimum for slabs between 40 and 60 m.y. In principle, Andean-type, continental margin models yield almost identical values. Depending on the specific exhumation scenario, the time required for exhumation must in general be added to the minimum life span of the subduction zone. 

Marín, F. (1985). "Regional geochemical profile of the 1:200,000 scale Liberia sheet (Costa Rica)." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 2.
	
Marin, L. E., et al. (2001). "Stratigraphy at ground zero: A contemporary evaluation of well data in the Chicxulub impact basin." International Geology Review 43(12): 1145-1149.
	
Marincovich, L. (2000). "Central American paleogeography controlled Pliocene Arctic Ocean molluscan migrations." Geology 28(6): 551-554.
	
Marín-Guzmán, F. (1983). Regional Geochemistry of the Central Part of Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 236.
	
Marocco, R., et al. (1995). Intermontane late Paleogene Neogene basins of the Andes of Ecuador and Peru: Sedimentologic and tectonic characteristics. Petroleum Basins of South America. A. J. Tankard, R. S. Soruco and H. J. Welsink, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 62: 597-613.
	
Marquez, A., et al. (1999). "Alkalic (Ocean-island basalt type) and calc-alkalic volcanism in the Mexican volcanic belt: A case for plume-related magmatism and propagating rifting at an active margin?: Reply." Geology 27(11): 1056.
	
Marquez, A., et al. (1999). "Tectonics and volcanism of Sierra Chichinautzin: extension at the front of the Central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 93(1-2): 125-150.
	
Marquez, A., et al. (1999). Tectonics and volcanism of Sierra Chichinautzin: Extension at the front of the central Trans-Mexican volcanic belt. Rift-related volcanism; geology, geochemistry, and geophysics. S. P. Verma. 93: 125-150S.
	Because of its recent activity and position at the southern magmatic front of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB), the Sierra Chichinautzin volcanic field (SCN) is a key area for the understanding of this controversial volcanic province. Volcanic activity has built more than 220 monogenetic volcanoes (shields, scoria cones, thick lava flows, and hydromagmatic structures) during the last 40,000 years, for a total volume of about 470 km (super 3) . The SCN basalts are geochemically similar to OIBs, while the intermediate and felsic volcanic rocks show a calc-alkaline trend and abundant evidence for magma mixing. The structural analysis of this volcanic field and surrounding areas has been based on field data, satellite images, and a method for detecting volcanic center alignments. The tectonic data, together with geophysical evidence, confirm active general N-S extensional conditions with a strike-slip component for the SCN area, the same structural setting that prevails in the rest of the Central TMVB. Extensional tectonics, a negative regional Bouguer gravity anomaly, a low-velocity mantle, high heat flow, and shallow seismicity suggest a rift-type setting involving the upwelling of anomalous mantle beneath the Central TMVB. The combined petrological, structural and geophysical arguments support that the SCN volcanism is rift-related, and rule out processes involving the subduction of the Cocos plate, which casts further doubts on the standard subduction model for the TMVB volcanism.

Marquez Azua, B. and C. DeMets (2003). "Crustal velocity field of Mexico from continuous GPS measurements, 1993 to June 2001: Implications for the neotectonics of Mexico - art. no. 2450." Journal of Geophysical Research   Solid Earth 108(B9): 2450.
	
Marriner, G. F. and D. Millward (1984). "The petrology and geochemistry of Cretaceous to Recent volcanism in Colombia:  The magmatic history of and accretionary plate margin." Journal of the Geological Society, London 141: 473-486.
	
Marriner, G. F. and D. Millward (1984). "The petrology and geochemistry of Cretaceous to Recent volcanism in Colombia: The magmatic history of an accretionary plate margin." Journal of Geological Society of London 141: 473-486.
	
Marsaglia, K. M. (1989). Petrography, Provenance, and Diagenesis of Arc-related Sands and Sandstones Recovered by the Deep Sea Drilling Project on Circum-Pacific, Mediterranean and Caribbean Legs. ???, University of California: 416.
	
Marsh, S. P. (1987). Geochemical exploration for mineral resources in tropical environments of Central America and the Caribbean. Proceedings of a Workshop on Development of Mineral, Energy, and Water Resources and Mitigation of Geologic Hazards in Central America. R. D. Krushensky, S. M. Cargill and G. L. Raines. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey: 205-215.
	
Marshall, J. F. and B. G. Thomson (1976). "The sea level in the last interglacial." Nature 263: 120-121.
	
Marshall, J. S. (1991). Neotectonics of the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica: A Look at Forearc Response to Subduction at the Middle America Trench. Santa Cruz, California,, University of California: 196.
	
Marshall, J. S. (2000). Active tectonics and Quaternary landscape evolution across the western Panama block, Costa Rica, Central America. University Park, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State University, 304 p.: 304.
	
Marshall, J. S. and R. S. Anderson (1995). "Quaternary uplift and seismic cycle deformation, Peninsula de Nicoya, Costa Rica." Geological Society of America Bulletin 107(4): 463-473.
	
Marshall, J. S., et al. (2000). "Central Costa Rica deformed belt: Kinematics of diffuse faulting across the western Panama block." Tectonics 19(3): 468-492.
	
Marshall, J. S., et al. (2001). Quaternary neotectonics of the Costa Rican coastal fore arc - Field trip guide (MARGINS Central America Tectonics Workshop, Costa Rica, July 2001), MARGINS (NSF): 62.
	
Marshall, J. S., et al. (2003). "Landscape evolution within a retreating volcanic arc, Costa Rica, Central America." Geology Boulder 31(5): 419-422.
	Subduction of hotspot-thickened seafloor profoundly affects convergent margin tectonics, strongly affecting upper plate structure, volcanism, and landscape evolution. In southern Central America, low-angle subduction of the Cocos Ridge and seamount domain largely controls landscape evolution in the volcanic arc. Field mapping, stratigraphic correlation, and (super 40) Ar/ (super 39) Ar geochronology for late Cenozoic volcanic rocks of central Costa Rica provide new insights into the geomorphic response of volcanic arc landscapes to changes in subduction parameters (slab thickness, roughness, dip). Late Neogene volcanism was focused primarily along the now-extinct Cordillera de Aguacate. Quaternary migration of the magmatic front shifted volcanism northeastward to the Caribbean slope, creating a new topographic divide and forming the Valle Central basin. Stream capture across the paleo-Aguacate divide led to drainage reversal toward the Pacific slope and deep incision of reorganized fluvial networks. Pleistocene caldera activity generated silicic ash flows that buried the Valle Central and descended the Tarcoles gorge to the Orotina debris fan at the coast. Growth of the modern Cordillera Central accentuated relief along the new divide, establishing the Valle Central as a Pacific slope drainage basin. Arc migration, relocation of the Pacific-Caribbean drainage divide, and formation of the Valle Central basin resulted from slab shallowing as irregular, hotspot-thickened crust entered the subduction zone. The geomorphic evolution of volcanic arc landscapes is thus highly sensitive to changes in subducting plate character.

Marshall, L. G. (1988). "Land mammals and the Great American Interchange." American Scientist 76: 380-388.
	
Marshall, R. H. (1974). Petrology of Subsurface Mesozoic Rocks of the Yucatan Platform, Mexico. Department of Geology & Geophysics. New Orleans, LA, University of New Orleans: 97.
	
Marshall, R. H. (1984). Petrology of the Subsurface Mesozoic Rocks of the Yucatan Platform. New Orleans, LA, University of New Orleans: 97.
	
Marshall, R. H., et al. (1986). Stratigraphy and depositional history of subsurface Mesozoic strata of the Yucatan Peninsula: Carbonate rocks and hydrogeology of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, Field Trip Guide, New Orleans Geological Society: 18-32.
	
Martin, A. K. (2007). "Gondwana breakup via double-saloon-door rifting and seafloor spreading in a backarc basin during subduction rollback." Tectonophysics 445(3-4): 245-272.
	
Martin, F. C. (1978). Mapa Tectónico, Norte de America del Sur, Venezuela Ministerio de Energia y Minas.
	
Martin, J. B., et al. (1996). "Chemical and isotopic evidence for sources of fluids in a mud volcano field seaward of the Barbados accretionary wedge." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 101(B9): 20325-20345.
	
Martin, R. E., et al. (1990). "Quaternary planktonic foraminiferal assemblage zones of the Northeast Gulf of Mexico, Colombia Basin (Caribbean Sea), and tropical Atlantic Ocean: Graphic correlation of microfossil and oxygen isotope datums." Paleoceanography 5(4): 531-555.
	
Martin, R. G. and J. E. Case (1975). Geophysical studies in the Gulf of Mexico. The Ocean Basins and Margins, Vol 3: The Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. A. E. M. Nairn and F. G. Stehli. New York, Plenum Press: 65-106.
	
Martin-Bellizzia, C. (1974). Paleotectónica del Escudo de Guyana. Memoria, Conferencia Geológica Inter-Guayanas IX, Cuidad Guayana: Venezuela Ministerio de Minas y Hidrocarburos Boletin de Geología, Publicación Especial 6, Venezuela Ministerio de Minas y Hidrocarburos Boletin de Geología: 251-305.
	
Martínez, D., et al. (1987). "Consideraciones acerca de las manifestaciones minerales relacionadas con los depósitos pertenecientes a la Formación Arroyo Cangre (Considerations on the mineral manifestations related to the pertenecientes deposts of the Arroyo Cangre Formation)." Boletín de Geociencias 2(2): 27-43.
	
Martínez, D., et al. (1989). "Estratigrafía, tectónica y magmatismo de la zona estructuro-facial Guaniguanico (Stratigraphy, tectonics and magmatism of the Guaniguanico structural-facies zone)." Resúmenes del Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 105-106.
	
Martínez González, D., et al. (1987). "Some considerations over tectonics in Pinar del Rio province." Boletin de Geociences 2(1): 28-36.
	
Martinez, T. E. J., et al. (1991). "A review of the petroleum potential of the Caribbean margin of Nicaragua." Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 5(4): 337-350.
	
Martinez, W., et al. (1994). Cretaceous depositional sequences in Llanos, Putumayo, Boyaca, Middle Magdalena and Catatumbo basins based on well logs. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 85-107.
	
Martinez, W., et al. (1994). Tertiary depositional sequences in the Llanos and Rio Catatumbo Basins bases on well logs. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 108-121.
	
Martinez-Diaz, J. J., et al. (2004). "Triggering of destructive earthquakes in El Salvador." Geology Boulder 32(1): 65-68.
	We investigate the existence of a mechanism of static stress triggering driven by the interaction of normal faults in the Middle American subduction zone and strike-slip faults in the El Salvador volcanic arc. The local geology points to a large strike-slip fault zone, the El Salvador fault zone, as the source of several destructive earthquakes in El Salvador along the volcanic arc. We modeled the Coulomb failure stress (CFS) change produced by the June 1982 and January 2001 subduction events on planes parallel to the El Salvador fault zone. The results have broad implications for future risk management in the region, as they suggest a causative relationship between the position of the normal-slip events in the subduction zone and the strike-slip events in the volcanic arc. After the February 2001 event, an important area of the El Salvador fault zone was loaded with a positive change in Coulomb failure stress (>0.15 MPa). This scenario must be considered in the seismic hazard assessment studies that will be carried out in this area.

Martini, E. (1971). Standard Teriary and Quaternary calcareous nannoplankton zonation. Proceedings of 2nd Planktonic Conference. A. Farinacci. Roma, Ediziona Technoscienza: 739-785.
	
Martin-Kay, P. H. A. (1959). Reports on the Geology of Leeward and British Virgin Islands. St. Lucia, Voice Publishing Co.: 106-110.
	
Martin-Kaye, P. H. A. (1958). "The geology of Carriacou." Bulletin of American Paleontologists 38: 311-324.
	
Martin-Kaye, P. H. A. (1969). "A summary of the geology of the Lesser-Antilles." Overseas Geology and Mineral Resources 10: 172-206.
	
Martino, O., et al. (1995). "The status of mineral production in the Caribbean Basin countries
Energy and mineral potential of the Central American-Caribbean region." Earth Science Series (Symposium on Energy and mineral potential of the Central American-Caribbean region) 16: 31-45.
	
Martiny, B., et al. (2000). "Stratigraphy, geochemistry and tectonic significance of the Oligocene magmatic rocks of western Oaxaca, southern Mexico." Tectonophysics 318(1-4): 71-98.
	
Marton, G. and R. T. Buffler (1993). "Application of simple-shear model to the evolution of passive continental margins of the Gulf of Mexico basin." Geology 21: 495-498.
	
Marton, G. and R. T. Buffler (1993). The southeastern Gulf of Mexico in the framework of the opening of the Gulf of Mexico Basin. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region:  A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration:  Selected Papers Presented at the Gulf Coast Section, Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation, Thirteenth Annual Research Conference. J. L. Pindell and R. F. Perkins. Austin, TX, Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation: 51-67.
	
Marton, G. and R. T. Buffler (1994). "Jurassic reconstruction of the Gulf of Mexico Basin." International Geology Review 36: 545-586.
	
Marton, G. L. and R. T. Buffler (1999). Jurassic-Early Cretaceous tectono-paleogeographic evolution of the southeastern Gulf of Mexico Basin. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 63-91.
	
Marzano, M. S., et al. (1988). A comparison of the Jurassic Norphlet Formation in Mary Ann Field, Mobil Bay, Alabama to onshore regional Norphlet trends. Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions. 38: 85-100.
	
Masaferro, J. L. (1997). Interplay of tectonism and carbonate sedimentation in the Bahamas foreland basin. Miami, FL, University of Miami: 147.
	
Masaferro, J. L., et al. (2002). Episodic folding inferred from syntectonic carbonate sedimentation: The Santaren Anticline, Bahamas Foreland. Growth strata. M. Marzo, J. A. Munoz and J. Verges. 146: 11-24.
	Sedimentation coeval with growth of the Santaren Anticline provides an excellent opportunity to study the relationships between sedimentation and anticline uplift through time. The Santaren Anticline is a kilometer-scale, NW-SE trending fold offshore of Cuba, in the Bahamas foreland of the Cuban fold and thrust belt. The growth strata associated with this anticline consist of a thick package of carbonate sediments that were deposited without major interruptions from Neogene (and perhaps before) to present day. The excellent seismic resolution and age control of a number of seismic horizons within the growth strata allowed us to define 25 growth beds, each of them representing between 0.1 and 3.2 Ma. An analysis of the thickness of these beds allowed us to determine accurate quantitative values of cumulative decompacted thickness and crestal structural relief at the time of their deposition. In addition, for the same periods, sedimentation and fold uplift rates were calculated. Moreover, some information on relationships between sedimentation and fold uplift rates was inferred from the growth stratal geometry. Growth beds that overlap the fold crest and thin over it indicate that sedimentation rates outpaced fold growth rates during their deposition. Some overlapping beds have constant thickness indicating that no fold uplift occurred during their sedimentation. The rest of the growth beds exhibit onlap/offlap geometries that do not indicate a unique sedimentation/fold uplift rate relationship. Only in those cases in which the geometry of the underlying bed at the end of its deposition is known is it possible to infer a specific sedimentation/fold uplift rate relationship. As a result of this analysis, we have been able to (1) illustrate that the geometry of the growth strata associated with the Santaren Anticline results from competition between sedimentation and tectonic fold uplift, (2) document the episodic and non-steady nature of fold growth, and (3) show that short-term rates (at the scale of hundreds of thousands years) provide much insight into the interplay between sedimentation and tectonic fold uplift that control the growth stratal patterns.

Masaferro, J. L. and G. P. Eberli (1999). Jurassic-Cenozoic structural evolution of the southern Great bahama Bank. Caribbea Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 167-198.
	
Masaferro, J. L., et al. (1998). "Cuantificación del crecimiento de pliegues con sedimentos sintectónicos asociados: aplicación al anticlinal de Santarén (orógeno cubano, cuenca de antepaís de las Bahamas) (Quantification of the amplification of folds with associated growth strata: Application to the Santaren anticline (Cuban orogen, Bahamas foreland basin))." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 75-87.
	
Masaferro, J. L., et al. (1999). "Palaeogene-Neogene/present day(?) growth folding in the Bahamian foreland of the Cuban fold and thrust belt." Journal of the Geological Society 156: 617-631.
	
Mascal, A., et al. (1985). Structure des marges et bassins Caraibes: Une revue. Caribbean Geodynamics, Symposium, Paris, February 5-8, 1985. A. Mascle. Paris, France, Editions Technip: 1-20.
	
Mascle, A. (1985). Cayman Trough to Nicaraguan Rise, CARNOR.
	
Mascle, A., et al. (1980). Tertiary sequences south of the Cordillera Central. Field Guide, 9th Caribbean Geologic Conference. Satno Domingo, Dominican Republic: 107-138.
	
Mascle, A., et al. (1986). Growth of accretionary prisms: Tectonic processes from Caribean examples. The Origin of Arcs. F. C. Wezel. Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific Publishers B.V.: 375-400.
	
Mascle, A., et al. (1990). Geological Map of the Caribbean. France, Inst. Fr. Pet., Rueil-Malmaison.
	
Mascle, A. and D. Westercamp (1983). "Geologic d'Antigua, Petites Antilles (Geology of Antigua, Lesser-Antilles)." Bulletin of Societe Geologie of France 25: 855-866.
	
Masse, J. P. and T. Rossi (1987). "Le provincialisme Sud-Caraibe a l'Aptien inferieur:  Sa signification dans le cadre de l'evolution geodynamique du domaine Caraibe et de l'Atlantique central (The South Caribbean provincialism during the early Aptian:  Its significance in the geodynamic evolution framework of the Caribbean and the central Atlantic areas)." Cretaceous-Research 8(4): 349-363.
	
Masse, L., et al. (1995). "Quaternary deposits and sediment fluxes at the toe of the Barbados accretionary prism." Geo - Marine Letters 15(2): 99-105.
	
Masson, D. G. and K. M. Scanlon (1991). "The neotectonic setting of Puerto Rico." Geological Society of America Bulletin 103(1): 144-154.
	
Masters, C. D. (1981). Assessment of Conventionally Recoverable Petroleum Resources of Trinidad. Reston, VA, U.S. Geological Survey: 8.
	
Mathers, S. (1989). "Costa Rican diatomite: A review of the existing knowledge and future potential." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 10.
	
Mathieu, X. (1989). La Serrania de Trujillo-Ziruma aux confins du bassin de Maracaibo, de la Sierra du Falcon et de la Chaine Caribe (Venezuela) (The Serrania de Trujillo-Ziruma within the confines of Maracaibo Basin, of the Sierra du Falcon and of the Caribbean Chain (Venezuela)). Université de Bretagne Occidentale. Brest, France: 264.
	
Matias-Izquierdo, A. (2001). Application of fast-static and kinematic GPS geodesy for ground control of synoptic DEMs and ground elevations from airbourne laser altimetry. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez (Puerto Rico): 71.
	
Matley, C. A. (1929). "The basal complex of Jamaica, with special reference to the Kingston district." Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, London 85: 440-492.
	
Matley, C. A. (1951). The Geology and Physiography of the Kingston District. London, Crown Agents.
	
Matson, S. E. (2007). Arc kinematics of the northern Lesser Antilles from GPS geodesy, University of Arkansas: Arc kinematics of the northern Lesser Antilles from GPS geodesy
by Matson, Shane E., M.S., University of Arkansas, 2007, 2077.
	The Lesser Antilles provides a setting to study strain accumulation, slip partitioning, and surface deformation associated with oblique subduction using GPS geodesy. This thesis presents results from continuous and campaign GPS data collected in the northeastern Caribbean beginning in 1994 up to 2002. Calculated surface velocities from observations on a network of campaign sites on the islands of Saba, St. Eustatius, Nevis and St. Kitts are examined with respect to DeMets et al. (2000) predicted CA-NA motion. Caribbean fixed horizontal velocities for campaign sites in the northern Lesser Antilles have an average magnitude of 4.9 ± 7.4 mm/yr, while azimuths range from 36 to 163 degrees clockwise from North

Matsumoto, T. and G. V. Latham (1976). "Aftershocks of the Guatemala earthquake of February 4, 1976." Geophysical Research Letters 3: 599-602.
	
Matsumoto, T. and T. Terishima (1982). Technical Report #3-CDE Seismograph Network Dec. 13th, 1979 - July 17th, 1981, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics: 36.
	
Matthews, J. and T. L. Holcombe (1974). Possible Caribbean underthrusting of the Greater Antilles along the Muertos Trough. Transcripts Seventh Caribbean Geological Conference. 7: 235-242.
	
Matthews, J. E. (1970). Geology of the northeastern Caribbean. Salt Lake City, Utah, University of Utah.
	
Matthews, J. E. (1976). Map Showing Total Intensity Geomagnetic Field of the Caribbean Region. Miscellaneous-Field-Studies-Map. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
Matthews, J. E. and T. L. Holcombe (1976). Possible Caribbean underthrusting of the Greater Antilles along the Muertos Trough. Proceedings, Caribbean Geological Conference, 7th, Guadeloupe: 235-242.
	
Matthews, J. E. and T. L. Holcombe (1976). Regional Geological/geophysical Study of the Caribbean Sea (Navy Ocean area NA-9) (Geophysical Maps of the Eastern Caribbean), US Naval Oceanographic Office.
	
Matthews, R. K. (1973). "Relative elevation of late Pleistocene high sea level stands:  Barbados uplift rates and their implications." Quaternary Research 3: 147-153.
	
Mattinson, J. M., et al. (2008). Late Jurassic age of oceanic basement at La Desirade Island, Lesser Antilles Arc. Ophiolites, Arcs, and Batholiths: A Tribute to Cliff Hopson. J. E. Wright and J. W. Shervais. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 438: 175-190.
	La Desirade Island in the Cenozoic Lesser Antilles forearc region exposes a pre-Tertiary complex of oceanic volcanic, plutonic, and dike rocks. Previous work has established the stratigraphy and structure of the La Desirade igneous complex and also its late Mesozoic age. Dredge hauls from the nearby submerged Desirade fault scarp consist of similar volcanic and dike rocks plus greenstone, diabase, and gabbro. The composite section from island and submarine escarpment resembles upper oceanic crust but of controversial origin, original tectonic setting, and geodynamic significance. More precise ages for the La Desirade igneous complex and its individual members provide important constraints on proposed tectonic models. We reanalyzed Radiolaria from intralava sediments in basaltic pillow lava and zircon from trondhjemite to pinpoint their age. The radiolarian assemblage correlates with those of formations in east-central and west-central Mexico. The Mexican radiolarian faunas are chronostratigraphically calibrated by co-occurring ammonites and Buchia. Abundant Mexican biostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic data (ammonites, Radiolaria, and Buchia) constrain the composite radiolarian assemblage from six localities on La Desirade to zone 4, upper subzone 4beta (mid-upper Tithonian). Using the new chemical abrasion (CA) thermal ionization mass spectrometry zircon method of Mattinson, the results from three zircon fractions from trondhjemite provide a 143.74+ or -0.33 Ma U-Pb age for the La Desirade igneous complex. Combined biostratigraphic, chronostratigraphic, and geochronometric data put the geochronologic age for the mid-late Tithonian near 143.74 Ma, a maximum for the latest Jurassic.

Mattson, P., Ed. (1971). Transactions of the 5th Caribbean Geological Conference, Margarita Island, Venezuela, July 1-5, 1971. New York, Queens College, City University of New York.
	
Mattson, P. and E. Pessagno (1974). "Tectonic sugnificance of Late Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous radiolarian shert from Puerto Rican ophiolite." Geological Society of America Abstact 6(7): 859.
	
Mattson, P., et al. (1972). Outcropping later A and A" correlatives in the Greater Antilles. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 132: 57-66.
	
Mattson, P. H. (1960). "Geology of the Mayagüez, Puerto Rico." Geological Society of America Bulletin 71: 319-362.
	
Mattson, P. H. (1967). "Cretaceous and early tertiary stratigraphy in west-central Puerto Rico." U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1254-B: 35.
	
Mattson, P. H. (1974). Cuba. Mesozoic, Cenozoic Orogenic Belts. A. M. Spencer. Edinburgh, Scottish Academic Press. 4: 625-639.
	
Mattson, P. H. (1979). "Subduction, buoyant breaking, flipping and strike-slip faulting in the northern Caribbean." Journal of Geology 87: 293-304.
	
Mattson, P. H. (1984). Caribbean structural breaks and plate movements
The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. The Caribbean-South American Plate Poundary and Regional Tectonics. W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 131-149.
	
Mattson, P. H. (???). Geologic Map of the Adjuntas Quadrangle, Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Mattson, P. H. (???). Geologic Map of the Jayuya Quadrangle, Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Mattson, P. H. and E. A. Pessagno, Jr. (1971). "Caribbean Eocene igneous and Atlantic Ocean Layer A." Science 87: 293-304.
	
Mattson, P. H. and E. A. Pessagno, Jr. (1979). "Jurassic and early Cretaceous radiolarians in Puerto Rican ophiolite-tectonic implications." Geology 7: 440-444.
	
Mattson, R. (1973). "Middle cretaceous nappe structures in Puerto Rican ophiolites and their relation to the tectonic history of the Greater Antilles." Geological Society of America Bulletin 84: 21-38.
	
Matumoto, T., et al. (1977). "Crustal structure in southern Central America." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 67: 121-134.
	
Mau, S., et al. (2006). "Estimates of methane output from mud extrusions at the erosive convergent margin off Costa Rica." Marine Geology 225(1-4): 129-144.
	Four mud extrusions were investigated along the erosive subduction zone off Costa Rica. Active fluid seepage from these structures is indicated by chemosynthetic communities, authigenic carbonates and methane plumes in the water column. We estimate the methane output from the individual mud extrusions using two independent approaches. The first is based on the amount of CH 4 that becomes anaerobically oxidized in the sediment beneath areas covered by chemosynthetic communities, which ranges from 10 4 to 10 5 mol yr (super -1) . The remaining portion of CH 4 , which is released into the ocean, has been estimated to be 10 2 -10 4 mol yr (super -1) per mud extrusion. The second approach estimates the amount of CH 4 discharging into the water column based on measurements of the near-bottom methane distribution and current velocities. This approach yields estimates between 10 4 -10 5 mol yr (super -1) . The discrepancy of the amount of CH 4 emitted into the bottom water derived from the two approaches hints to methane seepage that cannot be accounted for by faunal growth, e.g. focused fluid emission through channels in sediments and fractures in carbonates. Extrapolated over the 48 mud extrusions discovered off Costa Rica, we estimate a CH 4 output of 20X10 6 mol yr (super -1) from mud extrusions along this 350 km long section of the continental margin. These estimates of methane emissions at an erosional continental margin are considerably lower than those reported from mud extrusion at accretionary and passive margins. Almost half of the continental margins are described as non-accretionary. Assuming that the moderate emission of methane at the mud extrusions off Costa Rica are typical for this kind of setting, then global estimates of methane emissions from submarine mud extrusions, which are based on data of mud extrusions located at accretionary and passive continental margins, appear to be significantly too high.

Mauffret, A. and I. Jany (1990). "Collision et tectonique d'expulsion le long de la frontiere nord-Caribe (Collison and tectonic expulsion along the northern Caribbean frontier)." Oceanologica Acta 10: 97-116.
	
Mauffret, A., et al. (1986). "Relevé au sondeur multifaisceaux du bassin des îles Vierges (extrémité orientale des Grandes Antilles): Rôle de l'extension et des décrochements (Survey to the "multifaisceaux" drilling of a basin of the Virgin Islands (eastern extremity of the Greater Antilles): Role of extension and strike-slip faulting)." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Paris 303: 923-928.
	
Mauffret, A. and S. Leroy (1997). "Seismic stratigraphy and structure of the Caribbean igneous province." Tectonophysics 283(1-4): 61-104.
	
Mauffret, A. and S. Leroy (1999). Neogene intraplate deformation of the Caribbean Plate at the Beata Ridge. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 627-669.
	
Mauffret, A., et al. (2001). "A transect of the Caribbean volcanic province: first results of the seismic cruise CASIS 2." Comptes Rendus de L Academie Des Sciences Serie II Fascicule A   Sciences de La Terre et Des Planetes 333(10): 659-667.
	
Mauffret, A., et al. (2001). "A transect of the Caribbean volcanic province: first results of the seismic
cruise CASIS 2 (Une coupe de la province volcanique Caraïbe : premiers résultats de la
campagne sismique Casis 2)." Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences - Series IIA - Earth and Planetary Science 333(10): 659-667.
	The eastwards motion of the Caribbean plate is supposed to be related to a Cretaceous flip of subduction from eastwards to westwards vergence. However, we do not observe on the seismic profiles recorded during the CASIS 2 cruise any evidence of subduction beneath the Aves Ridge and Nicaragua Rise. Aves volcanic arc has been probably formed after the collision of the Caribbean volcanic plateau as shown by a wedge of volcanic-clastic sediments imaged by the seismic cruise CASIS 2. A recent left-lateral transtensional tectonics is observed in the lower Nicaragua Rise; the Colombia basin might have a motion towards the northeast relative to the rise.

Mauffret, A., et al. (1994). "Seismic imagery of intraplate transpressive tectonics in the Caribbean oceanic plateau and oceanic crust, Cayman Trough, Aruba Gap: Preliminary results the CASIS Cruise (Images sismiques d'une tectonique transpressive intra-plaque  oceanique caraibe (fosse de Cayman, passage d'Aruba); premiers resultats de la campagne "CASIS")." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Serie II 318(10): 1379-1386.
	
Maurrasse, F. (1980). Les marges continentales d'Haiti. Transactions du ler Colloque sur Géologie D'Haiti, Port-au-Prince, Haiti, 1980: 200-206.
	
Maurrasse, F. (1980). New data on the stratigraphy of the Southern Peninsula of Haiti. Transactions du ler Colloque sur Géologie D'Haiti, Port-au-Prince, Haiti, 1980: 184-199.
	
Maurrasse, F. (1980). Relations between the geologic setting of Hispaniola and the evolution of the Caribbean. Presentations/Transactions du l' Colloque sur la Geologie d'Haiti, Prot-au-Prince: 246-264.
	
Maurrasse, F. (1982). Survey of the Geology of Haiti  - Guide to the Field Excursions in Haiti of the Miami Geological Society, March 3-8, 1982, Miami Geological Society.
	
Maurrasse, F. (1983). Radiolarian stratigraphy, paleoecology and structure of the oceanic formation at Gay's Cove and bath cliff, Barbados. 10th Caribbean Geological Conference: 372.
	
Maurrasse, F. (1990). Stratigraphic correlation for the circum-Caribbean region. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America: Pl. 4, 5.
	
Maurrasse, F., et al. (1979). "Upraised Caribbean sea-floor below acoustic reflector B" at the southern peninsula of Haiti." Geologie en Mijnbouw 58: 71-83.
	
Maurrasse, F. J.-M. (1981). New data on the stratigraphy of the southern peninsula of Haiti. Transactions du 1er colloque sur la geologie d'Haiti, Port-au-Prince, Haiti. F. J.-M. Maurrasse, Ministre des Mines et des Resources Energétiques: 184-198.
	
Maurrasse, F. J.-M. R., Ed. (1981). Transactions du 1er colloque sur la geologie d'Haiti, Port-au-Prince, Haiti, Ministre des Mines et des Ressources Energétiques.
	
Maurrasse, F. J.-M. R., et al. (1982). Cenozoic facies distribution in the Southern Peninsula of Haita and the Barahona. Transactions of the 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, August 16-20, 1980. W. Snow, N. Gil, R. Llinas et al. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. 1: 161-174.
	
Maurrasse, F. J. M. R. (1973). Biostratigraphy, Paleoecology, Biofacies Variations of Middle Paleogene Sediments in the Caribbean Deep Sea. Department of Geological Sciences. Palisades, NY, Columbia University: 438.
	
Maurrasse, F. J.-M. R. and G. Sen (1991). "Impacts, tsunamis and the Haitian Cretaceous boundary layer." Science 252: 1690-1693.
	
Maury, C. J. (1917). "Santo Domingo type sections and fossils:  Mollusca." Bulletin of American Palenontology 5(29, pt 1.): 165-415.
	
Maury, C. J. (1917). "Santo Domingo type sections and fossils:  Stratigraphy." Bulletin of American Paleontology 5(30): 419-459.
	
Maury, R. C., et al. (1995). Early Tertiary arc volcanics from eastern Panama. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 29-34.
	
Maury, R. C., et al. (1990). Geology of the Lesser-Antilles. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 141-166.
	
Max, M. D., et al. (1999). "Sea-floor methane blow-out and global firestorm at the K-T boundary." 18 4: 285-291.
	
Max, M. D., et al. (2006). Oceanic gas hydrate character, distribution, and potential for concentration. Economic geology of natural gas hydrate. M. D. Max, A. H. Johnson and W. P. Dillon. 9: 105-130.
	
Maximov, A., et al. (1968). Geología y minerales útiles de las pendientes noroccidentales del sistema montañoso Escambray (Geology and Useful Minerals of the Northwestern Slopes of the Escambray Mountainous System). La Habana, Fondo geológico Nacional.
	
Maxwell, J. C. (1948). "Geology of Tobago, British West Indies." Geological Society of America Bulletin 59: 801-854.
	
Maxwell, J. C. (1985). The Geology of Tobago, British West Indies, Princeton University: ?
	
Maxwell, J. C. and G. Deugo (1951). "The Carupano area and its relation to the tectonics of northeastern Venezuela." Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 32(2): 259-267.
	
May, P. R. (1971). "Pattern of Tirassic-Jurassic diabase dikes around the North Atlantic in th context of predrift postion of the continents." Geological Society of America Bulletin 82: 1285-1292.
	
Mayer, L., et al. (1992). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial Reports. College Station, TX, Ocean Drilling Program.
	
Maze, W. B. (1984). Jurassic La Quinta Formation in the Sierra de Perijá, northwestern Venezuela: Geology and tectonic environment of red beds and volcanic rocks. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, Geological Society of America. 162: 263-282.
	
Maze, W. B. and R. B. Hargraves (1984). "Paleomagnetic results from the Jurassic La Quinta Formation in the Perija range, Venezuela, and their tectonic significance." Geological Society of America Memoir 162: 287-293.
	
Mazzullo, S. J., et al. (1995). "Holocene shallow-subtidal dolomitization by near-normal seawater, northern Belize." Geology 23(4): 341-344.
	
Mcadoo, B. G., et al. (1996). "Seafloor structural observations, Costa Rica accretionary prism." Geophysical Research Letters 23(8): 883-886.
	
McBirney, A., et al. (1967). "Eclogites and jadeite from the Motagua fault zone, Guatemala." American Mineralogist 52: 908-918.
	
McBirney, A. R. (1955). "The origin of Nejapa pits near Managua, Nicaragua." Bulletin Volcanologique 17, series II: 145-154.
	
McBirney, A. R. (1963). "Geology of a part of the Central Guatemalan Cordillera." University of California Publications in Geological Sciences 38(4): 177-242.
	
McBirney, A. R. (1969). Introduction to Tectonic Relations of Northern Central America and the Western Caribbean—the Bonacca Expedition. Tectonic Relations of Northern Central America and the Western Caribbean—the Bonacca Expedition. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 201-202.
	
McBirney, A. R. (1969). Tectonic relations of northern Central America and the western Caribbean—the Bonacca Expedition. ? ? Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 199-280.
	
McBirney, A. R. and M. N. Bass (1969). Geology of Bay Islands, Gulf of Honduras. Tectonic Relations of Northern Central America and the Western Caribbean—the Bonacca Expedition. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 229-243.
	
McBirney, A. R. and M. N. Bass (1969). Structural relations of pre-Mesozoic rocks of northern Central America. Tectonic Relations of Northern Central America and the Western Caribbean—the Bonacca Expedition. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 11: 269.
	
McBirney, A. R. and H. Williams (1965). "Volcanic Geology of Nicaragua." University of California Publications in Geological Sciences 55: 1-73.
	
McBride, J. H. (1991). "Constraints on the structure and tectonic development of the early Mesozozoic South Georgia rift, southeastern United States, seismic reflection data processing and interpretation." Tectonics 10: 1065-1083.
	
McBrinn, G. E. (1982). Structure Beneath Trinidad Using Teleseismic P-wave Conversions. Department of Geosciences. University Park, PA, Pennsylvania State University: unknown p.
	
McCabe, R. (1984). "Implications of paleomagnetic data on the collision-related bending of island arc." Tectonics 3(4): 409.
	
McCann, W. (1980). Large and moderate-size earthquakes:  Their relationships to the tectonics of subduction. New York, New York, Columbia Univ.: 189.
	
McCann, W. and L. Sykes (1984). "Subduction of aseismic ridges beneath the Caribbean plate: Implications for the tectonics and seismic potential of the northeastern Caribbean." Journal of Geophysical Research 89: 4493-4519.
	
McCann, W. R. (1985). "On the earthquake hazards of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 75: 251-262.
	
McCann, W. R. and R. E. Habermann (1989). "Morphologic and geologic effects of the subduction of bathymetric highs." Pure and Applied Geophysics 129: 41-68.
	
McCann, W. R., et al. (1981). A study of earthquake prediction and the tectonics of the northeastern Caribbean:  A continuing experiment in two major seismic gaps. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey: 27.
	
McCann, W. R., et al. (1979). "Seismic gaps and plate tectonics: Seismic potential for major boundaries." Pure and Applied Geophysics 117: 1082-1146.
	
McCann, W. R. and W. C. Pennington (1990). Seismicity, large earthquakes, and the margin of the Caribbean plate. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. D. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 291-305.
	
McClelland, L., et al., Eds. (1989). Global Volcanism 1975-1985: The First Decade of Reports from the Smithsonian Institution's Scientific Event Alert Network (SEAN). Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice Hall.
	
McCollum, E. V. (1940). Report on the Gravity Meter Survey in the Pinar del Rio Area, Cuba. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 18.
	
McCourt, W. J. and J. A. Aspden (1987). A plate tectonic model for the Phanerozoic evolution of central and southern Colombia. Transactions of the Tenth Caribbean Geological Conference, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia. H. Duque-Caro. Bogota, Colombia, INGEOMINAS: 38-47.
	
McCourt, W. J., et al. (1984). "New geological and geochronological data from the Colombian Andes continental growth by multiple accretion." Journal of the Geological Society, London 141: 831-845.
	
McCourt, W. J., et al. (1984). "New geological and geochronological data from the Colombian Andes: Continental growth by multiple accretion." Journal of the Geological Society (London) 141: 831-845.
	
McDonald, M. (2006). The Chicxulub Impact  Crater and Oblique Impact. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 94.
	Was Chicxulub an oblique (<45 degrees) impact? The answer to this question will help our understanding of the environmental consequences of the bolide that struck the Earth 65 ma in the Yucatan Peninsula. Planetary impact events, and impact simulations in the laboratory, show that oblique impacts have clear asymmetric ejecta distributions. However, the subsurface structures of the resultant craters are not well understood. From January 5, 2005 – February 19, 2005, we acquired 1822 km of seismic reflection data onboard the R/V Maurice Ewing imaging the massive (190+ km) Chicxulub impact crater to improve the understanding of subsurface crater structure and assess implications for impact obliquity. Pre-crater stratigraphy outside the central basin of the Chicxulub impact crater includes packets of high amplitude reflectors on the seismic profiles, likely due to the presence of interbedded evaporite and carbonate layers. These reflective horizons are offset downward into the crater marking the post-impact slumping and formation of the terrace zone. A terrace zone forms when the overextended transient crater, which is formed by the initial impact, collapses gravitationally; large amounts of sediment, both inside and outside the transient crater, slump inward as a series of downward stepping blocks. 
Can the terrace zone tell us something about oblique impact? This thesis is divided into two separate chapters addressing this question, and each will be independently submitted for publication. The first chapter presents the 3-D structure of the terrace zone based on seismic reflection data from the 2005 survey and an earlier survey done in 1996. The second chapter presents an analysis of Venusian craters addressing how oblique impacts relate to peak ring offsets. These craters are structurally comparable to Chicxulub, and the analysis implies that Chicxulub’s SE peak ring offset is not related to impact trajectory. The two chapters in this thesis are mutually supportive, and suggest that the effects of oblique impact are overshadowed by other factors such as pre-impact structure and target properties. Therefore, subsurface asymmetries in the terrace zone do not appear to provide information about impact obliquity. The terrace zone, however, may help reconstruct the shape of the transient cavity and explain a concentration of ejecta toward the northwest.  

McDougall, A. W. (1979). "Geology of the East Soldado Field." 4th Latin American Geological Congress, Trinidad: 720-725.
	
McDougall, A. W. (1985). Geology of the East Soldado field. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference: 720-725.
	
McDougall, K. (1985). Miocene to Pleistocene benthic foraminifers and paleoceanography of the Middle America Slope. R. von Huene, J. Aubouin and et al. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. 84: 363-418.
	
McFall, C. C. (1957). Report and Recommendation on the Guayabo Anticline, Las Villas, Cuba. ???, Texaco Petroleum Co.
	
McFarlan, E., Jr. and L. S. Menes (1991). Lower Cretaceous. The Gulf of Mexico. A. Salvador. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America. J: 181-204.
	
McFarlane, N. (1977). Geological Map of Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica, Mines and Geology Division, Ministry of Mines and Natural Resources.
	
McFarlane, N. (1993). "The geosciences in the Caribbean." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 29: 61-62.
	
McGeary, S., et al. (1985). "Spatial gaps in arc igneous: The effect of collision of subduction of oceanic plateaus." Tectonophysics 119: 195-221.
	
McGeary, S. E. (1984). Oceanic Plateaus, Anomalous Subduction, and the Accretion of Buoyant Features at Convergent Margins, Stanford University: 133.
	The subduction of oceanic lithosphere at convergent margins is one of the primary elements of plate tectonic theory. However, the presence of a large, anomalously buoyant feature within the subducting slab can significantly modify the processes associated with subduction. In particular, the subduction of such a feature can change the geometry of the subduction system, modify the distribution of earthquakes, and create spatial gaps in linear volcanic chains. If the feature is buoyant enough, it may resist subduction completely and collide with the convergent margin. As a result of the collision, subduction may stop or slow down and local plate boundaries may reorganize to accommodate continuing convergence. The feature itself may accrete to the margin, later to be exposed as an allochthonous terrane. There are over 100 such bathymetrically anomalous features, known as oceanic plateaus or aseismic ridges, within the oceans today. The effect that any given plateau may have upon subduction is largely dependent on the origin and characteristics of the plateau. The Aves Ridge in the eastern Caribbean Ocean is an example of such a feature. Multichannel seismic reflection data and gravity modeling show the ridge to be over 30 km thick, with a detailed crustal structure intermediate in velocity between normal oceanic crust and continental crust. The data suggest that the Aves Ridge formed as part of an island arc during the Cretaceous that has since rifted to form the Grenada Basin and active Lesser Antilles arc. Several of the currently subducting aseismic ridges also formed as remnants of rifted arcs. The process of arc volcanism is directly associated with subduction of oceanic crust. The collision or subduction of an aseismic ridge can create gaps in volcanic arcs by stopping subduction, shallowing the dip of the subducting slab to the extent that there is no mantle wedge between the two plates, changing the stress state of the arc, or perturbing the magma-forming process at depth. Buoyant features accreted in the past are known around the Pacific margin, including Alaska and northern South America. An analysis of geophysical data supports the idea that the Bering Sea Shelf, like Alaska, is composed of such accreted terranes. Multichannel seismic reflection data on the continental shelf of Colombia show structures within a currently active margin that has experienced past accretion and may show structures associated with the accretion process.

McGookey, D. P. (1975). Gulf Coast Cenozoic sediments and structure, an excellent example of extra-continental sedimentary. Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions. 25: 104-120.
	
McGrew, P. O. (1944). "An Osteoborus from Honduras." Field Museum of Natural History, Geological Series 8: 75-77.
	
McIntosh, K., et al. (2000). "Large aperture seismic imaging at a convergent margin: Techniques and results from the Costa Rica seismogenic zone." Marine Geophysical Researches 21(5): 451-474.
	
McIntosh, K., et al. (1993). "Evidence and mechanisms for forearc extension at the accretionary Costa Rica convergent margin." Tectonics 12(6): 1380-1392.
	
McIntosh, K. D. (1992). Geologic Structure and Processes of the Eastern Pacific Margin: California and Costa Rica. Earth Sciences Board of Studies. Santa Cruz, CA, University of California: 171.
	
McIntosh, K. D. and M. K. Sen (2000). "Geophysical evidence for dewatering and deformation processes in the ODP Leg 170 area offshore Costa Rica." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 178(1-2): 125-138.
	We use a combination of borehole data from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 170 and multichannel seismic reflection (MCS) data to quantify thickness changes in underthrust sediments away from the boreholes. Sediments thrust beneath the upper plate at convergent margins may be more rapidly loaded than in any other environment. Depending on the porosity and permeability of the available fluid pathways, these sediments can compact and dewater very rapidly, as observed in this area offshore the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. Rapid thinning and dewatering was previously interpreted in this area from MCS data, but the lack of velocity data in this deep-water environment caused ambiguity in the estimates of thickness change. We employ a non-linear inversion technique using detailed density data, primarily logs and some laboratory measurements and coincident MCS data to create 1D synthetic seismograms and detailed velocity functions at three ODP drill sites. Because only a small part of one hole was logged with a sonic tool and the laboratory measurements significantly underestimate in situ velocities, these results provide the most accurate estimate of the velocity profiles. We used these velocity functions to depth-migrate seven MCS lines in the vicinity of the trench and lower slope spanning a distance of approximately 9 km along strike. Analysis of the depth-migrated images shows that there is significant variation along strike in how the underthrust section compacts, which appears to be related to the distribution of normal faults on the Cocos Plate. We interpret that preferentially rapid dewatering in the upper part of the underthrust section may lead to deformation below the original decollement and detachments at deeper stratigraphic levels.

Mcintosh, K. D. and E. A. Silver (1996). "Using 3D seismic reflection data to find fluid seeps from the Costa Rica accretionary prism." Geophysical Research Letters 23(8): 895-898.
	
McIntyre, D. H. (1971). Geologic Map of the Central la Plata Quadrangle, Puerto Rico. ???, United States Geological Survey.
	
McIntyre, D. H. (???). Geologic Map of the Maricao Quadrangle, Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
McKee, J. W., et al. (1988). "Las Delicias Basin: A record of late Paleozoic arc igneous in northeastern Mexico." Geology 16: 37-40.
	
McKee, W. H. (1982). Tertiary Foraminifera of Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica. New Orleans, LA, Univ. of New Orleans: 280.
	
McKee, W. H. (1985). Tertiary Foraminifera of Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica. Louisiana State University, Department of Geology and Geophysics. Baton Rouge, LA: 280.
	
McKinney, M. L. (1985). Heterochrony and Its Environmental Correlates in Cenozoic Echinoids of the Coastal Plain and Caribbean Areas. Department of Geology & Geophysics. New Haven, CT, Yale University: 296.
	
McLaughlin, P., Jr. and B. K. Sen Gupta (1991). "Migration of Neogene marine environments, southwestern Dominican-Republic." Geology 19: 222-225.
	
McLaughlin, P., et al. (1991). Geology of the Enriquillo and Azua Basins, Dominican-Republic, 1: Neogene lithofacies, biostratigraphy, biofacies paleogeography. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 337-366.
	
McLaughlin, P. P., Jr. (1989). Neogene basin evolution in the southwestern Dominican Republic: A foraminiferal study. Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Louisiana State University: 318.
	
McLaughlin, P. P. (1989). "Neogene planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphy of the southwestern Dominican-Republic." Journal of Foraminiferal Research 19(4): 294-310.
	
McLaughlin, P. P. and B. K. Sengupta (1994). "Benthic foraminiferal rRecord in the Miocene-Pliocene sequence of the Azua Basin, Dominican-Republic." Journal of Foraminiferal Research 24(2): 75-109.
	
McMahon, C. E. (2001). Evaluation of the Effects of Oblique Collision Between the Caribbean and South American Plates Using Geochemistry From Igneous and Metamorphic Bodies of Northern Venezuela. South Bend, IN, University of Notre Dame: 227.
	
McMillen, K. J. (1975). Quaternary Deep-sea Lebensspuren and Their Relationship to Depositional Environments in the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Eastern and Central North Pacific Ocean. Department of Geology & Geophysics. Houston, TX, Rice University: ?
	
McMillen, K. J. (1977). Ecology, Distribution, and Preservation of Polycystine Radiolaria in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. Department of Geology & Geophysics. Houston, TX, Rice University: 135.
	
McMillen, K. J., et al. (1982). Sedimentary in different tectonic environments of the Middle America Trench, Southern Mexico and Guatemala. Trench-Forearc Geology:  Sedimentation and Tectonics on Modern and Ancient Active Plate Margins. J. K. Leggett. Oxford, U.K., Blackwell Scientific Publications. 10: 107-120.
	
McNair, A. H. (1940). "Devonian Bryozoa From Colombia." Bulletin of American Paleontology 25(93): 34.
	
McNally, K. D. and J. B. Minster (1981). "Nonuniform seismic slip rates along the Middle America Trench." Journal of Geophysical Research 86: 4949-4959.
	
McNeill, D. F., et al. (2000). "Integrated paleontologic and paleomagnetic stratigraphy of the upper Neogene deposits around Limon, Costa Rica: A coastal emergence record of the Central American Isthmus." Geological Society of America Bulletin 112(7): 963-981.
	
McNeill, D. F., et al. (1998). "A 5 MY chronology of carbonate platform margin aggradation southwestern Little Bahama Bank, Bahamas." Journal of Sedimentary Research 68(4): 603-614.
	
McNeill, D. F., et al. (2000). Paleomagnetism of carbonate sediments from Hole 1006A, Bahamas Transect, Leg 166. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. G. Lowe. 166: 123-127.
	Paleomagnetic analyses from discrete samples of carbonate sediment from Hole 1006A were completed to assess the nature of magnetic remanence and to evaluate the use of directional data for a magnetic reversal stratigraphy. Magnetic remanence in these carbonates was moderate to weak but was stable enough to reliably identify polarity in 26.7% of the samples. The remaining 73.3% samples were judged either too weak or unstable, or else they exhibited a very steep inclination interpreted to be the result of some type of drilling overprint. Thus, magnetic polarity data from Hole 1006A should be used with caution. The nature of magnetic remanence and some reconnaissance acquisition tests suggest that single-domain magnetite (with some possible alteration to maghemite) is the dominant source of the remanent magnetization.

McReddie-Jones, S. (1960). "Geology of Gatun Lake and Vicinity, Panama." Geological Society of America Bulletin 61: 893-922.
	
McSdoo, B. G., et al. (1996). "Seafloor structural observations, Costa Rica accretionary prism." Geophysical Research Letters 23(8): 883-886.
	
Meek, J. W. (1973). "Three-dimensional model -- Gulf of Mexico." Geophysics 38(2): 295-300.
	
Meier, B., et al. (1987). The tectonics of Tachira:  A sample of north Andean tectonics. The Anatomy of Mountain Ranges. J. P. Schaer and J. Rodgers, Princeton University Press: 230-237.
	
Meissner, R. O., et al. (1976). "Dynamics of the active plate boundary in southwest Colombia according to recent geophysical measurements." Tectonophysics 35: 115-136.
	
Melendez, G., et al. (1988). Paleobiogeographic relationships between Oxfordian ammonite faunas from the Mediterranean, Caribbean, and Andean provinces. 2nd International Cephalopod Symposium: Cephalopods: Present and Past (O. H. Schindewolf symposium). J. Wiedmann and J. Kullmann. Tubingen, Federal Republic of Germany, Univ. Tubingen, Geol.-Paleontol. Inst. 2: 425-436.
	
Melim, L. A. (1996). "Limitations on lowstand meteoric diagenesis in the Pliocene-Pleistocene of Florida and Great Bahama bank: Implications for eustatic sea-level models." Geology 24(10): 893-896.
	
Melim, L. A., et al. (2002). Questioning carbonate diagenetic paradigms: Evidence from the Neogene of the Bahamas. Carbonate margin development (Bahama Transect, ODP Leg 166). J. J. G. Reijmer. Amsterdam, Netherlands, Elsevier. 185: 27-53.
	Carbonate diagenetic models have been heavily influenced by numerous studies of exposed Quaternary limestones. As a result, meteoric diagenesis is often assumed to be the principle means of altering aragonite-rich sediments into calcitic limestones. However, these models are limited by the scarcity of examples of aragonite-rich sediments buried in seawater that have never been influenced by meteoric fluids. The Bahamas transect cores recovered originally aragonite-rich sediments deposited in deep water beyond the easy reach of meteoric waters and provide an opportunity to test current diagenetic paradigms. The Bahamas transect consists of seven cores drilled in the prograding western margin of Great Bahama Bank. The two proximal cores (Clino and Unda) were drilled on the platform top and recovered shallow-water platform to reef facies overlying deeper margin and proximal slope facies. The five distal cores were drilled by ODP Leg 166 in up to 660 m of water and recovered carbonate slope facies. All studied sections are Neogene to Pleistocene in age. Diagenetic environments were identified based on petrographic and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations, XRD mineralogy, carbon and oxygen stable isotopic data, and trace elements. The upper 100-150 m of the two proximal cores were altered in meteoric to mixing-zone diagenetic environments but all other intervals were altered exclusively in marine pore fluids during seafloor, marine-burial, and deep-burial diagenesis. Several of the findings of this study question current carbonate diagenetic paradigms. These include: (1) large-scale sea level lowstands may not have chemically active meteoric lenses as we found no meteoric alteration at the -120 m elevation of the latest Pleistocene lowstand. Rather, phreatic meteoric diagenesis appears restricted to within nearly equal 10 m of the land surface. (2) Mixing-zone diagenesis includes aragonite dissolution and minor LMC cementation but does not show the cavernous porosity or dolomitization predicted by mixing-zone diagenetic models. Current models are based on coastal mixing zones, which do not appear to be applicable to these more inland, and perhaps more typical, locations. (3) Marine-burial diagenesis produces a mature limestone with fabrics formerly considered diagnostic for meteoric diagenesis such as moldic porosity, aragonite neomorphism, blocky calcite spar and calcite microspar. However, oxygen stable isotopic data (average delta (super 18) O = +1 per mil) indicate alteration in marine pore fluids only. The character of marine-burial diagenesis is partially controlled by the nature of the sediment being altered. We have identified two end-member styles, an open-system style characterized by dissolution of aragonite without significant cementation and a more closed-system style with aragonite dissolution accompanied by calcite cementation. The sediments examined were deposited well above the aragonite compensation depth, so seawater entering the sediment is saturated with respect to aragonite. The under-saturation needed to drive diagenesis is likely the result of bacterial oxidation of organic matter using sulfate. (4) Microspar forms in these sediments as a cement based on petrographic and SEM examination of partly to completely altered samples. This contradicts the common assumption that microspar forms by aggrading neomorphism of micrite. (5) Strontium content of sediments altered in marine pore fluids can show an extreme range of values, formerly thought to indicate different environments. The opportunity to finally examine the diagenesis of aragonite-rich sediments buried in seawater challenges current diagenetic paradigms and emphasizes the importance of integrated studies.

Mellor, E. I. and J. A. Breyer (1981). "Petrology of late Paleozoic basin-fill sandstones, north-central Mexico." Geological Society of America Bulletin 92, part I: 367-373.
	
Mencher, E. and et al. (1953). "Geology of Venezuela and Its Oil Fields." American Association of Petroleum Geologists 37(4): 690-777.
	
Mendez, J. (1990). La Formación La Luna: Características de una cuenca anóxica en una plataforma de aguas someras (The Luna Formation:  Characteristics of a anoxic basin in a platform of shallow waters). 7th Venezuelan Geological Congress (Caracas, Venezuela): 852-866.
	
Mendoza, C. and J. Dewey (1984). "Seismicity associated with the great Colombia-Ecuador earthquakes of 1942, 1958 and 1979:  Implications for barrier models of earthquake rupture." Seismological Society of America Bulletin 74: 577-593.
	
Mendoza, C. and Nishenko (1989). "The north Panama earthquake of September 1882: Evidence for active underthrusting." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 79(4): 1264-1269.
	
Mendoza-F., H. (1985). La Formacion Cumbre - Modelo de transgresion marina rítmica, de comienzos del Cretacico (The Cumbre Formation - Model of rhythmic marine transgression, from beginning of the Cretaceous). Proyecto Cretacico, Contribuciones. F. Etayo-Serna and F. Laverde-M. Bogota, Colombia, Publicaciones Especiales de Ingeominas. 16,  IX: 17.
	
Meneses-Rocha, J. (1985). Tectonic Evolution of the Strike-slip Fault Povince of Chiapas, Mexico. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 316.
	
Mercier de Lepinay, B. (1987). Geologic Evolution of the northern Caribbean Border:  The Example of the Transverse of the Island of Hispaniola (Greater Antilles ) (Evolution géologique de la bordure nord-caraïbe: l'exemple de la transversale de l'île d'Hispaniola (Grandes Antilles)). Paris, France, Université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie (Paris-VI): 341.
	
Mercier de Lepinay, B., et al. (1988). "Une collision oblique sur la bordure nord-Caraibe a la jonction entre la ride de Beata et la fosse de Muertos (Oblique collision in the northern Caribbean at the junction of the Beata Ridge and the Muertos Trough)." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Serie 2, Mecanique, Physique, Chimie, Sciences de l'Univers, Sciences de la Terre 307(10): 1289-1296.
	
Mercier de Lépinay, B., et al. (1985). "Interprétation structurale de l'ile de la Gonave (République d'Haiti) a partir d'images spatiales Landsat-MSS et Seasat-SAR (Structural interpretation of the island of Gonave (Republic of Haiti) from  Landsat-MSS and Seasat-SAR spatial images)." Géodynamique des Caribes: 363-369.
	
Mercier de Lepinay, J. (1979). "Sedimentation chaotique et tectonique tangentielle Maestrichtiennes dans la  presqu'ille du sud d'Haiti (Chaotic sedimentation and Maestrichtian tangental tectonics within the peninsula of southern Haiti)." Comptes Rendus Academy of Science, Paris 289(D): 887- 890.
	
Merida, J. (1973). Los campos geotermicos de Panama (The geothermal fields of Panama). I.P.G.H., Direccion General de Recursos Minerales, Ministerio de Commercio e Industrias, Direccion General de Recursos Minerales, Ministerio de Commercio e Industrias: ?
	
Mertzman, S. A. (1976). A 87Sr/86Sr reconnaissance of the Lake Yojoa volcanic field, Honduras. Informe y trabajos técnicos presentados en la IV Reunión de Geólogos de América Central. V: 99-103.
	
Mervoyer, B. and D. Westercamp, Eds. (1974). Livret-guide d'Excursions Dans les Antilles Francaises: VIIeme Conference Geolgique des Caraibes (Guidebook of excursions in the French Antilles: 7th Caribbean geological conference). Orleans, France, BRGM.
	
Meschede, M. (1998). "The impossible Galapagos connection: Geometric constraints for a near-American origin of the Caribbean plate." Geologische Rundschau 87(2): 200-205.
	
Meschede, M. and U. Barckhausen (2000). Plate tectonic evolution of the Cocos-Nazca spreading center. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Project, Scientific Results. E. A. Silver, G. Kimura, P. Blum and T. H. Shipley. College Station, TX, Ocean Drilling Program. 170: 1-10.
	
Meschede, M. and U. Barckhausen (2001). "The relationship of the Cocos and Carnegie ridges: age constraints from paleogeographic reconstructions." International Journal of Earth Sciences 90(2): 386-392.
	
Meschede, M., et al. (1998). "Extinct spreading on the Cocos Ridge." Terra Nova 10(4): 211-216.
	
Meschede, M., et al. (2002). The evolution of the Cocos-Nazca spreading centre and overprinting hot spot traces. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 63-72.
	
Meschede, M. and W. Frisch (1998). "A plate-tectonic model for the Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic history of the Caribbean plate." Tectonophysics 296(3-4): 269-291.
	
Meschede, M., et al. (1996). "Stress transmission across an active plate boundary: An example from southern Mexico." Tectonophysics 266(1-4): 81-100 $K Mexico, tectonic, kinematic.
	
Meschede, M., et al. (1988). "Geodynamic interpretation of the ophiolite complexes of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 8: ?
	
Meschede, M. and W. Frish (2002). The evolution of the Caribbean plate and its relation to global plate motion vectors: Geometric constr4aints for an inter-American origin. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 1-14.
	
Meschede, M., et al. (1999). "Melange formation by subduction erosion; the case of the Osa melange in southern Costa Rica." Terra Nova. The European Journal of Geosciences, August 1999, Vol. 11, Issue 4, pp. 141-148 11(4): 141-148.
	
Meschede, M., et al. (1999). "Subsidence and extension at a convergent plate margin; evidence for subduction erosion off Costa Rica." Terra Nova 11(2-3): 112-117.
	
Mesolella, K., et al. (1970). "Facies geometries within the Pleistocene coral reefs of Barbados, West Indies." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 54: 1899-1917.
	
Metal Mining Agency of Japan (1978). Republic of Guatemala Report on Geological Survy of Cuchumatanes Area, Western Guatemala, Phase II, Japan International cooperation Agency, Government of Japan: 43.
	
Metti, A. and G. Recchi (1976). Geología de la peninsula de Soná e Isla de Coiba (Geology of the  Soná peninsula and Coiba Island). Segundo Congreso Latinoamericano de Geología: 541-553.
	
Metti, A., et al. (1972). Mapa Geologico, Sona - Isla de Coiba (Geologic Map, Soná-Coiba Island). Panama, Ministerio de Comercio e Industrias, Direccion General de Recursos Minerales.
	
Metz, H. L. (1964). Geology of the El Pilar Fault Zone, State of Sucre, Venezuela, Princeton University: 192.
	
Meyer, R. P. and and others (1976). Project Nariño III:  Refraction observation across a leading edge, Malpelo Island to the Colombian Cordillera Occidental. The Geophysics of the Pacific Ocean Basin and its Margins: American Geophysical Union Monograph 19. G. H. Sutton, M. H. Manghnani, R. Moberly and E. V. McAfee, American Geophysical Union. 19: 105-132.
	
Meyerhoff, A. and ? (1983). "Petroleum potenial of Puerto Rico." Oil and Gas Journal 81(51): 113-120.
	
Meyerhoff, A. A. (1966). Bartlett Fault system:  Age and offset. Transcripts Third Caribbean Geological Conference, Jamaica. 3: 1-9.
	
Meyerhoff, A. A. (1967). "Future hydrocarbon provinces of Gulf of Mexico-Caribbean region." Transcripts Gulf Coast Association Geological Society 17: 217-260.
	
Meyerhoff, A. A. (1985). "Book review of "The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional tectonics," a Geological Society of America Memoir." Episodes 164(8): 142-143.
	
Meyerhoff, A. A. and K. E. A. (1977). "Future Jamaican exploration justified." Oil and Gas Journal 75(August 29): 79-85.
	
Meyerhoff, A. A. and C. W. Hatten (1957). Geology and Paleontology of Margot Mine, Matanzas. Fondo geológico del Ministerio de Industria Básica. La Habana.
	
Meyerhoff, A. A. and C. W. Hatten (1968). Diapiric structures in central Cuba. Diapirism and Diapirs. J. Braunstein and G. D. O'Brien. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 8: 315-357.
	
Meyerhoff, A. A. and C. W. Hatten (1974). "Bahamas salient of North America: Tectonic framework, stratigraphy and petroleum potential." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 58(6): 1201-1239.
	
Meyerhoff, A. A., et al. (1969). "Geologic significance of radiometric dates from Cuba." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 53: 2494-2500.
	
Meyerhoff, A. A. and E. A. Kreig (1977). Petroleum Potential of Jamaica. Special Report, Ministry, Mining and Natural Resources: 131.
	
Meyerhoff, A. A. and H. A. Meyerhoff (1972). "Continental drift, IV:  The Caribbean "plate"." Journal of Geology 80: 34-60.
	
Meyerhoff, H. A. (1933). The Geology of Puerto Rico.
	
Meyerhoff, H. A. (1954). "Antillean tectonics." New York Academy of Sciences Transactions 16: 149-155.
	
Michael, R. and J. F. Lewis (1980). Structure and tectonics of the south flank of the Massif du Nord-Cordillera Central and adjacent portions of the Plateau Central-San Juan Valley, Hispaniola. Transactions of the 9th Caribbean Conference, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic: 50-51.
	
Michael, R. C. (1978). Geology of the south-central flank of the Cordillera Central and the adjacent portions of the San Juan Valley between Rio San Juan and Rio Yacahueque, Dominican-Republic. Department of Geology. Washington, D.C., George Washington University: ?
	
Michalzik, D. (1987). "Sedimentación y sucesión de facies en un margen continental pasivo del Triásico al Cretácico temprano del noreste de la Sierra Madre Oriental, Mexico (Sedimentation and facies succession in the passive continental margin of the Triassic and early Cretaceous of the northeast of La Sierra Madre Oriental, Mexico)." Fac. Ciencias de la Tierra, UNAL, Actas  2: 27-31.
	
Michalzik, D. (1991). "Facies sequence of Triassic-Jurassic red beds in the Sierra Madre Oriental (NE Mexico) and its relation to the early opening of the Gulf of Mexico." Sedimentary Geology 71: 243-259.
	
Michaud, F. and E. Fourcade (1989). "Stratigraphie et paléogéographie du Jurassique et du Crétacé du Chiapas (Sud-Est du Mexique) (Stratigraphy and paleogeography     of the Jurassic and Cretaceous of Chiapas (Southeast of Mexico))." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 5, séries 8(3): 639-650.
	
Michelson, J. E. (1976). "Miocene deltaic oil habitat, Trinidad." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 60(9): 1502-1519.
	
Mickus, K. L. and G. R. Keller (1992). "Lithospheric structure of the south-central United States." Geology 20: 335-338.
	
Milian-Garcia, E. (1986). "Theoretical aspects of the study of olistostromes: Their application to the well Dimas 1." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 3: 88-104.
	
Millan, G. (1972). "The metamorphic and mesodeformation of the southernmost tectonic unit of the Sierra de los Organos." Actas, Instituto de Geológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 2: 33-35.
	
Millan, G. (1973). "The metamorphic of the Cretaceous volcanic complex surrounding the Escambray and the implications." Actas, Instituto de Geológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 3: 34-38.
	
Millan, G. (1973). "The two existing lithological complexes in the Escambray metamorphics, Las Villas Province." Actas, Instituto de Geológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 3: 39-42.
	
Millan, G. (1974). New data about the geology of the Isle of Pines metamorphic complex, Cuba. Contributions to the Geology of Cuba. La Habana, Cuba, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba. 2: 105-115.
	
Millan, G. (1975). "El complejo cristalino mesozoico de isla de Pinos, su metamorfismo (The Mesozoic chrystalline complex of the Isla de Pinos, its metamorphic)." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 23: 1-16.
	
Millan, G. (1975). "Nuevos datos sobre la geologia del complejo metamorfico de Isla de Pinos (Cuba) (New data on the geology of the metamorphic complex of the Isla de Pinos (Cuba)." Izveslia. Akad. Nauk. SSSR. Serie Geologica 1: 119-125.
	
Millan, G. (1981). "Geologia del macizo metamorpfico de la Isla de la Juventud (Geology of the metamorphic massif of the Isla de la Juventud)." Ciencies de las Tierra y Espacia 3: 3-22.
	
Millán, G. (1987). "La asociación glaucofana-pumpellita en metagabroides de la faja metamórfica Cangre (The glaucophane-pumpellite association in metagabbroids of the Cangre metamorphic band)." Serie Geológica del CIDP: 105-106.
	
Millán, G. (1990). Evolución de la estructura del macizo del Escambray, en Cuba central (Evolution of the structure of the Escambray massif, in Cuba central). Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 82-94.
	
Millán, G. (1992). "Analisis comparativo entre los macizos metamórficos de Isla de la Juventud y Escambray (Comparative analysis between the metamorphic massifs of Isla de la Juventud and Escambray)." Programa y resúmenes 13va Conferencia Geológica del Caribe: 53-54.
	
Millán, G. (1992). "Posición estratigráfica de las formaciones metamórficas de Cuba (Stratigraphic position of the metamorphic formations of Cuba)." Resúmenes 13va Conferencia Geológica del Caribe: 51.
	
Millán, G. (2003). "Some considerations on the tectonics of western Cuba (Pinar del Rio province) (Algunas consideraciones sobre la tectonica de Cuba Occidental (Provincia Pinar del Rio))." V Congreso Cubano de Geología y Minería, Memorias (trabajos y Resúmenes): CD ROM ISBN 959-7117.II-7118.
	
Millan, G. and R. Myczynski (1978). "Fauna jurásica y consideraciones sobre la edad de las secuencias metamórficas del Escambray (Jurassic fauna and considerations on the age of metamorphic sequences in the Escambray)." Informe Científico-Técnico, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 80: 1-14.
	
Millan, G. and R. Myczynski (1979). "Jurassic Ammonite fauna and age of metamorphic sequences of Escambray." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 27: 37-47.
	
Millán, G. and M. Somin (1985). Contribución al conocimiento geológico de las metamorfitas del Escambray y Purial (Contribution to the geologic knowledge of the metamorphics of Escambray and Purial). Reportes de Investigación, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba. 2: 1-74.
	
Millan, G. and M. L. Somin (1975). "El metamorfismo del complejo vulcanógeno-sedimentario cretácico en los alrededores del Escambray (The metamorphic of the Cretaceous volcanic-sedimentary complex surrounding the Escambray)." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 18: 1-8.
	
Millan, G. and M. L. Somin (1976). "Some considerations on Cuban metamorphic." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 27: 3-21.
	
Millan, G. and M. L. Somin (1979). Litologia, Estratigrafia, Tectonica, y Metamorfismo del Macizo del Escambray (Lithology, Stratigraphy, Tectonics, and Metamorphic of the Escambray Massif). La Habana, Editorial Academia.
	
Millan, G. and M. L. Somin (1985). "Geological conditions of the granitic-metamorphic layer of the crust of Cuba." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba: 1-83.
	
Millan, G. and M. L. Somin (1985). Metamorphic characteristics of the Mabujina amphibolite complex, south central Cuba. Contribution to the Geologic Knowledge of the Metamorphics of Escambray and Purial. G. Millan and M. L. Somin. La Habana, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba. 2: 44-51.
	
Millan, G. and M. L. Somin (1985). New aspects about the stratigraphy of the Escambray. Contribution to the Geologic Knowledge of the Metamorphics of Escambray and Purial. G. Millan and M. L. Somin. La Habana, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba. 2: 2-42.
	
Millan, G. and M. L. Somin (1985). New data about the geology of the Sierra del Purial massif, eastern Cuba. Contribution to the Geologic Knowledge of the Metamorphics of Escambray and Purial. G. Millan and M. L. Somin. La Habana, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba. 2: 52-74.
	
Millan Trujillo, G. (1996). Anifibolitas Sierra de Rompe (Sierra de Rompe amphibolites). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 211.
	
Millan Trujillo, G. (1996). Geologia del complejo Mabujina (Geology of the Mabujina complex). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 147-153.
	
Millan Trujillo, G. (1996). Metamorfitas de la asociacion ofiolitica de Cuba (Metamorphics of the ophiolitic association of Cuba). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 131-146.
	
Millan Trujillo, G. (1996). Metavulcanitas del Purial (Metavolcanics of Purial). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 218-222.
	
Millan-Garrido, H. (2004). "Geometry and kinematics of compressional growth structures and diapirs in the La Popa Basin of northeast Mexico; insights from sequential restoration of a regional cross section and three-dimensional analysis." Tectonics 23(5).
	
Millán-Trujillo, G. (1997). Geología del macizo metamórfico Escambray (Geology of the Escambray metamorphic massif). Estudios sobre Geología de Cuba. G. Furrazola-Bermúdez and K. Nuñez Cambra. Habana, Centro Nacional de Información Geológica: 271-288.
	
Miller, A. D., et al. (1998). "Seismicity associated with dome growth and collapse at the Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat." Geophysical Research Letters 25(18): 3401-3404.
	
Miller, D. (1998). A Preliminary Multi-element Geochemical Study of the Epping Farm Area, Blue Mountains, Jamaica, University of the West Indies: 174.
	
Miller, D. E. (1957). Seismic Investigation of Geological Structure Bordering the Caribbean Island Arc. Department of Geology & Geophysics. Houston, TX, Rice University: ?
	
Miller, J. A. and I. G. Macintyre (1977). Field guidebook to the reefs of Belize. Miami, Atlantic Reef Committee, University of Miami.
	
Miller, J. B., et al. (1958). "Habitat of oil in the Maracaibo basin, Venezuela." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 42: 601-640.
	
Miller, K. G., et al. (1994). "Miocene stable isotopic stratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy of Buff Bay, Jamaica." Geological Society of America Bulletin 106(12): 1605-1620.
	
Milliman, J. D. and P. R. Supko (1968). "On the geology of San Andres Island, western Caribbean." Geologic En Mijnbouw 47(2): 102-105.
	
Mills, R. A. (1959). "¿Habra petroleo in Honduras? (Is there petroleum in Honduras?)." Petroleo Interamericano 17(5): 39-44.
	
Mills, R. A. and R. Barton (1996). "Geology of the Ahuas area in the Mosquitia basin of Honduras: Preliminary report." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 80(10): 1627-1640.
	
Mills, R. A. and K. E. Hugh (1974). "Reconnaissance geologic map of Mosquitia region, Honduras and Nicaragua Caribbean coast." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 58: 189–207.
	
Mills, R. A., et al. (1966). Mesozoic Stratigraphy of Honduras.
	
Mills, R. A., et al. (1967). "Mesozoic stratigraphy of Honduras." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 51(9): 1711-1786.
	
Mills, R. A., et al. (1976). "Mesozoic stratigraphy of Honduras." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 51: 1711-1786.
	
Millward, D., et al. (1984). "Cretaceous tholeiitic volcanics rocks from the Western Cordillera of Colombia." Journal of the Geological Society, London 141: 847-860.
	
Milne, G. A., et al. (2002). Estimating past continental ice volume from sea-level data. Ice sheets and sea level of the last glacial maximum. P. U. Clark and A. C. Mix. Oxford, United Kingdom, Pergamon. 21: 361-376.
	We predict sea-level change since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) at four far-field sites (Barbados, Bonaparte Gulf, Huon Peninsula and Tahiti) using a revised theoretical formalism. This formalism includes a time-varying shoreline geometry, an accurate treatment of sea-level variations near regions of ice retreat and the influence of glacial cycle perturbations in Earth rotation. We elucidate the physics of far-field sea-level change by de-constructing the predicted signal into spatially uniform versus spatially varying components, as well as isolating contributions due to the ice load, the ocean load and the rotational potential. We demonstrate that the sum of these three contributions plus the spatially uniform sea-level fall associated the with retreat of grounded marine ice sheets can produce a significant difference between predictions of sea-level change at far-field sites and the eustatic (or meltwater) curve associated with the adopted ice model. This difference is site and time dependent. For example, the total sea-level rise since the LGM predicted using our ice-earth model can be either smaller (e.g., Barbados) or larger (e.g., Tahiti) than the eustatic sea-level change. Finally, we review procedures that have been applied to estimate continental ice volume from far-field sea-level observations and apply these procedures to data from Barbados and Bonaparte Gulf. Applying an ice-earth model that is tuned to fit the Barbados data, we estimate a change in grounded ice volume from the LGM to the present of 43.5-51X10 (super 6) km (super 3) based on Barbados data and an LGM ice volume estimate of 51X10 (super 6) km (super 3) based on Bonaparte Gulf data. Our results for the Bonaparte Gulf data are consistent with the recent study by Yokoyama et al. (Nature 406 (2000) 713). These LGM ice volume estimates map into a eustatic (or meltwater) sea-level rise of 115-135 m. Taking into account plausible variations in the adopted radial earth model introduces uncertainties in the range of + or -1.5X10 (super 6) km (super 3) for ice volume estimates based on the Barbados data.

Milne, H. W. A. (1985). Computer correlation of resistivity logs of sand aquifers in the Morne L'Enfer Formation near Penal, Trinidad, West Indies. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, July 7-15, 1979. 4: 598-610.
	
Mineria Altagracia S.A. (1978). Estudio de Exploracion, zonas 1, 2, 3, y parte de la 4 del Contrato Servicios Mineros La Altagracia (Exploration Study of zones 1, 2, 3 and part of 4 of the Contrato Servicios Mineros La Altagracia), Mineria Altagracia, S.A.: 124.
	
Mineria Altagracia S.A. (1978). Geoquimica del area de Magrigal (Geochemistry of the Magrigal Area), Mineria Altagracia, S.A.: 16.
	
Mineria Altagracia S.A. (1980). Probadas de Aluvion Aurifero en Mana-Isa y Haina (Samples of Gold Alluvium in Mana-Isa and Haina), Mineria Altagracia, S.A.: 180.
	
Mines and Geology Division (1977). Geologic Map of Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica, Ministry of Mining and Natural Resources.
	
Mines and Geology Division (Ministry of Mining and Natural Research) (1979). Geologic Map of Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica.
	
Ministerio de Comercio e Industrias (1975). Mapa Geologico. Panama, Ministerio de Comercio e Industrias, Direccion General de Recursos Minerales.
	
Ministerio de Comercio e Industrias (1976). Geologic Map of Panama. Panama, Ministerio de Comercio e Industrias, Direccion General de Recursos Minerales.
	
Ministerio de Industria: Energia y Minas (1982). Costa Rica, Geologic Map. San Jose, Costa Rica, Ministerio de Industria, Energia y Minas, Direccion de Geologia, Minas y Petroleo.
	
Ministerio de Recursos Minerales (???). Mineral Resources Map. Panama, Ministerio de Recursos Minerales.
	
Minster, J. B. and T. H. Jordan (1978). "Present-day plate motions." Journal of Geophysical Research 83(B11): 5331-5354.
	
Miranda-Gómez, R. (1976). Geology of the Area of Loma Espino, Tonosí Area, Los Santos Province, Panamá. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 87.
	
Missimer, T. M., et al. (1998). "Revision of the global eustatic sea level curve during the Burdigalian, evidence from Florida and the Bahamas platforms
Geological Society of America, 1998 annual meeting." Geological Society of America, 1998 annual meeting 30(7): 266.
	
Mitacchione, V. and M. Odehnal (1994). Upper Oligocene larger foaminifera and associated systems track in the Boqueron area, eastern Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 228-230.
	
Mitchell, R. C. (1955). "Geologic and petrographic notes on the Colombian islands of La Providencia and San Andres, West Indies." Geologic En Mijnbouw, N.W. Series 17: 76-83.
	
Mitchell, S. F. (1999). "Report of a field trip to the Guinea Corn Formation, northern Clarendon, Jamaica, October 25th, 1997." Proceedings of the Geological Society of Jamaica 33: 21-23.
	
Mitchell, S. F. (2000). Facies analysis of a Cretaceous-Paleocene Volcaniclastic Braid-delta. GSTT 2000 SPE Conference. Port of Spain, Trinidad, 10-13 July, 2000, Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago. CDrom1-SG06: 9.
	
Mitchell, S. F. (2002). The fauna of Jamaican Cretaceous coral reefs. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 131-137.
	
Mitchell, S. F. (2002). "Palaeoecology of corals and rudists in mixed volcaniclastic-carbonate small-scale rhythms (Upper Cretaceous, Jamaica)." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 186(3-4): .237-259.
	The Guinea Corn Formation (central Jamaica, West Indies) is represented by alternating platform carbonates and volcaniclastic sandstones and siltstones and represents the most landward shift of facies in an Upper Campanian? to Maastrichtian transgressive-regressive cycle. The succession consists of 2-30-m-thick rhythms comprising a lower volcaniclastic siltstone/sandstone division; a middle volcaniclastic siltstone/limestone with abundant corals or the rudist Antillocaprina stellata; and an upper division of rudist rudstones and floatstones. The lower division consists of either bioturbated sandy siltstones with lignite and abundant gastropods and infaunal bivalves (lower rhythms in the Guinea Corn Formation), or interbedded volcaniclastic siltstones and normally graded sandstones. The rudist limestones are parallel-bedded and consist of high-abundance mono- to paucispecific assemblages. The boundary between the middle and upper parts of rhythms contains a concentration of oncoids with coral nuclei and a mantle of microbial laminates, red algae and serpulids. Four coral assemblages are recognised based on diversity and coral morphology. The Paracycloseris-?Dasmosmilia assemblage occurs in the lower division of the rhythms and is interpreted as a soft-substrate assemblage that was adapted to elevated nutrient levels. The Ovalastrea-Actinacis, Actinacis-Multicolumnastrea and Actinacis-Calamophyllia-Gyrodendron assemblages occur in the middle parts of the rhythms and consist of bedded rudstones, rudstone mounds and rarer platestones, pillarstones and mixstones. Polyparia arrangements, colony morphology and low diversity suggest the Ovalastrea-Actinacis and Actinacis-Multicolumnastrea assemblages were adapted to high sedimentation rates. The more diverse Actinacis-Calamophyllia-Gyrodendron assemblage is interpreted to have grown under more optimum conditions (low sedimentation rates and high light intensities). Rudists are classified on their growth orientation (elevator, clinger, recumbent) and on their communal relationships (isolated or clustered). The cluster elevator Biradiolites mooretownensis occurs in the lower division of rhythms and the recumbent A. stellata occurs in the middle part of rhythms. The upper part of rhythms contains abundant rudists including isolated elevators (Antillocaprina occidentalis), cluster elevators (Bournonia spp., Biradiolites jamaicensis, Thyrastylon spp. and Chiapasella radiolitiformis) and clingers (Plagioptychus spp.), with the topmost part contains the large recumbent Titanosarcolites.

Mitchell, S. F., Miller, D.J., and Maharaj, R. (2003). "Field guide to the geology and geomorphology of the Tertiary limestones of the Central Inlier and Cockpit Country." Caribbean Journal of Earth Science 37: 39-48.
	The geology and geomorphology of the rocks of the Yellow Limestone and White
Limestone Groups on the northern margin of the Central Inlier of central Jamaica are described.
The Yellow Limestone Group consists of limestones (Stettin and Chapelton Formations) and clastic
rocks (Guys Hill Formation). The limestones of the Yellow Limestone Group give rise to doline karst,
with low residual hills, with the dolines locally amalgamated to form uvalas in the Stettin Formation.
The Guys Hill Formation forms to gently gullied topography with shallowly incised stream systems of
moderate drainage density. The overlying White Limestone Group is represented by the Troy
Formation and consists of dolostones and crystalline limestones. The geomorphology is represented
by cockpit and tower karst, with intervening prominent enclosed depressions. Detailed descriptions
of eleven localities, representing a two-day field excursion, are given to illustrate the important
geological and geomorphological aspects of this area.

Mitchell, S. F. (2003). Sedimentology and tectonic evolution of the Cretaceous rocks of central Jamaica: Relationships to the plate tectonic evolution of the Caribbean. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, Buffler, Richard T. Blickwede, Jon F. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 109-112.
	Detailed mapping and logging of successions in the Central Inlier of central Jamaica has been undertaken. The succession contains three angular unconformities that allow the division of the succession into four units. The oldest rocks, the Arthurs Seat Formation, consist of a lower series of tholeiitic basaltic lavas and an upper unit of poorly sorted conglomerates with some calcalkaline lavas. They represent lavas and proximal volcaniclastic deposits of a late early or early late Cretaceous volcanic center. The late Santonian to early Campanian Crofts Hill Synthem (Peters Hill Formation, Back River Formation [new], and Dawburns Content Formation [new]) rests unconformably on the Arthurs Seat Formation. It represents a deepening-upward succession, beginning with rudist limestones and ending in turbiditic sandstones and shales. The unconformity at the base of the Crofts Hill Synthem is interpreted as the result of a rifting event that created an intra-arc to back-arc basin, in which the rocks of the Crofts Hill Synthem were deposited. The Crofts Hill Synthem is cut by late Campanian thrust faults that dip toward the north. This thrusting was caused by the collision of the western part of the Greater Antilles arc with the Yucatan Peninsula. The Maastrichtian Kellits Synthem represents a transgressive-regressive cycle that rests unconformably on the rocks of the Arthurs Seat Formation and Crofts Hill Synthem. The succession begins with braided stream deposits (Slippery Rock Formation) and passes upward through tidal-flat siltstones (Thomas River Formation) into open-shelf limestones (Guinea Corn Formation). The succeeding Summerfield Group represents a progradational volcaniclastic braid-plain delta complex (Green River, Peckham, and Mahoe River Formations) and is succeeded by a thick succession of ignimbrites (Waterworks Formation). The volcaniclastic sediments and ignimbrites are interpreted to have been shed from a newly emergent volcanic center in eastern Jamaica, possibly the Above Rocks magma chamber. The Kellits Synthem is overlain unconformably by the limestones and clastics of the middle Eocene Yellow Limestone Group. This unconformity is interpreted to represent the initiation of northeast-southwest-directed extension that saw the formation of the Wagwater Trough in eastern Jamaica.

Mitchell, S. F. (2003). Sedimentology and tectonic evolution of the Cretaceous rocks of central Jamaica: Relationships to the plate tectonic evolution of the CaribbeanCuba. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, R. T. Buffler and J. F. Blickwede. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 605-623.
	Detailed mapping and logging of successions in the Central Inlier of central Jamaica has been undertaken. The succession contains three angular unconformities that allow the division of the succession into four units. The oldest rocks, the Arthurs Seat Formation, consists of a lower series of tholeiitic basaltic lavas and an upper unit of poorly sorted conglomerates with some calcalkaline lavas. They represent lavas and proximal volcaniclastic deposits of a late early or early late Cretaceous volcanic center. The late Santonian to early Campanian Crofts Hill Synthem (Peters Hill Formation, Back River Formation [new], and Dawburns Content Formation [new]) rests unconformably on the Arthurs Seat Formation. It represents a deepening-upward succession, beginning with rudist limestones and ending in turbiditic sandstones and shales. The unconformity at the base of the Crofts Hill Synthem is interpreted as the result of a rifting event that created an intra-arc to back-arc basin, in which the rocks of the Crofts Hill Synthem were deposited. The Crofts Hill Synthem is cut by late Campanian thrust faults that dip toward the north. This thrusting was caused by the collision of the western part of the Greater Antilles arc with the Yucatan Peninsula. The Maastrichtian Kellits Synthem represents a transgressive-regressive cycle that rests unconformably on the rocks of the Arthurs Seat Formation and Crofts Hill Synthem. The succession begins with braided stream deposits (Slippery Rock Formation) and passes upward through tidal-flat siltstones (Thomas River Formation) into open-shelf limestones (Guinea Corn Formation). The succeeding Summerfield Group represents a progradational volcaniclastic braid-plain delta complex (Green River, Peckham, and Mahoe River Formations) and is succeeded by a thick succession of ignimbrites (Waterworks Formation). The volcaniclastic sediments and ignimbrites are interpreted to have been shed from a newly emergent volcanic center in eastern Jamaica, possibly the Above Rocks magma chamber. The Kellits Synthem is overlain unconformably by the limestones and clastics of the middle Eocene Yellow Limestone Group. This unconformity is interpreted to represent the initiation of northeast-southwest-directed extension that saw the formation of the Wagwater Trough in eastern Jamaica.

Mitchell, S. F. (2006). Timing and implications of Late Cretaceous tectonic and sedimentary events in Jamaica. Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 171-178.
	
Mitchell, S. F., et al. (1998). Field guide to the geology of central Jamaica. Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference, articles, field guides & abstracts. S. K. Donovan. 3: 36-51.
	
Mitchell, S. W. (1984). Geology of Great Exuma Island (Field guide for Second Symposium on the Geology of the Bahamas). San Salvador, Bahamas, CCFL Bahamian Field Station.
	
Mitra, S., et al. (2007). "Ek-Balam Field; a structure related to multiple stages of salt tectonics and extensionmethods; seismic profiles; spatial distribution; structural traps; surveys; tectonic breccia; tectonics; Tertiary; three-dimensional models; traps; uplifts; Upper Jurassic; well logs." AAPG Bulletin 91(11): 1619-1636.
	The Ek-Balam field is a major oil and gas field in the offshore Campeche Bay, Mexico. The structure was formed as a result of multiple episodes of salt tectonics and associated extension. Salt movement into the core of the structure initiated in the Jurassic–Early Cretaceous and continued until the Miocene. The most prominent normal faults are of Jurassic–Early Cretaceous age and detach in the Jurassic salt. These faults mostly dip to the west, although in the vicinity of the Ek-Balam structure, some east-dipping faults are also present. Some of these faults were subsequently reactivated in the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary. Separating the Ek and Balam structures is a set of Upper Cretaceous faults, which drop the eastern part of the structure down. Tertiary faults are related to continued uplift of the salt and are symmetrically distributed with respect to the central uplift.  Seismic time maps, three-dimensional depth models of the top of the Cretaceous breccia and the Kimmeridgian, and balanced structural cross sections provide accurate details of the structural geometry and fault patterns in the Ek-Balam structure. At the level of the Cretaceous breccia, many of the faults have small throws and are discontinuous along trend. The top of the Kimmeridgian, however, is cut by faults of different ages, many of which have significant throw and extend for longer distances. The detailed structural geometry and fault patterns will be useful for identifying compartments within the Ek-Balam field and for identifying secondary traps within Kimmeridgian and Oxfordian reservoirs. 

Miyamura, S. (1975). "Recent crustal movements in Costa Rica disclosed by revealing surveys." Tectonophysics 29: 191-198.
	
Mobil Exploration Panama Inc. (1971). Panama - Geologic Map.
	
Molina, A. (1993). Tarra Field - Venezuela, Maracaibo-Basin, Zulia-State. Structural Traps VIII. N. H. F. a. E. A. Beaumont. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. VIII: 255-269.
	
Molina, A. (1993). Tiguaje-Field - Venezuela, Maracaibo-Falcon-Basin, Falcon-State. Structural Traps VIII. N. H. Foster and E. A. Beaumont. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. VIII: 295-306.
	
Molina, A. C., et al. (2006). "Tectonic correlations of pre-Mesozoic crust from the northern termination of the Colombian Andes, Caribbean region." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21(4): 337-354.
	Reconnaissance zircon U/Pb SHRIMP, Ar–Ar, and Sm–Nd geochronology, petrological, and geochemical data were obtained from selected localities of two pre-Mesozoic metamorphic belts from the northern termination of the Colombian Andes in the previous termCaribbeannext term region. The older Proterozoic belt, with protoliths formed in a rift- or backarc-related environment, was metamorphosed at 6–8 kb and 760–810 °C during Late Mesoproterozoic times. This belt correlates with other high-grade metamorphic domains of the Andean realm that formed a Grenvillian-related collisional belt linked to the formation of Rodinia. The younger belt was formed over a continental arc at <530–450 Ma in a Gondwanide position and metamorphosed at 5–8 kb and 500–550 °C, probably during the Late Paleozoic–Triassic, as part of the terranes that docked with northwestern South America during the formation of Pangea. A Mesozoic Ar–Ar tectonothermal evolution can be related to regional magmatic events, whereas Late Cretaceous–Paleocene structural trends are related to the accretion of the allocthonous previous termCaribbeannext term subduction metamorphic belts. Lithotectonic correlations with other circum-previous termCaribbeannext term and southern North American pre-Jurassic domains show the existence of different terrane dispersal patterns that can be related to Pangea’s breakup and previous termCaribbean tectonics.next term

Molina Cruz, A. (1997). "Closing of the Central American Gateway and its effects on the distribution of Late Pliocene radiolarians in the eastern tropical Pacific." Tectonophysics 281(1-2): 105-111.
	
Molina, G. R. S., et al. (1994). "Concordant paleomagnetic directions from the Tehuantepec Isthmus:  Constraints on the Neogene evolution of the North American-Caribbean plate boundary." Tectonophysics 235(4): 339-346.
	
Molina-Garza, R. S. and A. Iriondo (2007). The Mojave-Sonora Megashear; the hypothesis, the controversy, and the current state of knowledge. Geology of Mexico; celebrating the centenary of the Geological Society of Mexico. S. A. Alaniz-Alvarez and A. F. Nieto-Samaniego. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 422: 233-259.
	The Mojave-Sonora megashear model, which implies left-lateral strike-slip motion of northern Mexico in Jurassic time, remains one of the most influential ideas concerning the geology of Mexico. A comprehensive review of the literature related to this topic does not yet allow resolution of the controversy over the validity of this hypothesis. A clear conclusion is that the original hypothesis was based on a relatively simplistic model of the geology of Sonora, as the basement of the Caborca terrane is not simply a fragment of the Mojave Precambrian basement province of eastern California. Attempts to use quantitative techniques in testing the model have yielded results contrary to the hypothesis, such as clockwise rotations indicated by paleomagnetic data, and the diversity and complexity of the basement of Caborca indicated by geochemical and geochronological data. Other quantitative methods such as zircon provenance studies in quartzites of the sedimentary cover yield inconclusive results. The main conclusion of the studies of detrital zircons is that Grenvillean zircons are relatively abundant, but that their presence cannot be attributed solely to sources in the Grenville province in a fixist model. Stratigraphic correlations of upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks in Caborca with similar sequences in California and Nevada do not provide convincing arguments of large displacement, but should be evaluated in more detail. Elements that have the potential to test the hypothesis with greater certainty include detailed studies of basement rocks, a refined stratigraphy of the Jurassic volcanic and volcaniclastic arc rocks south of the inferred fault trace, and an increased understanding of depositional trends in the miogeoclinal sequence. Structural studies are sparse in this region. It is particularly important to gain a better understanding of the effects in time and space of Late Cretaceous-Tertiary contractional deformation. A tectonic evolution model that does not conflict with the existing data is the proposal that displacement of a para-autochthonous Caborca terrane may have occurred in the late Paleozoic. Nonetheless, available data and geologic relations in the Caborca region do not require Late Jurassic slip of several hundred kilometers.

Molinagarza, R. S., et al. (1994). "Concordant paleomagnetism directions from the Tehuantepec Isthmus - constraints on the Neogene evolution of the North-American Caribbean plate boundary." Tectonophysics 235(4): 339-346.
	
Molina-Garza, R. S., et al. (1992). "Paleomagnetism of the Chiapas Massif, southern Mexico: Evidence for rotation of the Maya Block and implication for the opening of the Gulf of Mexico." Geological Society of America Bulletin 104: 1156-1168.
	
Molinari, R. L., et al. (1981). "Surface currents in the Caribbean Sea as deduced from Lagrangian observations." Journal of Geophysical Research 86: 6537-6542.
	
Molina-Zúñiga, F. (1990). The Alto de Tapezco Landslip Near Santa Ana, San José Province, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 44.
	
Molnar, P. and L. R. Sykes (1969). "Tectonics of the Caribbean and middle America regions from focal mechanisms and seismicity." Geological Society of America Bulletin 80: 1639-1684.
	
Molnar, P. and L. R. Sykes (1971). "Plate tectonics in the Hispaniola area:  Discussion." Geological Society of America Bulletin 82(4): 1123-1126.
	
Molnar, P. H. (1970). Three Studies of the Structure and Dynamics of the Lithosphere; I, Lateral Variation of Attenuation in the Upper Mantle and Discontinuities in the Lithosphere; II, Tectonics of the Caribbean and Middle America Regions From Focal Mechanisms and Seismicity; III, Mantle Earthquake Mechanisms and the Sinking of the Lithosphere. Department of Geological Sciences. Palisades, NY, Columbia University: ?
	
Mompart, L. and S. A. Maraven (1994). Timing, amount and type of generated hydrocarbons in the Perija area, Maracaibo Basin, western Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 447-449.
	
Monechi, S. (1991). Appendix:  Results of calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphic analyses. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America- Caribbean Plate in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 241-261.
	
Mongin, D. (1968). "Les Pectinides du Miocene de la Guadeloupe (Antilles Francaises) (The Pectinides of the Miocene of Guadeloupe (French Antilles)." Bulletin of American Paleontology 54(245): 40.
	
Monroe, W. H. (1968). "The age of the Puerto Rico Trench." Geological Society of America Bulletin 79: 487-494.
	
Monroe, W. H. (1973). "Stratigraphy and petroleum possibilities of middle Tertiary rocks in Puerto Rico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 57(6): 1086-1099.
	
Monroe, W. H. (1980). Geology of the Middle Tertiary Formations of Puerto Rico, U.S. Geological Survey: 93.
	
Montero Pohly, W. and L. D. Morales Matamaros (1984). "Sismotectonica y Niveles de Actividad de Microtemblores en el Suroeste del Valle Central, Costa Rica (Seismotectonics and levels of activity of small earthquakes in the southwest of the Valle Central, Costa Rica)." Revisita Geofisica(21): 21-41.
	
Montero Pohly, W. and L. Ponce (1979). "Localizacion hipocentral y mechanismo focal de algunos temblores fuertes de Costa Rica - Nicaragua (Hypocenter localization and focal mechanism of some strong earthquakes of Costa Rica-Nicaragua)." Geofisica International 18(4): 411-430.
	
Montero, W. (1986). "Recurrence periods and types of seismic sequences of inter- and intraplate earthquakes in the region of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 5: ?
	
Montero, W., et al. (1991). El terremoto de Cobano, Costa Rica, 25 de Marzo de 1990:  La crisis sismica del Golfo de Nicoya y eventos sismicos relacionados Costa Rica, 1990 (The Earthquake of Cobano, Costa Rica, 25 March 1990: The Seismic Crisis of the Gulf of Nicoya and Related Seismic events Costa Rica, 1990). San Jose, Costa Rica, Instituto do Electricidad: 126.
	
Montero, W., et al. (1998). Map and Database of Quaternary Faults and folds in Costa Rica and Its Offshore Regions, U.S. Department of the Interior
U.S. Geological Survey: 63.
	
Montero, W. and L. Morales (1990). "Deformation and neotectonic forces in Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 11: ?
	
Montero, W. and others (1991). "The Limon, Costa Rica earthquake of April 22, 1991 (Ms = 7.5):  Seismicity, focal mechanism and tectonic implication." EOS (American Geophysical Union Transactions) 72: 301.
	
Montero, W., et al. (1992). "Internal geodynamics of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 14.
	
Monterroso Juarez, D. A. (2003). Statistical Seismology Studies in Central America: b-value, Seismic Hazard and Seismic Quiescence. Sweden, Uppsala Universitet: 27.
	
Montes, C. and R. D. Hatcher, Jr. (1998). Structure of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, a doubly-vergent thrust belt, or the surface expression of the transpressive southern Caribbean Plate boundary? Annual Meeting Expanded Abstracts - American Association of Petroleum Geologists.
	
Montes, C., et al. (1998). "Structure of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, a doubly-vergent thrust belt, or the surface expression of the transpressive southern Caribbean Plate boundary?
American Association of Petroleum Geologists 1998 annual meeting." American Association of Petroleum Geologists 1998 annual meeting 1998.
	Two contrasting components of Cenozoic deformation interact in the northernmost Andes of northwestern South America: 1) A dextral strike-slip component related to the relative east to northeast motion of the Caribbean plate relative to the South American continent, and 2) an east-west component due to right-angle convergence between the South American and Nazca plates. The Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, spanning both domains, must therefore record the transition from the indistinct southern Caribbean plate boundary to northern Andean tectonic styles. Despite its present and paleogeographic setting, all kinematic reconstructions of the Cordillera Oriental have ignored the possibility of transpressional tectonics. Studies explaining the evolution of the Cordillera in light of the interaction between contrasting Caribbean to Andean structural styles are entirely missing from the literature of the Cordillera Oriental.

Montes, C., et al. (2005). "Tectonic reconstruction of the northern Andean blocks: Oblique convergence and rotations derived from the kinematics of the Piedras-Girardot area, Colombia." Tectonophysics 399(1-4): 221-250.
	  A detailed kinematic study in the Piedras-Girardot area reveals that approximately 32 km of ENE-WSW oblique convergence is accommodated within a northeast-trending transpressional shear zone with a shear strain of 0.8 and a convergence factor of 2. Early Campanian deformation is marked by the incipient propagation of northeast-trending faults that uplifted gentle domes where the accumulation of sandy units did not take place. Maastrichtian unroofing of a metamorphic terrane to the west is documented by a conglomerate that was deformed shortly after deposition developing a conspicuous intragranular fabric of microscopic veins that accommodates less than 5% extension. This extensional fabric, distortion of fossil molds, and a moderate cleavage accommodating less than 5% contraction, developed concurrently, but before large-scale faulting and folding. Paleogene folding and southwestward thrust sheet propagation are recorded by syntectonic strata. Neogene deformation took place only in the western flank of this foldbelt. The amount, direction, and timing of deformation documented here contradict current tectonic models for the Cordillera Oriental and demand a new tectonic framework to approach the study of the structure of the northern Andes. Thus, an alternative model was constructed by defining three continental blocks: the Maracaibo, Cordillera Central, and Cordillera Oriental blocks. Oblique deformation imposed by the relative eastward and northeastward motion of the Caribbean Plate was modeled as rigid-body rotation and translation for rigid blocks (derived from published paleomagnetic and kinematic data), and as internal distortion and dilation for weak blocks (derived from the Piedras-Girardot area). This model explains not only coeval dextral and sinistral transpression and transtension, but also large clockwise rotation documented by paleomagnetic studies in the Caribbean-northern Andean region.  

Montessus de Ballore, F. (1884). Temblores y erupciones volcanicas en Centro-America (Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in Central America). San Salvador, Impr. del Doctor F. Sagrini.
	
Montessus de Ballore, F. (1888). Tremblements de terre et eruptions au Central Amerique (Earthquakes and Eruptions Within Central America), Dijon.
	
Montgomery, C. W. (1979). "Uranium-lead geochronology of the Archean Imataca Series, Venezuelan Guayana Shield." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 69: 167-176.
	
Montgomery, C. W. and P. M. Hurley (1978). "Total-rock U-Pb and Rb-Sr systematics in the Imataca Series, Guayana Shield, Venezuela." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 39: 281-290.
	
Montgomery, H., et al. (1998). Paleogene stratigraphy and sedimentology of the North Coast, Puerto Rico. Tectonics and geochemistry of the northeastern Caribbean. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 322: 177-192.
	
Montgomery, H. and E. A. Pessagno, Jr. (1999). Cretaceous microfaunas of the Blue Mountains, Jamaica, and of the northern anc central basement complexes of Hispaniola. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 237-246.
	
Montgomery, H., et al. (1994). "Paleogeography of Jurassic fragments in the Caribbean." Tectonics 13(3): 725-732.
	
Montgomery, H., et al. (1992). "Jurassic (Tithonian) radiolaria from La Désirade (Lesser-Antilles):  Preliminary paleontological and tectonic implications." Tectonics 11(6): 1426-1432.
	
Montgomery, H., et al. (1994). "A 195 Ma terrane in a 165 Ma sea:  Pacific origin of the Caribbean plate." GSA Today 4(1): 1, 3-6.
	
Montgomery, H., et al. (1991). "Paleontology of the Toa Baja well, Puerto Rico." 18 3(509-512).
	
Montgomery, H. A., Jr. (1988). Paleozoic paleogeography of northeastern Mexico, The University of Texas at Dallas: 241.
	Fundamental timing, geographic placement and orogenic association problems have plagued every attempt to reconstruct the Permian paleogeography of Mexico. A preponderance of petrotectonic evidence suggests post-Paleozoic displacement of much of Mexico. Paleogeographic domain characteristics and associated paleobiogeography give strong clues to the late Paleozoic geographic location of much of Mexico. The late Paleozoic rocks of Chihuahua originated within the same transpressional tectonic regime as the Permian Basin of west Texas and New Mexico. The Las Delicias arc and other associated Permian areas in Mexico were not directly involved with continental closure from the southeast, but rather with Pacific Plate activities along the west coast of North America. Along the Ouachita-Marathon orogenic belt major deformation associated with Pangean closure was essentially complete by the latest Pennsylvanian, yet volcanic arc activity persisted uninterrupted through the Late Permian at Las Delicias, an area which would have been overlapped by such a collision. The Huizachal-Peregrina area was also in a position of overlap and orogenic timing mismatch undergoing post-Leonardian deformation. The North and Afro-South American collision, long considered a head-on subduction closure progressed at an oblique angle with little or no subduction along the U.S. Gulf Coast or in Mexico. Beginning in the Mesozoic, associated with Pacific Plate interactions and opening of the Gulf of Mexico, much of Mexico was displaced to the east and southeast.

Moody, J. M. and J. G. Maisey (1994). "New Cretaceous marine vertebrate assemblages from north-western Venezuela and their significance." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 14(1): 1-8.
	
Mooney, W. D. (1979). Seismic Refraction Studies of the Western Cordillera, Colombia and an East Pacific-Caribbean Ridge During the Jurassic and Cretaceous and the Evolution of Western Colombia. Department of Geology and Geophysics. Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin: 93.
	
Mooney, W. D., et al. (1989). The seismic structure of the continental crust and upper mantle of North America. The Geology of North America-An overview. A. W. Bally. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. A: 39-52.
	
Mooney, W. D., et al. (1979). "Seismic refraction studies in the Western Cordillera, Colombia." Seismological Society of America Bulletin 69: 1745-1761.
	
Moore, G. F. and a. s. others (1985). "Structure of the south Panama continental margin:  A zone of oblique convergence." EOS Transactions of American Geophysical Union 66: 1087.
	
Moore, G. F. and K. L. Sender (1995). Fracture zone collision along the south Panama margin. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 201-212.
	
Moore, G. F., et al. (1986). "Subduction erosion versus sediment offscraping at the toe of the Middle America Trench off Guatemala." Tectonics 5: 513-523.
	
Moore, G. T. and L. del Castillo (1974). "Tectonic evolution of the southern Gulf of Mexico." Geological Society of American Bulletin 85: 607-618.
	
Moore, G. T. and D. A. Fahlquist (1976). "Seismic profiling tying Caribbean DSDP sites 153, 151, and 152." Geological Society of America Bulletin 87: 1609-1614.
	
Moore, G. W. (1994). "Terranes and the tectonic assembly of South America: The fifth Circum-Pacific terrane conference." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 7(3-4): 235-239.
	
Moore, J. C. (1982). Facies belts of the Middle America Trench and forearc region, southern Mexico: Results from Leg 66 DSDP. Trench-forearc Geology: Sedimentary and Tectonics on Modern and Ancient Active Plate Margins. J. K. Leggett. Oxford, UK, Geological Society of London. 10.
	
Moore, J. C., et al. (1998). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, initial reports, northern Barbados acretionary prism, logging while drilling, covering Leg 171A of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Balboa, Panama, to Bridgetown, Barbados, sites 1044-1048, 17 December 1996-8 January 1997.
	
Moore, J. C., et al., Eds. (1998). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, initial reports, northern Barbados acretionary prism, logging while drilling, covering Leg 171A of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Balboa, Panama, to Bridgetown, Barbados, sites 1044-1048, 17 December 1996-8 January 1997.
	
Moore, J. C., et al. (1998). Introduction to logging-while-drilling investigations of faulting, fluid flow, and seismic images of the northern Barbados subduction zone. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, initial reports, northern Barbados acretionary prism, logging while drilling, covering Leg 171A of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Balboa, Panama, to Bridgetown, Barbados, sites 1044-1048, 17 December 1996-8 January 1997. L. A. Baez and E. Kapitan-White. 171A: 5-10.
	
Moore, J. C., et al. (1998). Site 1046. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Part A: Initial Reports. E. Kapitan-White. 171A: 55-75.
	
Moore, J. C., et al. (1998). "Consolidation patterns during initiation and evolution of a plate-boundary decollement zone: Northern Barbados accretionary prism." Geology 26(9): 811-814.
	
Moore, J. C., et al. (1995). "Abnormal fluid pressures and fault-zone dilation in the Barbados accretionary prism: Evidence from logging while drilling." Geology 23(7): 605-608.
	
Moore, J. C., et al. (1982). Summary of accretionary processes, deep sea drilling project leg 66, Offscraping, underplating, and deformation of the slope apron. J. S. Watkins, J. C. Moore and et al. Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office. 66: 825-836.
	
Moore, R. A. (1984). Analytical Methodology for the Study of Trace Organic Pollutants in Trinidad Waterways. Department of Earth Sciences. Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, University of Waterloo: unknown p.
	
Moore, T. E. (1986). Petrology and tectonic implications of the blueschist-bearing Puerto Nuevo melange complex, Vizcaino Peninsula, Baja California Sur, Mexico. ? ? Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 164: 43-58.
	
Moore, T. E. (???). "Stratigraphy and tectonic significance of the Mesozoic tectonostratigraphic terranes of the Vizcaino Peninsula, Baja California Sur, Mexico."??? ???: 315-329.
	
Moore, W. S. and J. F. Todd (1993). "Radium isotopes in the Orinoco Estuary and eastern Caribbean Sea." Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 98(2): 2233-2244.
	
Moore-Coleman, F. A. (1990). Analysis of the dynamic behavior of soils during earthquakes in the area of Managua, Nicaragua. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 102.
	
Moores, E. M. (1998). "Ophiolites, the Sierra Nevada, "Cordillera," and orogeny along the Pacific and Caribbean margins of North and South America." International Geology Review 40(1): 40-54.
	
Moores, G. W. and L. Del Castillo (1974). "Tectonic evolution of the southern Gulf of Mexico." Geological Society of America Bulletin 85: 607-618.
	
Mooser, F., et al. (1958). Catalogue of the active volcanoes of the world. Part Vi, Central America. Naples, International Volcanology Association.
	
Moot, R. (1990). "A new "living fossil" echinoid (Echinodermata) and the ecology and paleobiology of Caribbean cassiduloids." Bulletin of Marine Science 46(3): 688-700.
	
Mootoo, D. A. and W. H. E. Suite (1993). "An investigation into the engineering properties of porcellanite aggregate from southwestern Trinidad." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 29: 49-60.
	
Mora, C. R. (1985). Sedimentology and geomorphology of the South of the Nicoya Peninsula (Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica (Sedimentología y geomorfología del sur de la Península de Nicoya (Provincia de Puntarenas, Costa Rica)). San José, Costa Rica, Escuela Centroamericana de Geológia, Universidad de Costa Rica: 148.
	
Mora, J. C., et al. (2007). "Geology and geochemistry characteristics of the Chiapanecan volcanic arc (Central Area), Chiapas Mexico." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 162(1-2): 43-72.
	The Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc (CVA), located in the central portion of the State of Chiapas, is a 150 km stretch of volcanoes irregularly aligned in the northwest direction between two great volcanic features: the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt to the northwest and the Central American Volcanic Arc to the southeast. The CVA is located in a complex zone marking the interaction of the North American, Caribbean and Cocos plates, near the Motagua-Polochic fault system, the boundary between North American and Caribbean plates. The central part of the CVA is composed of an irregular northwest alignment of at least 10 volcanic structures generally lying along NNW-SSE-trending faults splayed from the Motagua-Polochic system. Among the structures there are seven volcanic domes (Huitepec, Amahuitz, La Iglesia, Mispia, La Lanza, Venustiano Carranza and Santoton), one explosion crater (Navenchauc), one collapse structure (Apas), and one dome complex (Tzontehuitz). In the majority of the structures there is a clear resurgence with the formation of several domes in the same structure, with the destruction of previous domes (Navenchauc) or with the formation of new explosion craters or collapse structures (Apas). The volcanic activity in the CVA was mainly effusive accompanied by explosive and phreatomagmatic events and is characterized by volcanic domes accompanied by block-and-ash-flows, ash flows with accretionary lapilli, falls, and pumice flows. The volcanic structures and deposits are calcalkaline in composition with a medium to high content of potassium. CVA volcanic rocks vary from andesite to dacite with SiO (sub 2) between 57 and 66 wt.%, show low concentrations of Ti, P, Nb and Ta, are enriched in Light Rare Earths, depleted in Heavy Rare Earths, and show a small Eu anomaly; all indicative of arc-related volcanism associated with subduction of the Cocos plate under the North American plate, but complicated by the geometry of the plate boundary fault system.

Mora, M. C. (1994). Early Miocene calcareous nannoplankton of northern Venezuela compared with reference sections of Trinidad. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 219-221.
	
Mora, R. (1992). "Probablistic analyis of peak water flow for the El Humo station, Reventazón-Parismina, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 14.
	
Mora, R., et al. (1990). "Geologic characterization of the Chiz canal (Turrialba, Cartago Province, Costa Rica)." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 11.
	
Mora, S. (1979). Estudio geológico de una parte de la región sureste del Valle del General, Provincia Puntarenas, Costa Rica (Geologic study of a part of the southeast region of the Valle del General, Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica). University of Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica: 185.
	
Mora, S. (1985). "Unstable slopes of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 3.
	
Mora-Castro, D. (1978). Hydrogeologic Aspects of the Nicoya Peninsula. Central American School of Geology, Box 35, San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 83.
	
Mora-Castro, S. (1979). Mapa Geologico, Universidad de Costa Rica, Escuela Centroamericana de Gelogia.
	
Mora-Castro, S. (1983). "Una revision y actualizacion de la clasification morfotectonica de Costa Rica, segun la teoria de la tectonica de placas (A revision and actualization of the morphotectonic classification of Costa Rica, according to the plate tectonic theory)." Boletin de Vulcanologia???(13).
	
Mora-Castro, S. (1987). "Les regions karstiques du Costa Rica et leur contexte geologique (The karst regions of Costa Rica and their geologic context)." Karstologia(10): 25-32.
	
Mora-Castro, S. (???). "Clasificacion morfotectonica de Costa Rica (Morphotectonic classification of Costa Rica)."? ?(35-55).
	
Morales (1984). Columnar section of the Lisama Formation Exposed at Bucaramanga-Barranca Road (Rio Sogamoso), Intercol.
	
Morales, L. and G. Alvarado (1988). "Technical note: 100 years of seismograph studies." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 9.
	
Morales, L. D. (1985). "Seismic zones of Costa Rica and its surroundings." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 3.
	
Morales, L. D. (1987). "Regionalizacion de la Sismicidad de Costa Rica y la Crisis Sismica del ano 1983 (Regionalization of the seismicity of Costa Rica and the seismic crisis of the year 1983)." Geoistmo 1(1): 33-49.
	
Morales, L. D. and W. Montero (1984). "Felt earthquakes in Costa Rica from 1973-1983 and their relation to the seismicity of the country." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 1.
	
Morales, L. G., et al. (1958). General Geology and oil occurrences of Middle Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Habitat of Oil:  A Symposium; Including Papers Presented at the Fortieth Annual Meeting of the Association, at New York, March 28-31, 1955, and Some Additional Papers. L. G. Weeks. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists: 64195.
	
Morales, P. and M. Rueda (1986). Colombia Stratigraphic Correlation Chart. Bota, Colombia, Esso Colombiana Ltd.: ?
	
Morán-Orellana, G. N. (1989). Evaluation of seismic risk around the Berlin geothermal area, El Salvador, Central America. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 73.
	
Morán-Zenteno, D. (1994). The Geology of the Mexican Republic. Tulsa, OK, AAPG.
	
Moran-Zenteno, D. J., et al. (2007). The Cenozoic tectonic and magmatic evolution of southwestern Mexico; advances and problems of interpretation. Geology of Mexico; celebrating the centenary of the Geological Society of Mexico. S. A. Alaniz-Alvarez and A. F. Nieto-Samaniego. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 422: 71-91.
	Recent advances in the knowledge of the Cenozoic structure and stratigraphy of southern Mexico reveal a geological evolution characterized by Upper Cretaceous orogenic deformation, followed by truncation of the continental margin and gradual extinction of arc magmatism in the Sierra Madre del Sur, prior to the onset of magmatism in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. Orogenic deformation began in the Late Cretaceous and was coeval with the Laramide orogeny with structures of similar orientation. Deformation consisted of E-W shortening that migrated to the east with time and with a general easterly vergence. Models that relate the Laramide deformation to a decrease in the angle of subduction of the Farallon plate, which was converging in western Mexico, cannot be applied in southern Mexico because Paleocene to upper Eocene arc magmatism occurs near the inferred paleo-trench. An alternative possible origin due to collision of an insular arc against the western margin of Mexico suffers from an absence of features and petrogenetic associations indicating the closure of an oceanic basin. In light of recent geochronological data, the general pattern of magmatic extinction from Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene in Colima and Jalisco to the middle Miocene in central and southeastern Oaxaca presents some variations inconsistent with a simple pattern of extinction toward the E-SE. Maastrichtian to lower Paleocene plutonism recognized in the Jalisco block and Manzanillo areas is contemporaneous with a magmatic episode that has some documented adakitic affinities in the central part of the Sierra Madre del Sur. Magmatism from the Paleocene to middle Eocene seems to be concentrated in the Presa del Infiernillo area, although isolated centers existed in areas such as Taxco or the eastern Jalisco block. Finally, the main axis of magmatism between the middle Eocene and Oligocene developed along what is the present-day continental margin and extends 200 km inland as a broad band. In-general, the geochemical characteristics of this magmatism indicate a low degree of continental crustal assimilation. Two episodes of principally sinistral lateral faulting that activated NW-SE- and later N-S-oriented faults, with variations in time and space, have been documented during the Eocene and lower Oligocene. The N-S set of faults was active only in the north of the Sierra Madre del Sur, whereas the activity of the NW-SE set continued during the Oligocene along the Oaxaca continental margin. The recognition of these deformational episodes suggests that extensional directions related to lateral faulting changed from NNW-SSE to NE-SW, and locally produced normal displacements on preexisting discontinuities. Fundamental problems still exist in the interpretation of the plate tectonic processes that produced the stress regimes acting on the different sets of faults, as well as in the determination of the factors influencing the migration of magmatism. Some of the arguments used to postulate the presence of the Chortis block off the southwestern Mexican continental margin during the early Cenozoic are uncertain. On the other hand, models that explain restricted displacements of the Chortis block with respect to the Maya block-without juxtaposition with the southwestern margin of Mexico-suggest that continental truncation was essentially caused by subduction erosion and leave open the interpretation of the observed magmatic migration.

Moran-Zenteno, D. J., et al. (1996). "Uplift and subduction erosion in southwestern Mexico since the Oligocene: Pluton geobarometry constraints." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 141(1-4): 51-65.
	Details of the late Oligocene to middle Miocene uplift and tectonic erosion episodes of the southwestern continental margin of Mexico can be inferred using Al (sub tot) geobarometry of igneous hornblendes, geochronology, and field relations. On the basis of such analyses carried out between Acapulco and Huatulco we find the following; (1) Calc-alkaline batholiths exposed along the coast from Acapulco to Huatulco, mostly in the 35-25 Ma age range, were emplaced at depths between 13 and 20 km. (2) The contact relationships between these plutons and their host rocks, and the exposure of volcanic counterparts, 70 km from the coastline, indicate a landward decrease in the amount of uplift. (3) A comparison of the time differences between intrusion and cooling ages of batholiths along the coast suggest that cooling rates were, in general, higher between Acapulco and Huatulco than those along the margin between Puerto Vallarta and Manzanillo, 700 km northwest of Acapulco. (4) The uplift of this coastal belt occurred during the late stages of magmatism and after its cessation, triggering intensive subaerial erosion of supracrustal rocks and the exposure of midcrustal rocks such as granitic batholiths and amphibolite facies metamorphic assemblages of the Xolapa Complex. These findings, in conjunction with the geometry of the present continental margin, as well as the offshore tectonic and stratigraphic features, support previous interpretations of very active late Oligocene to middle Miocene subduction erosion after the onset of strike-slip tectonics related to the detachment and subsequent eastward displacement of the Chortis block. Subduction erosion involved both trench sediments and crystalline (continental framework) rocks. Different rates of continental framework erosion are assessed on the basis of the bathymetric fluctuations of the upper slope trench sediments and the age of the accretionary prism. Subsidence of the offshore continental basement suggests intense episodes of basal erosion of lower continental crust, whereas the construction of the present day accretionary prism and the uplift of the upper slope indicate a decline in the frontal and basal erosion of the continental framework. Comparing the calculated depths of pluton crystallization with the present depth of the continental crust-subducted slab boundary, interpreted using previously published seismic refraction and gravity models, we conclude that onshore basal erosion played a subordinate role during Miocene episodes of subduction erosion. Major removal of lower crustal sections was probably restricted to offshore regions. Plate reconstructions of the Cocos plate and its predecessors with respect to North America indicate that the uplift and probably the offshore subduction erosion in this region coincided with the initial stages of the subhorizontal trajectory of the Guadalupe plate beneath southwestern Mexico.

Mora-Protti, O. (1988). Geologic-petrologic study of the pyroclastic rocks near Bagaces, Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 61.
	
Mora-Rojas, C. (1985). Sedimentology and geomorphology of the southern Nicoya Peninsula (Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica). Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 148.
	
Morell, K. D., et al. (2008). "Inner forearc response to subduction of the Panama fracture zone, southern Central America." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 265(1-2): 82-95.
	Subduction of the right-lateral Panama Fracture Zone, along the convergent margin of Central America creates abrupt lateral variations in convergence rate, obliquity, and subducting crustal thickness at its intersection with the Middle America Trench. This intersection, known as the Panama (CO-NZ-CA) Triple Junction, is migrating to the southeast at a rate of 55 mm/yr, and currently coincides with the lateral termination of the Fila Costena Thrust Belt in the inner forearc of the overriding plate. Mapping in the inner forearc in the area that straddles the subducting Panama Fracture Zone reveals that Cocos-Caribbean convergence west of the triple junction leads to the development of an inner forearc thrust belt inboard of the colliding Cocos Ridge, while little deformation is evident inboard of Nazca-Caribbean convergence, east of the triple junction. This results in the lateral termination of the Fila Costena Thrust Belt in the region of the forearc that projects over the Panama Fracture Zone, where four out of five mapped thrust faults tip out and are buried by lahars. Three new balanced cross-sections indicate a steep gradient in shortening from the center of the thrust belt to its southeastern termination. The short-term history of the inner forearc recorded in the landscape and topography of the Fila Costena is consistent with the southeastward migration of the thrust belt and the Panama Triple Junction throughout the past approximately 3 Ma, with evidence for the growth of a new topographic divide and reorganization of stream channel networks.

Morelock, J., et al. (1977). Shelf reefs southwestern Puerto Rico. Reefs and related carbonates:  ecology and sedimentology. S. H. Frost, M. P. Wesis and J. B. Saunders. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 4: 17-25.
	
Morelock, J., et al. (1994). Geologic maps of southwestern Puerto Rico: Parguera to Guanica insular shelf, U.S. Geological Survey.
	
Moreno, B. (2002). "Crustal velocity model along the southern Cuban margin; implications for the tectonic regime at an active plate boundary." Geophysical Journal International 151(2): 632-645.
	
Morgan, F. D., et al. (1988). "The earthquake hazard of September 1982 in southern Tobago." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 78: 1550-1562.
	
Morgan, J. and M. Warner (1999). "Chicxulub: The third dimension of a multi-ring impact basin." Geology 27(5): 407-410.
	
Morgan, J. V., et al. (2000). "Peak-ring formation in large impact craters: Geophysical constraints from Chicxulub." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 183(3-4): 347-354.
	
Morgan, W. J. (1983). "Hot spot tracks and the early rifting of the Atlantic." Tectonopyhsics 94: 123-139.
	
Moritz, E., et al. (2000). "Neural network interpretation of LWD data (ODP Leg 170) confirms complete sediment subduction at the Costa Rica convergent margin." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 174(3-4): 301-312.
	The internal structure of a convergent plate boundary was the focus of ODP Leg 170 in 1996 at the subduction zone off Costa Rica. Although the structure of the subduction zone is rather well known from seismic surveys, prior to drilling of ODP Leg 170 it was a matter of discussion whether it is accretionary or non-accretionary. With a neural network approach, we confirm the evidence gained during drilling of Leg 170, that at least presently no lower-plate sediments are transferred to the upper plate by accretion. To supplement lithological information, Logging-While-Drilling geophysical data have been included in this study and were interpreted in terms of lithology using a genetically trained artificial neural network.

Mormil', S., et al. (1980). Geology and Metallogeny of the Pinar del Rio Region in the Western Part of Cuba. ???, ???
	
Morovec, D. (1983). Study of the Concordia Fault System near Jerico, Chiapas, Mexico. Arlington, TX, The University of Texas at Arlington: 155.
	
Morris, A. E. L., et al. (1990). Energy resources of the Caribbean region. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 483-510.
	
Morris, A. E. L., et al. (1990). Tectonic evolution of the Caribbean region:  Alternative hypothesis. The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 433-457.
	
Morris, D. (1979). Mineria de oro alluvional en la Republica Dominicana (Mining of Gold Alluvium in the Dominican Republic). Doughton Cambridgeshire, Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores Britanico.
	
Mortlock, F. O. (1948). Report Cuba-S-577: Reflection and refraction seismograph exploration of Caldera and Cayo Coco projects. New York, Gulf Research and Development Co.: 6.
	
Morton, R. A. and J. R. Suter (1996). "Sequence stratigraphy and composition of late Quaternary shelf-margin deltas, northern Gulf of Mexico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 80(4): 505-530.
	
Moscardelli, L., et al. (2006). "Mass-transport complexes and associated processes in the offshore area of Trinidad and Venezuela." AAPG Bulletin 90: 1059-1088.
	Mass-transport complexes (MTCs) form a significant component of the stratigraphic record in ancient and modern deep-water basins worldwide. One such basin, the deep-marine margin of eastern offshore Trinidad, situated along the obliquely converging boundary of the Caribbean and South American plates and proximal to the mouth of the Orinoco River, is characterized by catastrophic shelf-margin processes, intrusive and extrusive mobile shales, active tectonics, and possible migration and sequestration of hydrocarbons. Major structural elements found in the deep-water slope regions include large transpressional fault zones (i.e., Darien Ridge, Central Range, Los Bajos), along which mobile shales extrude to form sea-floor ridges; fault-cored anticlinal structures overlain by extrusive sea-floor mud volcanoes; shallow-rooted sediment bypass grabens near the shelf break; and normal and counterregional faults. A total of 10,708 km2 (4134-mi2) of merged three-dimensional (3-D) seismic surveys enable sub-sea-floor interpretation of several erosional surfaces that form the boundaries of enormous mass-transport complexes. The data show numerous episodes of MTC developments, which are characterized by chaotic, mounded seismic facies and fanlike geometry. Their extent (up to 2017 km2 [778 mi2]) and thickness (up to 250 m [820 ft]) is strongly influenced by sea-floor topography. Mass-transport flows show runout distances from the source area of 60–140 km (37–86 mi). Depositional architecture identified with these units includes (1) large-magnitude lateral erosional edges, (2) linear basal scours, and (3) side-wall failures. Mud volcanoes act as barriers to cross-slope mass sediment movements and form zones of shadowing on their downslope side that protect those regions from erosion. The subsequent erosional shadow remnants (ESRs) comprise preserved regions of older levee-channel complex sediments and are considered for the first time in this study as potential stratigraphic traps in deep-water deposits. Active tectonism in the region, high sedimentation rates associated with the Orinoco delta system, and abundant potential unstable hydrate suggest the viable presence of several higher frequency mechanisms at work for MTC generation than sea level fluctuations alone.

Moscardelli, L. G. (2007). Mass transport processes and deposits in offshore Trinidad and Venezuela, and their role in continental margin development. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 185.
	Mass transport complexes (MTC) form a significant component of the stratigraphic record in ancient and modern deep water basins. One such basin, the deep marine margin of eastern offshore Trinidad, situated along the obliquely converging boundary of the Caribbean and South American plates and proximal to the mouth of the Orinoco River, is characterized by catastrophic shelf margin processes, intrusive and extrusive mobile shales, active tectonics and possible migration and sequestration of hydrocarbons. Major structural elements found in the deep water slope regions include: large transpressional fault zones along which mobile shales extrude to form seafloor ridges; fault-cored anticlinal structures overlain by extrusive seafloor mud volcanos; shallow-rooted sediment bypass grabens near the shelf break; and normal and counter-regional faults. A data volume consisting of 10,708 km 2 of several merged 3D seismic data volumes enable subseafloor interpretation of several mass transport event deposits and the erosional surfaces that form their boundaries. The data shows numerous mass transport complexes which are characterized by chaotic, mounded seismic facies and fan-like geometries. Their extent (up to 2017 sq. km) and thickness (up to 250 m) is strongly influenced by seafloor topography. Depositional and erosional architectures identified with these units includes: large magnitude lateral erosional edges, thrust faulting, linear basal scours, side-wall failures, flow geometries, possible displaced blocks and chaotic matrix material. Active tectonism in the region, high sedimentation rates associated with the Orinoco Delta System, and abundant unstable gas hydrates suggest the presence of higher frequency mechanisms at work for MTCs generation than sea-level fluctuations alone. Three types of mass transport complexes are identified in offshore Trinidad; shelf-attached systems that were fed by shelf edge deltas whose sediment input is controlled by sea level fluctuations, slope-attached systems which occur when upper slope sediments catastrophically fail due to gas hydrate disruptions, earthquakes and/or storm activity, and locally detached systems formed when local instabilities in the sea floor trigger small collapses. Such classification of the relationship between slope mass failures and the sourcing regions enables an understanding of the nature of initiation, length of development history, petrography and petrophysics of MTC's. In addition, a collection of morphometric parameters of MTCs from different continental margins are analyzed in order to better understand their causal mechanisms, and to establish whether systematic morphometric parameters characterize these deposits across different tectonic settings. Observations suggest that there is a clear relationship between morphometric parameters of MTC and their causal mechanisms.

Mosquera, A. (1984). Los Chortís en Guatemala.
	
Mossakovski, A., et al. (1989). "Dos tipos de complejos ultrabásicos en la estructura de Cuba oriental (Two types of ultrabasic complexes in the structure of eastern Cuba)." Resúmenes y Programa Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 91.
	
Mossakovskiy, A. A. and J. F. d. Albear (1978). "Nappe structure of western and northern Cuba and history of its emplacement in the light of a study of olistostromes and molasse." Geotectonics 12(3): 225-236.
	
Mossakovskiy, A. A. and J. de Albear (1979). "Overthrust structure of western and northen Cuba and the history of its formation in light of the study of olistostromes and molasse." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(1): 3-31.
	
Mossakovskiy, A. A. and et al. (1989). Tectonic Map of Cuba, Cuban/Soviet Academy of Sciences.
	
Mossakovskiy, A. A., et al. (1986). "Metamorphic complexes and the problem of basement in Alpine structures of central Cuba." Geotectonics 20: 178-191.
	
Mossman, W. and F. Viniegra-O. (1976). "Complex structures in Veracruz province of Mexico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 60: 379-388.
	
Motazedian, D. and G. Atkinson (2005). Ground-motion relations for Puerto Rico. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 61–80.
	
Moticska, P. (1975). "Sierra de Perijá, Excursión #2: Complejo volcánico-plutónico de El Totumo-Inciarte (Sierra de Perijá, Excursion #2:  Volcanic-plutonic complex of El Totumo-Inciarte)." Boletín de Geología, Special Publication 7: 306-311.
	
Moussa, M. G. and G. A. Seiglie (1970). "Revision of mid-Tertiary stratigraphy of southwestern Puerto Rico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 54(10): 1887-1898.
	
Moussa, M. T. (1977). "Bioclastic sediment gravity flow and submarine sliding in the Juana Diaz Formation, southwestern Puerto Rico." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 47(2): 593-599.
	
Moussa, M. T. and e. al. (1987). "The Quebradillas Limestone (Miocene-Pliocene), northern Puerto Rico, and tectonics of the northeastern Caribbean margin." Geological Society of America Bulletin 99: 427-439.
	
Moussa, M. T. and G. A. Seiglie (1975). "Stratigraphy and petroleum possibilities of middle Tertiary rocks in Puerto Rico:  Discussion." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 59(1): 163-168.
	
Moya, J.-C. (1998). The Neotectonics of Western Puerto Rico. Boulder, CO, University of Colorado: 132.
	
Muehlberger, W. R. (1976). The Honduras Depression. 4th Reunion Geologicas de America Central, Guatemala, Publicaciones Geologicas del. ICAITI No. V: 43-51.
	
Muehlberger, W. R. and A. W. Ritchie (1975). "Caribbean-Americas plate boundary in Guatemala and southern Mexico as seen on SKYLAB IV orbital photography." Geology 3: 232-235.
	
Muehlberger, W. R. and P. R. Tauvers (1989). Marathon fold-thrust belt, west Texas. The Appalachian-Ouachita Orogen in the United States. R. D. Hatcher, Jr., W. A. Thomas and G. W. Viele. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America,. F-2: 673-680.
	
Mueller, C. S., et al. (2004). Documentation for 2003 USGS seismic hazard maps for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Reston, VA, United States, U. S. Geological Survey: 9.
	
Mueller, R. D., et al. (1999). New constraints on the Late Cretaceous/Tertiary plate tectonic evolution of the Caribbean. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 33-59.
	
Muessig, K. W. (1978). "The central Falcon igneous suite, Venezuela:  alkaline basaltic intrusions of Oligocene-Miocene age." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 261-266.
	
Muessig, K. W. (1984). Paleomagnetic data on the basic igneous intrusions of the central Falcon Basin, Venezuela. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. Bonini, R. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 231-237.
	
Muessig, K. W. (1984). Structure and Cenozoic tectonics of the Falcon Basin, Venezuela and adjacent areas. The Caribbean-South American Plate Poundary and Regional Tectonics. W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 217-230.
	
Muff, R. and M. Hernandez (1986). "The hydrothermal alteration and pyrite-galena-sphalerite mineralization of a porphyrite intrusion at Palma Picada in the Cordillera Septentrional, Dominican-Republic." Natural Resources and Development (West Germany) 26: 83-94.
	
Muhs, D. R., et al. (1990). "Geochemical evidence of Saharan dust parent material for soils developed on Quaternary limestones of Caribbean and western Atlantic Islands." Quaternary Research 33(2): 157-177.
	
Muller, P. D. (1977). Mapa Geológico de Guatemala, Los Amates Sheet (Geologic Map of Guatemala, Los Amates Sheet). Guatemala, Instituto Geográfico Militar.
	
Muller, P. D. (1979). Geology of the Los Amates Quadrangle and Vicinity, Guatemala, Central America. Department of Geological Sciences. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York: 326.
	
Müller, R. D. (1993). A Quantitative Analysis of Post-Chron 34 (83 Ma) Plate Motions Between North America, Africa, and South America. San Diego, CA, University of California, San Diego: 150.
	
Müller, R. D., et al. (1999). New constraints on the Late Cretaceous/Tertiary plate tectonic evolution of the Caribbean. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 33-59.
	
Muller-Karger, F., et al. (2000). "Sediment record linked to surface processes in the Cariaco Basin." Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 81(44): 529, 534-535.
	
Müllerried, F. K. G. (1939). Investigaciones y exploraciones geográfico-geológicas en la porción nor-oeste de la América Central (Geographic-geologic investigations and explorations in the northwest portion of Central America).
	
Müllerried, F. K. G. (1942). Contribution to the geology of northwestern Central America. Proceedings of the Eighth American Scientific Congress, Geological Sciences. 4: 469-482.
	
Müllerried, F. K. G. (1942). "Contribution to the geology of northwestern Central America." Proceedings of the 8th American Scientific Congress 4: 469-482.
	
Müllerried, F. K. G. (1942). The Mesozoic of México and northwestern Central America. Proceedings of the Eighth American Scientific Congress, Geological Sciences. 4: 125-147.
	
Mullins, H. and A. Hine (1989). "Scalloped bank margins: Beginning of the end for carbonate platforms?" Geology 17: 30-33.
	
Mullins, H. T. (1983). Modern carbonate slopes and basins of the Bahamas. Platform Margin and Deep Water Carbonates. H. E. Cook, A. C. Hine and H. T. Mullins. 12: 4.1-4.138.
	
Mullins, H. T., et al. (1992). "Carbonate platforms along the southeast Bahamas- Hispaniola collision zone." Marine Geology 105: 169-209.
	
Mullins, H. T., et al. (1987). "Middle Miocene oceanographic event in eastern Gulf of Mexico: Implications for seismic stratigraphic succession and Loop Current/Gulf Stream circulation." Geological Society of America Bulletin 98: 702-713.
	
Mullins, H. T. and A. C. Neumann (1979). "Deep carbonate bank margin structure and sedimentary in the northern Bahamas." Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication 27: 165-192.
	
Mullins, H. T., et al. (1980). "Carbonate sediment drifts in northern Straits of Florida." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 64: 1701-1717.
	
Munger, A. H. (1968). Petroleum Developments and Generalized Geology of Central and South America. Los Angeles, Munger Map Book.
	
Muñoz, A., et al. (1997). "Nicaragua: Petroleum geology of the Caribbean margin." The Leading Edge 16: 1799-1805.
	
Munoz, A. V., Ed. (1986). A Catalogue of Seismicity in Panama for the Interval 1904-83, ?
	
Munoz Gomez, J. N. (1998). "Caracteristicas geoquimicas de la mineralizacion cromifera del yacimiento Cayo Guam, Moa, Holguin, Cuba (Primera parte) (Geochemical characteristics of the chromium mineralization at the Cayo Guam Deposit, Moa, Holguin, Cuba; Part 1)." Mineria y Geologia 15(1): 27-35.
	
Munoz, V. A. (1988). "Tectonic patterns of the Panama block deduced from seismicity, gravitational data and earthquake mechanisms: Implications to the seismic hazard." Tectonophysics 154: 253-267.
	
Munro, S. E. and R. D. Smith (1984). The Urica fault zone, northeastern Venezuela. The Caribbean-South America Plate and REgional Tectonics. W. W. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagam, GSA. 162: 213-215.
	
Munteau, J. L., et al. (1990). "Evolution of the Monte Negro acid sulfate Au-Ag deposit, Pueblo Viejo, Dominican Republic,: important factors in grade development." Economic Geology 85: 1738-1758.
	
Murany, E. E. (1972). "Structural analysis of the Caribbean coast, eastern interior range of Venezuela." VI Caribbean Geological Conference, Margarita: 295-298.
	
Murdock, T. Q., et al. (1997). "Paleoclimatic response of the closing of the Isthmus of Panama in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model." Geophysical Research Letters 24(3): 253-256.
	
Murphy, A. (1975). Seismicity located by the Lamont-Doherty Caribbean seismic network between 17 June and 5 July 1975. Palisades, NY, Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory: 9.
	
Murphy, A., et al. (1977). A Study of Earthquake Prediction and the Tectonics of the Northeastern Caribbean:  An Experiment in Two Major Seismic Gaps, U.S. Geological Survey: 22.
	
Murphy, S. J., et al. (1999). "The connectivity of eddy variability in the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic Ocean." Journal of Geophysical Research - Oceans 104(C1): 1431-1453.
	
Muszala, S. P., et al. (1999). "Three-dimensional Euler deconvolution and tectonic interpretation of marine magnetic anomaly data in the Puerto Rico Trench." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 104(12): 29175-29187.
	
Myczynski, R. (1974). Los ammonites del Cretacico Inferior de la Sierra del Rosario, provincia de Pinar del Rio (The ammonites from the Lower Cretaceous of La Sierra del Rosario, province of Pinar del Rio), Archivo Instituto Geologia y Paleontology, Academia Ciencia de Cuba, La Habana.
	
Myczynski, R. (1976). "A new ammonite fauna from the Oxfordian of the Pinar del Rio province, western Cuba." Acta Geologic Polonica 26: 261-298.
	
Myczynski, R. (1987). Simocosmoceras Spath (Perisphinctidae, Ammonitina) in the Lower Tithonian of Sierra del Rosario (western Cuba). Fossili, Evoluzione, Ambiente:  Atti del Secondo Convegno Internazionale, Pergola, 25-30 October 1987. 1: 401-403.
	
Myczynski, R. (1994). "Caribbean ammonite assemblages from the Lpper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous sequences of Cuba." Studia Geologica Polonica: Geology of Western Cuba 105: 91-109.
	
Myczynski, R. and A. Pszczolkowski (1973). "La fauna ammonoidea pretithoniana en la Sierra del Rosario, provincia de Pinar del Rio (The fauna ammonoidea pretithoniana in La Sierra del Rosario, Pinar del Rio province)." Actas, Academia Ciencia de Cuba, Instituto de Geology 3: 31-34.
	
Myczynski, R. and A. Pszczolkowski (1976). "The ammonites and age of the San Cayetano Formation from the Sierra del Rosario, Western Cuba." Acta Geologica Polonica 26: 321-330`.
	
Myczynski, R. and A. Pszczolkowski (1987). Tithonian stratigraphy in the Sierra de Los Organos, western Cuba:  Correlation of the ammonite and microfossil zones. Fossili, Evoluzione, Ambiente:  Atti del Secondo Convegno Internazionale, Pergola, 25-30 October 1987. 1: 405-415.
	
Myczynski, R. and A. Pszczolkowski (1994). "Tithonian stratigraphy and microfacies in the Sierra del Rosario, western Cuba." Studia Geologica Polonica: Geology of Western Cuba 105: 7-38.
	
Mylroie, J. E. (1980). Caves and Karst of San Salvador: Field Guide to San Salvador Island, Bahamaspp. 67-91 (revised, 1983 for the 3rd edition). Fort Lauderdale, Florida, CCFL  Bahamian Field Station.
	
Mylroie, J. E. e. (1988). Field Guide to the Karst Geology of San Salvador Island, Bahamas. Fort Lauderdale, Florida, Department of Geology and Geography, Mississippi State University and CCFL Bahamian Field Station.
	
Nadai, A. C. (1987). Tectonostratigraphy of the San Francisco Ridge Area in the Northeastern Cibao Valley, Dominican-Republic. New York, City College of the City University of New York: 33.
	
Nagihara, S., et al. (1996). "Heat flow in the western abyssal plain of the Gulf of Mexico: Implications for thermal evolution of the old oceanic lithosphere." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 101(B2): 2895-2913.
	
Nagihara, S., et al. (2000). Geothermal regime of the western margin of the Great Bahama Bank. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. G. Lowe. 166: 113-120.
	The geothermal regime of the western margin of the Great Bahama Bank was examined using the bottom hole temperature and thermal conductivity measurements obtained during and after Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 166. This study focuses on the data from the drilling transect of Sites 1003 through 1007. These data reveal two important observational characteristics. First, temperature vs. cumulative thermal resistance profiles from all the drill sites show significant curvature in the depth range of 40 to 100 mbsf. They tend to be of concave-upward shape. Second, the conductive background heat-flow values for these five drill sites, determined from deep, linear parts of the geothermal profiles, show a systematic variation along the drilling transect. Heat flow is 43-45 mW/m (super 2) on the seafloor away from the bank and decreases upslope to approximately 35 mW/m (super 2) . We examine three mechanisms as potential causes for the curved geothermal profiles. They are: (1) a recent increase in sedimentation rate, (2) influx of seawater into shallow sediments, and (3) temporal fluctuation of the bottom water temperature (BWT). Our analysis shows that the first mechanism is negligible. The second mechanism may explain the data from Sites 1004 and 1005. The temperature profile of Site 1006 is most easily explained by the third mechanism. We reconstruct the history of BWT at this site by solving the inverse heat conduction problem. The inversion result indicates gradual warming throughout this century by approximately 1 degrees C and is agreeable to other hydrographic and climatic data from the western subtropic Atlantic. However, data from Sites 1003 and 1007 do not seem to show such trends. Therefore, none of the three mechanisms tested here explain the observations from all the drill sites. As for the lateral variation of the background heat flow along the drill transect, we believe that much of it is caused by the thermal effect of the topographic variation. We model this effect by obtaining a two-dimensional analytical solution. The model suggests that the background heat flow of this area is approximately 43 mW/m (super 2) , a value similar to the background heat flow determined for the Gulf of Mexico in the opposite side of the Florida carbonate platform.

Nagle, F. (1966). Geology of the Puerto Plata area, Dominican Republic. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University: 171.
	
Nagle, F. (1970). "Caribbean Geology." Bulletin of Marine Science 21: 375-439.
	
Nagle, F. (1972). Rocks from seamounts and escarpments on the Aves Ridge. Sixth Caribbean Geologic Conference 1971, Margarita, Venezuela: 409-413.
	
Nagle, F. (1974). "Blueschist, eclogite paired metamorphic belts and the Early tectonic history of Hispaniola." Geological Society of America Bulletin 85: 1461-1466.
	
Nagle, F. (1979). Geology of the Puerto Plata area, Dominican-Republic. Hispaniola: Tectonic Focal Point of the Northern Caribbean: Three Tectonic Studies in the Dominican-Republic. B. Lidz and F. Nagle. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 1-28.
	
Nagle, F., et al. (1977). Where Plates Collide: A Reconaissance Guide to Guatemalan Geology, Miami Geological Society.
	
Nagle, F., et al. (1982). "Metamorphic rocks and stratigraphy of central Tortue Island, Haiti." Transactions, 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo, 1980: 409-416.
	
Nagy, E. (1972). "Perfil transversal esquemático de Oriente desde el punto de vista de la tectónica de placas (hipótesis) (Schematic transverse profile of Oriente from the point of view of plate tectonics (hypothesis))." Actas, Instituto de Geológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 2: 63-66.
	
Nagy, E. (1983). Essay on the structural-facies zones of eastern Cuba. Contribucion a la Geologia de Cuba Oriental (Contributions on the Geology of Eastern Cuba). Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 9-16.
	
Nagy, E. and K. Brezsnyanszky (1983). The Paleogene depression of Baracoa-Mata. Contribucion a la Geologia de Cuba Oriental (Contributions on the Geology of Eastern Cuba). Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 134-137.
	
Nagy, E., et al. (1983). "Contribución a la geología de Cuba Oriental (Contribution to the geology of Eastern Cuba)." Editorial Científico-Técnica: 1-273 
	
Nagy, E., et al. (1989). "Perfil transversal tectónico-interpretativo de Cuba Oriental (Tectonic-interpretative transvere profile of eastern Cuba)." Resúmenes y Programa del Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 110-111.
	
Nagy, E. and D. P. Coutin (1980). "Formal and informal lithostratigraphic subdivisions in the former province of Oriente." Informe Científico-Técnico, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 109: 7.
	
Nagy, E. A. (2000). "Extensional deformation and paleomagnetism at the western margin of the Gulf extension province, Puertecitos Volcanic Province, northeastern Baja California, Mexico." Geological Society of America Bulletin 112(6): 857-870.
	
Namson, J., et al. (1994). Structural geology and hydrocarbon potential of the northern part of the Upper Magdalena Basin, Colombia. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 356-364.
	
Nason, F. L. (1887). "On the location of some vertebrate fossil beds of Honduras, Central America." American Journal of Science 34: 485-487.
	
Nath, M. (1979). "Production geology of the Cooa-Quarry Field." 4th Latin American Geological Congress, Trindiad: 726-737.
	
National Seismological Network (1986). "Technical note: Summary of seismic and volcanic activity in Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 5: ???
	
National Seismological Network (1987). "Technical Note: Summary of seismic and volcanic activity of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 6: ???
	
National Seismological Network (1987). "Technical note: Summary of seismic and volcanic activity of Costa Rica (January-June, 1987)." Geological Magazine of Central America 7: ???
	
National Seismological Network (1988). "Summary of seismic and volcanic activity in Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 8: ???
	
National Seismological Network (1988). "Technical note: Summary of seismic and volcanic activity for Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 9: ???
	
National Seismological Network (1989). "Technical note: Summary of seismic and volcanic activity in Costa Rica (July-December, 1988)." Geological Magazine of Central America 10: ???
	
National Seismological Network (1992). "Technical Note, ICE-UCR summary of seismic and volcanic activity in Costa Rica in 1991." Geological Magazine of Central America 14: ???
	
National Seismological Network (UCR-ICE) (1985). "Technical note: A decade of continuous seismic recording in Costa Rica by UCR-ICE (1975-85)." Geological Magazine of Central America 3: ???
	
Navarrete, M., et al. (1989). "Asociación ofiolítica de Holguín, particularidades petrólogo geoquímicas (Ophiolitic association of Holguin petrologic geochemical particularities)." Resúmenes y Programa Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 95.
	
Navarro, E., et al. (1988). "Revision and re-definition of the lithostratigraphic units and synthesis of a tectonic model for the evolution of the north-central part of Venezuela during the Jurassic - middle Paleogene (Revision y redefinicion de unidades litoestratiraficas y sintesis de un modelo tectonico para la evolucion de la parte norte-central de Venezuela durante el Jurasico medio-Paleogeno)." Acta Cientifica Venezolana-Geologia 39: 427-436.
	
Negredo, A. M., et al. (2004). "Evidence for eastward mantle flow beneath the Caribbean plate from neotectonic modeling." Geophysical Research Letters 31(6): L06615.
	
Nekrasov, G., et al. (1989). "Ophiolites of eastern Cuba." Geotectonics 1: 80-95.
	
Nelson, A. E. (1968). Intrusive rocks of north-central Puerto Rico.? Washington, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey. 600B: B16-B20.
	
Nelson, A. E. (???). Geologic Map of the Corozal Quadrangle, Puerto Rico: USGS I-473. ???, United States Geological Survey.
	
Nelson, A. E. (???). "Significant changes on igneous, Puerto Rico." U.S.G.S. Professional Paper 550-D: D172-D177.
	
Nelson, A. E. and O. T. Tobisch (???). Geologic Map of the Bayaney Quadrangle, Puerto Rico: USGS I-1525. ???, United States Geological Survey.
	
Nelson, C. E. (2000). "Volcanic domes and gold mineralization in the Pueblo Viejo district, Dominicam Republic." Mineralium Deposita 35: 511-525.
	
Nelson, C. E. and A. Arauz (1992). "Deposits of large tonnage precious metal deposits in the Caribbean region." Geological Magazine of Central America 14: ???
	
Nelson, J. R. (1984). Sedimentology and Stratigraphy of the Late Paleozoic Rocks of the Mountain Pine Ridge, Belize. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York at Binghamton: 71.
	
Nemec, M. C. (1980). A two phase model for the tectonic evolution of the Caribbean. Transactions of the 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Aug. 16-20, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic, Domingo, Dominican-Republic, ???
	
Ness, G. E., et al. (1991). Marine magnetic anomalies and oceanic crustal isochrons of the Gulf and Peninsular Province of the Californias. The Gulf and Peninsular Province of the Californias. J. P. Dauphin and B. R. T. Simoneit. Tulsa, OK, AAPG Memoir. 47: 47-69.
	
Neumann, A. C. and M. M. Ball (1970). "Submersible observations in the Straits of Florida; geology and bottom currents." Geological Society of America Bulletin 81: 2861-1874.
	
Neumann, A. C. and P. J. Hearty (1996). "Rapid sea-level changes at the close of the last interglacial (substage 5e) recorded in Bahamian island geology." Geology 24(9): 775-778.
	
Neumann, A. C. and P. J. Hearty (1997). "Rapid sea-level changes at the close of the last interglacial (substage 5e) recorded in Bahamian island geology: Reply." Geology 25(12): 1148-1149.
	
Neumann, C. A. and W. S. Moore (1975). "Sea level events and Pleistocene coral ages in the northern Bahamas." Quaternary Research 5: 215-224.
	
Newberry, J. S. (1888). "Rhaetic plants from Honduras." American Journal of Science 36: 342-351.
	
Newberry, J. S. (1888). "Triassic plants from Honduras." Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences VII: 113-115.
	
Newcomb, W. E. (1975). Geology, Structure, and Metamorphic of the Chuacús group, Rio Hondo Quadrangle and Vicinity, Guatemala. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York: 115.
	
Newcomb, W. E. (1978). "Retrograde cataclastic gneiss north of Motagua fault zone, east-central Guatemala." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 271-276.
	
Newhall, C. G. (1980). Geology of the Lake Atitlan Area, Guatemala: A Study of Subduction Zone Volcanism and Caldera Formation, Dartmouth College: 462.
	
Newhall, C. G. (1987). "Geology of the Lake Atitlán region, western Guatemala." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 33: 23-55.
	
Newhall, C. G., et al. (1987). "Recent geologic history of Lake Atitlán, a caldera lake in western Guatemala." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 33: 81-107.
	
Ng, K.-C., et al. (1992). "Hydrogeology of Grand Cayman, British West Indies: a karstic dolostone aquifer." Journal of Hydrology 134: 273-295.
	
Ni, S., et al. (2000). "Constructing synthetic from deep earth tomographic models." Geophysical Journal International 140(1): 71-82.
	
Nickell, F. A. (1968). Engineering Feasibility Studies, Atlantic - Pacific Canal, Review of Subsurface Exploration Program of Alternative Sea - Level Routes. Jacksonville, Fla., Dept. of the Army, Corps of Engineers.
	

Nicolini, P. (1977). Copper porphory on the ultra-basic complees of northeast Haiti: Provissional geologic essay (Les porphyres cupriferes et les complexes ultra-basiques du nord-est d'Haiti: Essai gitologie previsionnelle). Paris, France, Université Pierre et Marie Curie: 203.
	
Nicolini, P. (1981). "Haitian Geology (Gitologie Haitienne)." Transactions du 1er colloque sur la geologie d'Haiti, Port-au-Prince, Haiti, Ministre des Mines et des Ressources Energétiques: 105-111.
	
Nieto-Samaniego, A. F., et al. (2007). Mesa Central of Mexico; stratigraphy, structure, and Cenozoic tectonic evolution. Geology of Mexico; celebrating the centenary of the Geological Society of Mexico. S. A. Alaniz-Alvarez and A. F. Nieto-Samaniego. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America (GSA). 422: 41-70.
	Mesa Central is an elevated plateau that can be divided into two regions. In the southern region, the topography is higher than 2000 masl, except for the Aguascalientes valley. This region is mostly covered by Cenozoic volcanic rocks. The northern region shows an advanced degree of erosion, and is below 2000 masl. The crust in Mesa Central is approximately 32 km thick, and it is bordered by the Sierra Madre Oriental, which has an average crustal thickness of approximately 37 km, and the Sierra Madre Occidental, which has an average crustal thickness of approximately 40 km. The presence of magmas below the crust is inferred, suggesting an underplating process. The oldest rocks are Triassic marine facies underlain by Jurassic continental rocks. Marine environment prevailed between the Oxfordian and the Cretaceous, forming three distinctive lithological sequences, from E to W: the Valles-San Luis Potosi Platform, the Mesozoic Basin of Central Mexico, and marine volcanosedimentary Mesozoic rocks. All of the above rocks have plicative deformation and inverse faulting, which was produced during the Laramide orogeny. An angular unconformity separates these lithological sequences from the continental Cenozoic rocks. The bottom of the Cenozoic sequence consists of conglomerate with andesitic and rhyolitic volcanic rocks. These were followed by Oligocene topaz-bearing rhyolites, and the uppermost part of the Cenozoic sequence is Miocene-Quaternary alkaline basalt. The boundaries of Mesa Central are the Sector Transversal de Parras and major fault systems active during the Cenozoic to the E, W, and S. A major structure, the San Luis-Tepehuanes fault system, separates the northern and southern regions of Mesa Central. The majority of the mineral deposits found in Mesa Central or in its vicinities, especially epithermal deposits, is located on the traces of the major fault systems described above. The data available suggest that the structures associated with the major fault systems controlled the emplacement of both volcanic-hypabyssal rocks and mineral deposits.

Nieuwenhuyse, A. and S. B. Kroonenberg (1994). "Volcanic origin of Holocene beach ridges along the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica." Marine Geology 120(1-2): 13-26.
	
Nieves, D. G. C., et al. (1994). Quantitative biostratigraphy (nannofossils) of lower Carapit formation (Venezuela). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 222-224.
	
Niu, F., et al. (2007). "Receiver function study of the crustal structure of the southeastern Caribbean plate boundary and Venezuela  " Journal of Geophysical Research 112(B11308): 15.
	We have investigated crustal thickness and composition across the southeastern Caribbean plate boundary with the receiver function technique. We used teleseismic data recorded by a temporary broadband array deployed under the BOLIVAR project and the permanent national seismic network of Venezuela. We used the primary P-to-S conversion and crustal reverberations to estimate crustal thickness and average crustal V  P /V  S ratio over the region. We observe large variations in crustal thickness and Poisson's ratio. Estimated Moho depth ranges from ∼16 km beneath the southeastern Caribbean Sea to ∼52 km beneath northeastern Venezuela and the Venezuelan Andes. There is a good correlation between crustal structure and tectonic terranes. Data from the Precambrian Guayana Shield suggest that the underlying crustal structure is relatively uniform with a moderate thickness (∼37 km) and an intermediate composition. A thick crust is found below the foreland basins. The two mountain systems in northern Venezuela, the Serrania del Interior and the Serrania del Falcon, have a thin crust with arc composition and are likely dynamically supported by elastic rebound or underthrusting of the oceanic plateau that characterizes the southern Caribbean. On the other hand, the Venezuelan Andes and Perija Range on the western side of the country are probably isostatically balanced by thick crustal roots.

Noguera, F. A. S. (1993). Los-Lanudos Field - Venezuela, Maracaibo-Basin, Zulia-State. Structural Traps VIII. N. H. Foster and E. A. Beaumont. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. VIII: 217-229.
	
Nomade, S., et al. (2003). "The Guiana and the West African Shield Palaeoproterozoic grouping; new palaeomagnetic data for French Guiana and the Ivory Coast." Geophysical Journal International 154(3): 677-694.
	
Norabuena, E. O., et al. (1999). "Decelerating Nazca-South America and Nazca-Pacific Plate motions." Geophysical Research Letters 26(22): 3405-3408.
	
North, F. K. (1965). "The curvature of the Antilles." Geological Minjnbouw 44(3): 73-86.
	
Núñez, A. (1981). Informe geológico sobre los trabajos de levantamiento geológico y búsquedas a escala 1: 100 000 ejecutados en la provincia de Guantánamo (Geologic Report on the Geologic Uplift Works and Searches at Scale 1:100000 Executed in the Province of Guantanamo). La Habana, Fondo Geológico Nacional.
	
NunezCornu, F. J., et al. (2002). "Characteristics of seismicity in the coast and north of Jalisco Block, Mexico." Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 132(1-3): 141-155.
	
Nunez-Jimenez, A., et al. (1962). Geologic Map of Cuba. La Habana, Cuba, Inst. Cubano Rec. Min.
	
Nunn, J. A. (1996). "Buoyancy-driven propagation of isolated fluid-filled fractures: Implications for fluid transport in Gulf of Mexico geopressured sediments." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 101(B2): 2963-2970.
	
Nur, A. and Z. Ben-Avraham (1982). "Oceanic plateaus, the fragmentation of continents, and mountain building." Journal of Geophysical Research 87: 3644-3661.
	
Nuttall, W. L. F. (1928). "Tertiary foraminifera from the Naparima Region of Trinidad, B.W.I." Quaterly Journal of the Geological Society 84: 57-116.
	
Nyström, J., et al. (1988). "Geochemistry of volcanic rocks in a traverse through Nicaragua." Geological Magazine of Central America 8: ???
	
Nystrom, J. O., et al. (1993). "Cenozoic volcanism within the Nicaraguan geotraverse." Revista Geologica de America Central 16: 107-111.
	
Obando, J. (1986). Sedimetologia y tectonica del Cretacio y Paleogeno de la region de Golfito Peninsula de Burica y Peninsula de Osa, Provincia de Puntarenas, Costa Rica (Sedimentology and tectonics of the Cretaceous and Paleogene of the region of Golfito, Burica Peninsula and Osa Peninsula, Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica), University of Costa Rica: 211.
	
Obando, L. (1986). "Stratigraphy of the Venado Formation and overlying rocks (Miocene-Recent), Alajuela Province, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 5: ?
	
Obando, L., et al. (1991). "Sedimentology of some facies of the Coris Formation (Middle-Upper Miocene), Valle Central, Costa Rica, Central America." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 13: ?
	
Obando-Acuña, L. G. (1983). Stratigraphy and petrography of outcrops south of the Valle Central-Tarbarca area. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 136.
	
Obando-Rodriguez, J. A. (1986). Sedimentologia y tectonica del Cretacico y Paleogeno de la region de Golfito, Peninsula de Burica y Peninsula de Osa, Provincia de Puntarenas, Costa Rica (Sedimentology and tectonics of the Cretaceous and Paleogene of the Golfito region, Burica Peninsula and Osa Peninsula, Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica). Universidad de Costa Rica. Costa Rica: 211.
	
O'Donnell, T. J. (1955). Five reports on the Punta Alegre project, Camaguey Province, Cuba: interpretations of reflection seismic data. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.
	
O'Donnell, T. J. (1955). N.C.V. project, Camaguey Province, Cuba: Interpretation of Shell trade reflection seismograph data. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
O'Donnell, T. J. (1955). Reports on seismograph work in the Escambray area, Cuba. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.
	
O'Donnell, T. J. (1955). Turiquano project, Camaguey Province, Cuba: Interpretation of reflection seismic data. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
Odreman, R. O. and G. Benedetto (1977). Paleontología y edad de la formación Tinacoa, Sierra de Perijá, Estado Zulia, Venezuela (Paleontology and age of the Tinacoa Formation, Sierra de Perijá, Zulia State, Venezuela). 5th Venezuelan Geological Congress, Caracas, Venezuela: 15-32.
	
Officer, C., et al. (1959). Geophysical investigations in the eastern Caribbean - summary of the 1955 and 1956 curises. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth. L. M. Ahrens and et al. London, Pergamon. 3: 17-109.
	
Officer, C. B., et al. (1992). "Cretaceous-Tertiary events and the Caribbean caper." GSA Today 2(4): 69-70, 73-75.
	
Officer, C. B. J., et al. (1957). "Geophysical investigations in the eastern Caribbean:  Venezuelan Basin, Antilles island arc, and Puerto Rico Trench." Geological Society of America Bulletin 68: 359-378.
	
Ogujiofor, I. J. (1985). Active Convergent Margins of Northwest South America. Department of Geology and Geophysics. Honolulu, Hawaii, University of Hawaii: 100.
	
Oh, J. (1993). Basement structures associated with Mesozoic continental breakup along the southeastern United States continental margin from multichannel seismic profiles. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 302.
	
Okaya, D. A. and Z. Ben-Avraham (1987). "Structure of the continental margin of soutwestern Panama." Geological Society of America Bulletin 99: 792-802.
	
Oldemar, R. (1985). "Technical note: Coal in Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 2: ?
	
Oldemar, R. (1985). "Technical note: Peat in Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 3: ?
	
Oldemar, R. (1986). "Rocks that are weak or of low resistance: Chalk as an analytical case study." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 4: ?
	
Oldham, D. M. (1987). F-K Migration of Multichannel Seismic Data From the Yucatan Basin, Caribbean Sea. Department of Geology. College Station, TX, Texas A&M University: 132.
	
Oliver, R. (1985). A Preliminary Radiogeologic Survey of Jamaica, University of the West Indies: ?
	
Olivet, J. L., et al. (1984). "Kinematique de l'Atlantic nord et central: Centre national pour l'exploration des oceans (Kinematics of the north and central Atlantic:  National center for the exploration of the oceans)." Rapports scientifiques et techniques(54): 108.
	
Olivier, C. G. and R. Schmidt-Effing (1977). "Estratigrafia de la cubierta sedimentaria supra - ofiolitica cretacica de Costa Rica (Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous upper-ophiolitic sedimentary cover of Costa Rica)." Ciencias Tecnicas 1(1): 87-96.
	
Olson, A. A. and T. L. McGinty (1958). "Recent Marine Mollusks From the Caribbean Coast of Panama with the Description of Some New Genera and Species." Bulletin of American Paleontology 39(177): 58.
	
Olson, E. C. and P. O. McGrew (1941). "Mammalian fauna from the Pliocene of Honduras." Geological Society of America Bulletin 52: 1219-1244.
	
Olsson and Arick (1940). Annual Report, Standard Oil Company of New Jersey: ?
	
Olsson, A. A. (1922). "The Miocene of northern Costa Rica with notes on its general stratigraphic relations." Bulletin of American Paleontology 9: 181-192.
	
Olsson, A. A. (1942). "Tertiary and Quaternary Fossils From the Burica Peninsula of Panama and Costa Rica." Bulletin of American Paleontology 27(106): 106.
	
Olsson, A. A. (1942). "Tertiary and Quaternary fossils from the Burica Peninsula of Panama-Costa Rica." Bulletin of American Paleontology 27: 155-178.
	
Olsson, A. A. (1942). Tertiary deposits of northwestern South America and Panama. Proceedings of the Eighth American Scientific Congress, Geological Sciences. Washington, D.C., American Scientific Congress. 4: 231-287.
	
Omana, M. A. A. (1987). Gravity and Crustal Structure of the South-central Gulf of Mexico, the Yucatan Peninsula, and Adjacent Areas from 17°30'N to 26°N and from 84°W to 93°W. Corvallis, Oregon, Oregon State University: ?
	
Onstott, T. C. (1989). "Recent Advances on the Precambrian Geology of South and Central America and the Caribbean." Precambrian Research 42(3-4): 448.
	
Onstott, T. C. and R. B. Hargraves (1982). Paleomagnetic data and the Proterozoic apparent polar wander curve for the Venezuelan Guayana Shield. Transactions of the 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, August 16-20, 1980. W. Snow, N. Gil, R. Llinas et al. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, Unknown. 2: 475-508.
	
Orbera, L. and M. A. López (1987). "Crustal movement in western Cuba." Revista Tecnológica 17(4): 4-11.
	
Organizacion de Los Estados Americanos (1967). Reconocimiento y evaluacion de los recursos naturals de la Republica Dominicana (Reconnaisance and Evaluation of the Natural Resources of the Dominican Republic). Washington, D.C., Union Panamericana.
	
Organizacion de Los Estados Americanos (1977). Mapa de Localizacion de Indicios y Yacimiento Minerals (Localication Map of Indices and Mineral Deposits). Santo Domingo, DGM-OEA.
	
Organization of American States (1972). Geologie Republic d'Haiti (Geology of the Republic of Haiti), Organization of American States.
	
Orndorff, R. C. (1985). Annotated bibliography of coal in the Caribbean region. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey: 31.
	
Oro Alfonso, J., et al. (1987). "About the tectonic position of the ophiolites in Bahaia Honda, Pinar del Rio." Boletin de Geociences 2(1): 76-83.
	
Orozco, G. and M. Hernández (1979). "Studio mineralógico y petrográfico de las rocas presentes en las formaciones El Cobre y Sabaneta, flanco sur de la Sierra del Cristal (Mineralogic and petrographic study of the rocks present in the El Cobre and Sabaneta formations, south flank of La Sierra del Cristal)." Revista de La Minería en Cuba 5(1): ?
	
Orozco, G. and R. Rizo (1998). "Depósitos de zeolitas naturales de Cuba (Naturals zeolites deposits from Cuba)." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 335-349.
	
Orozco, M. G. (1983). "Algunas consideraciones sobre las rocas volcánicas alteradas de la Sierra del Cristal (Some considerations on the altered volcanic rocks of La Sierra del Cristal)." Rev. Geología y Minería 2: 77-84.
	
Ortega Gutierrez, F., et al. (1999). "Late Ordovician-Early Silurian continental collisional orogeny in southern Mexico and its bearing on Gondwana-Laurentia connections." Geology 27(8): 719-722.
	
Ortega Gutierrez, F., et al. (1994). Phanerozoic tectonic evolution of Mexico. Phanerozoic evolution of North American continent-ocean transitions. R. C. Speed: 265-306.
	
Ortega Gutierrez, F., et al. (2004  ). "Polyphase, high-temperature eclogite-facies metamorphism in the Chuacus Complex, Central Guatemala: Petrology, geochronology, and tectonic implications." nternational Geology Review 46(5): 445-470 
	This paper describes the first discovery of eclogite-facies rocks in the Paleozoic Chuacus basement complex of north-central Guatemala. In this area, the complex comprises a thick, polydeformed sequence of high-Al metapelite, amphibolite, and quartzofeldspathic banded gneisses and schists characterized by garnet, phengite, and kyanite. Detailed petrographic, electronprobe microanalyses, and a late Carboniferous U-Pb zircon apparent age indicate that this deeply rooted orogenic terrane may be related to the Alleghenian suturing between Gondwana and Laurentia. Eclogite-facies metamorphism is established by assemblages with omphacite-garnet-rutile ± phengite ± zoisite in mafic rocks, which are consistent with garnet-kyanite-zoisite-rutile-quartz-phengite ± staurolite ± chloritoid assemblages in pelitic rocks, and amphibole-calcite/dolomite/aragonite?- rutile-quartz-zoisite ± clinochlore ± diopside in marbles. Moreover, various textural and mineralogical features (such as radial cracks in garnet and kyanite around quartz inclusions; palisade-like coronas of a silica mineral around quartz in some carbonates; lamellar inclusions of a titaniferous phase in garnet, zoisite, and phengite; and plagioclase or white mica in some omphacite; as well as the relatively high Na<inf>2</inf>O content of garnet [up to 0.12 wt%]), suggest reliet ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism (UHPM). These conditions predated high-temperature-high-pressure hydration and decompression melting that occurred between 18 and 23 kbar and 700-770< degrees >C. This decompressional melting event of eclogitic rocks is dated as late Carboniferous by U-Pb on discordant zircons from a leucocratic neosome, and may be associated with the initial closure of Pangea. K-Ar ages of < similar-to >70-75 Ma on micas and amphibole, stable at 14 kbar and 597< degrees >C, are interpreted to record the Cretaceous obduction of Caribbean ophiolites and are assemblages onto the Chuacus complex and the southern edge of the Maya block, along the paleo-Motagua fault zone.

Ortega, J. F. and L. Hernandez (1994). Activity and perspectives of hydrocarbon exploration in the Apure region, Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 474-476.
	
Ortega-Gutierrez, F. (1981). "Metamorphic belts of southern Mexico and their tectonic significance." Geofisical Internacional 20: 177-202.
	
Ortega-Gutierrez, F. (1990). H-3 Acapulco Trench to the Gulf of Mexico across southern Mexico:  Centennial Continental/Ocean Transect #13, TRA-H3. Boulder, C), Geological Society of America.
	
Ortega-Gutierrez, F., et al. (1984). Phanerozoic tectonic evolution of Mexico. Phanerozoic Evolution of North American Continent-Ocean Transition. R. C. Speed. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America: 265-306.
	
Ortega-Obregon, C., et al. (2008). "Middle-Late Ordovician magmatism and Late Cretaceous collision in the southern Maya Block, Rabinal-Salama area, central Guatemala; implications for North America-Caribbean Plate tectonics." Geological Society of America Bulletin 120(5-6): 556-570.
	The Rabinal-Salama area in central Guatemala provides critical data bearing on the relationships between the North American and Caribbean Plates because it lies within the Polochic-Motagua fault zone that separates the two plates. The cumulative Cenozoic sinistral displacement across this zone that separates the Maya and Chortis Terranes has been variously estimated to be approximately 125 km or approximately 1100 km, evidence for which should be recorded in the rocks of the studied area. The Rabinal-Salama area lies between two of the east-west faults within the Motagua fault zone, the Polochic Fault, and the Baja Verapaz shear zone. The shear zone separates the Maya Block from eclogitic rocks of the Chuacus Complex that pass southward into ophiolitic rocks and melanges that define a suture between the Chuacus Complex and the Chortis Block. The following sequence of events is recorded in the Rabinal-Salama area: (1) low-grade, pre-Silurian siliciclastic metasedimentary rocks (San Gabriel unit), that are intruded by (2) ca. 462-453 Ma calc-alkaline, peraluminous, S-type Rabinal granite suite, and unconformably overlain by (3) very low grade clastic and calcareous metasedimentary rocks (Santa Rosa Group) containing Mississippian conodonts and pebbles of granite, sandstone, and phyllite derived from the older units. The Rabinal granite suite is inferred to be rift related, inheriting its calc-alkaline signature from its source, along with the ca. 1 Ga xenocrystic zircons (upper intercept U-Pb data). Deformation in all these Paleozoic rocks produced a steeply south-southwest-dipping cleavage (chlorite and sericite) and a stretched quartz lineation. These fabrics become more intense adjacent to the Baja Verapaz shear zone, where C-S fabrics and rotated porphyroclasts indicate a reverse sense of motion with a sinistral component. White mica in the shear zone yields 74-65 Ma K-Ar ages, which are inferred to closely postdate the time of crystallization. Thus, although evidence for major sinistral displacement is absent, the kinematics are consistent with uplift and exhumation of the Chuacus Complex during obduction of the Baja Verapaz Ophiolite onto the Paleozoic rocks of the Rabinal-Salama area in latest Mesozoic-Paleocene. This is inferred to have been produced during collision of the Cuban Arc and Chortis Block with the southern Maya Block. Restoration of the early Mesozoic approximately 70 degrees anticlockwise rotation of the Maya Block places the Rabinal-Salama area adjacent to northeastern Mexico, where comparable continental-shallow marine, Paleozoic rocks occur near Ciudad Victoria overlying the ca. 1 Ga Oaxaquia basement.

Ortmann, K. and L. J. Wood (1995). "Successful application of 3-D seismic coherency models to predict stratigraphy, offshore eastern Trinidad." Proceedings of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists 1995 Meeting, Houston, TX: 687-690.
	
Orvis, K. H. and S. P. Horn (2000). "Quaternary glaciers and climate on Cerro Chirripo, Costa Rica." Quaternary Research (New York) 54(1): 24-37.
	
Osete, M. L., et al. (2000). Southward migration of continental volcanic activity in the Sierra de Las Cruces, Mexico: Palaeomagnetic and radiometric evidence. The influence of plate interaction on post-Laramide magmatism and tectonics in Mexico. L. Ferrari, J. M. Stock and J. Urrutia Fucugauchi. 318: 201-215.
	New Palaeomagnetic data for 30 sites (271 samples) and K-Ar data from five units in the Sierra de Las Cruces, western Basin of Mexico, provide constraints on the spatial-temporal evolution of arc magmatism in the central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The normal and reversed directions show a polarity pattern with a consistent spatial zonation perpendicular to the NNW-SSE trend of the range. The magnetostratigraphy and K-Ar dates indicate that volcanic activity in the Sierra de Las Cruces migrated southeastward at a mean rate of 1.6 cm/a, between 3.6 and 1.8 Ma, and that the rate of migration may have been higher, up to 4 cm/a, during the Gauss Chron. Normal and reversed directions pass the reversal test at a 95% confidence level. The mean Plio-Quaternary palaeomagnetic direction for Sierra de Las Cruces is D = 350.7 degrees , I = 30.6 degrees (N = 25, k = 30.7, alpha (sub 95) = 5.3 degrees ). The declination deviates to the west of the expected direction, which suggests that small counterclockwise rotations could take place during formation of the Sierra de Las Cruces volcanics.

Osiecki, P. S. (1981). "Estimated intensities and probable tectonic sources of historic (pre-1898) Honduran earthquakes." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 71: 865-881.
	
Osiris de Leon, R. (1983). Aspectos Geologicos y Hidrogeologicos de la Region Suroeste (Geologic and Hydrogeologic Aspects of the Southwest Region). Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural.
	
Osmond, J. K., et al. (1965). "230Th/234U age of the Pleistocene corals and oolites of Florida." Journal of Geophysical Research 70: 1843-1847.
	
Ostos, M. (1990). "Tectonic evolution of the south-central margin of the Caribbean based on geochemical dates (Evolucion tectonica del margen Sur-Central del Caribe basado en dates geoquimicos)." GEOS 30: 1-294.
	
Ostos, M., et al. (2005). The alpine-type Tinaquillo peridotite complex, Venezuela; fragment of a Jurassic rift zone? Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 207-222.
	
Ostos, M. and V. B. Sisson (2005). Geochemistry and tectonic setting of igneous and metaigneous rocks of northern Venezuela. Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 119-156.
	
Ostos, M., et al. (2005). Overview of the southeast Caribbean-South American plate boundary zone. Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 53-89.
	
Ostos, R. M. (1990). Tectonic Evolution of the South-central Caribbean Based on Geochemical Data. Department of Geology & Geophysics. Houston, TX, Rice University: 459.
	
Osuna, S., et al. (1994). Estudio geologico en el frento de montana de los andes de barinas, Venezuela occidental (Geologic study of the mountain front of the Andes of Barinas, western Venezuela). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 167-170.
	
Otero Marrero, R. and R. Tenreyro Perez (1998). Regional geological and geophysical sections in Cuba (Secciones geologico-geofisicas regionales de Cuba). Third Cuban congress on geology and mining (III Congreso cubano de geologia y mineria). Havana, Cuba. 15: 17-21.
	Three sections through western, central and eastern Cuba were made on the basis of geological data, seismologic and gravimagnetometrics. The features that are common to all the lines are described as follows: the regional obduction of the volcanic arc and its basement over the southern part of the continental crust, the thrusting of the basinal deep waters rocks over the carbonate platforms, the crystalline basement presents high density and high velocity. Lying at 10-12 km depth. It is assumed the simple shear model (Wernike, 1985) for the preorogenic stage of the continental margins (J-K<2) ) with an extensive tectonic. During the orogeny stage is assumed the inversion of all the basin of the continental margin thrusting along preorogenic faults. The deep fault of the basement also moves in inverse sense. The style of folding of each thrusting belt considers the presence of several levels of detachment.

Pacheco, J. and M. Protti (1990). "The March 25, 1990, earthquake sequence at the entrance of the Nicoya Gulf, Costa Rica:  Teleseismic source parameters and rupture history." EOS (American Geophysical Union Transactions) 71: 1438.
	
Pacheco, J. F., et al. (1999). "Tectonic significance of an earthquake sequence in the Zacoalco half-graben, Jalisco, Mexico." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12(6): 557-565.
	
Pacheco, J. F., et al. (1999). "Tectonic implications of the earthquake swarm of 1997 in the Michoacan Triangle, Mexico." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 12(6): 567-577.
	
Pachon, F. (1980). Revision Estratigrafica del Campo Casabe (Stratigraphic Revision of the Casabe Field), Empresa Colombiana de Petroleos (ECOPETROL, Bogota, Colombia): ?
	
Pachut, J. F., et al. (1995). "Depth-related associations of cryptic-habitat bryozoans from the leeward fringing reef of Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles." Palaios 10(3): 254-267.
	
Page, R. D. and C. Lydeard (1994). "Toward a cladistic biogeography of the Caribbean." Cladistics 10: 21-41.
	
Page, W. D. (1986). Seismic Geology and Seismicity of Northwestern Colombia, Integral Ingenieros Consultores, Medellin (Colombia); ISA, Medellin (Colombia) and Woodward-Clyde Consultants, San Francisco (California): 156.
	
Pagnacco, P. F. and L. Radelli (1962). "Notes on the geology of the isles of Providencia and Santa Cataline (Caribbean Sea, Colombia)." Geologia Colombiana 3: 125-132.
	
Palca, J. (1987). "Bleaching of Caribbean corals a cause for concern." Nature 330(6146): 307.
	
Palmer, D. K. (1945). "Notes on the Formainifera From Bowden, Jamaica." Bulletin of American Paleontology 29(115): 82.
	
Palmer, H. C. (1963). Geology of the Moncion-Jarabacoa Area, Dominican Republic, Princeton University.
	
Palmer, H. C. and F. Nagle (1979). Geology of the Moncion-Jarabacoa area, Dominican-Republic. Hispaniola: Tectonic Focal Point of the Northern Caribbean, Three Tectonic Studies in the Dominican-Republic. B. Lidz. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 29-68.
	
Palmer, K. V. W. (1945). "Fossil Fresh-water Mollusca From the State of Monagas." Bulletin of American Paleontology 31(118): 34.
	
Palmer, K. V. W. (1963). "Type Specimens of Marine Mollusca Described by P. P. Carpenter from the West Coast of Mexico and Panama." Bulletin of American Paleontology 46(211): 124.
	
Palmer, R. H. (1934). "The geology of Havana, Cuba, and vicinity." Journal of Geology 42(2): 123-145.
	
Palmer, R. H. (1942). "Geology and oil prospect of Cuba." Proceedings of the Eighth American Scientific Congress, Geological Sciences 4: 627-637.
	
Palmer, R. H. (1945). "Outline of the geology of Cuba." Journal of Geology 53: 1-34.
	
Palmer, R. H. (1948). "List of Palmer Cuban Fossil Localities." Bulletin of American Paleontology 31(128): 178.
	
Panagiotopoulos, D. G. (1995). "Long-term earthquake prediction in Central America and Caribbean Sea based on the time- and magnitude-predictable model." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 85(4): 1190-1201.
	
Panama Canal Company (1966). IOCS Memorandum PCC-4 - The Rio Bayano Basin, A Geological Report, ?
	
Pandolfi, J. M., et al. (2001). Geologically sudden extinction of two widespread Late Pleistocene Caribbean reef corals. Evolutionary Patterns: Growth, Form, and Tempo in the Fossil Record. J. B. C. Jackson, S. Lidgard and F. K. McKinney. Chicago, University of Chicago press: 120-158.
	
Paniagua, S. (1985). "Geochemistry of trace elements in Upper Cenozoic volcanic rocks of the central region of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 2: ???
	
Paniagua, S. (1986). "Technical note: Considerations about volcanic risk in Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 4: ???
	
Paniagua, S. (1988). "Technical note: Workshop on the prevention and prediction of natural disasters in Central America." Geological Magazine of Central America 8: ???
	
Paniagua, S. (1989). "Conference report: Symposium on the energy and mineral potential of Central America and the Caribbean, San José, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 10: ???
	
Paniagua-Pérez, S. (1975). Geology and Hydrogeological Aspects of the First Field of Wells for Supplementation of Water for the City of San José, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 152.
	
Papazachos, B. C. (1964). "Dispersion of Rayleigh waves in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea." Seismological Society of America Bulletin 54: 909-926.
	
Pardo Echarte, M. (1996). Zonacion gravimagnetica y model fisico-geologico conceptual del cinturon plegado cubano (Gravimagnetic zonation and conceptual physical-geologic model of the Cuban fold belt). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 70-80.
	
Pardo, G. (1966). "Stratigraphy and structure of Central Cuba." New Orleans Geological Society Log.(6
12): 1, 3.
	
Pardo, G. (1975). Geology of Cuba. The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. A. E. Nairn and F. G. Stehli. New York, Plenum Press. 3: 553-615.
	
Pardo, M. (1988). Interpretación de los datos geofísicos con fines de la cartografía geólogo-estructural de la República de Cuba (Interpretation of the Geophysical Data with reference to the geologic-structural mapping of the Republic of Cuba). La Habana, nstituto de Geología y Paleontología: 16.
	
Pardo, M. (1990). La constitución geológica del macizo de la isla de la Juventud y su metalogénia endógena vinculada al magmatismo ácido (The geologic constitution of the massif of La Isla de la Juventud and its endogenous metalogeny related to acidic magmatism). Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 68-81.
	
Pardo, M. (1991). Caracterización geólogo-geofísica de las estructuras dómicas tardías de los macizos metamórficos Isla de la Juventud y Escambray (Geologic-geophysical Characterization of the late domica? structures of the metamorphic massifs of the Isla de la Juventud and Escambray). La Habana, Instituto de Geología y Paleontología, Union de Geologia: 13.
	
Pardo, M., et al. (1990). Interpretación de los datos geofísicos con los fines de la cartografía geólogo-estructural de la isla de Cuba (Interpretation of the geophysical data with respect to the geologic-structural mapping of the island of Cuba). Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 43-51.
	
Pardo, M., et al. (1988). "New data about the structural geology of the Isla de Juventud. Part I: Deep structure of the metamorphic massif." Revista Tecnológica 18.(1): 3-15.
	
Pardo, M. and et al. (1987). Nota explicativa de la base geofísica (compilada) del mapa Metalogénico-Pronostico de la República de Cuba a escala 1:500 000 (Explicative Note of the (Compiled) Geophysical Base of the Metalogenic-Prognostic Map of the Republic of Cuba at Scale 1:500000). La Habana, Instituto de Geología y Paleontología: 19.
	
Pardo, M. and G. Suarez (1995). "Shape of the subducted Rivera and Cocos plates in southern Mexico: Seismic and tectonic implications." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 100(B7): 12357-12373.
	
Pardo-Casas, F. and P. Molnar (1987). "Relative motion of the Nazca (Farallon) and South American plates since Late Cretaceous time." Tectonics 6(3): 233-248.
	
Paredes, I., et al. (1994). Sea-level fluctuations from the Barremian to the Paliogene eastern Venezulezn Basin. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 234-236.
	
Paredes-Paz, J. R. (1976). "Preliminary geochemical reconnaissance of an area on part of the Abra and Río Grande sheets, Costa Rica." 55.
	
Paris, G., et al. (2000). Map and Database of Quaternary Faults and Folds in Colombia and its Offshore Regions, U.S. Geological Survey: 66.
	
Paris, G., et al. (1989). "Evidencias de actividades neotectonicas en el sur-occidente colombiano (Evidences of neotectonic activities in south-west Colombia)." Memoir V Congreso Colombia Geologica 1: 193-213.
	
Park, C. F., Jr. (1942). "Manganese deposits of Cuba." U.S. Geologic Survey Bulletin 935-B: 75-97.
	
Parker, F. L. (1954). "Distribution of the Foraminifera in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico." Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College 111: 588.
	
Parnaud, F., et al. (1995). Petroleum geology of the central part of the Eastern Venezuelan Basins. Petroleum Basins of South America. A. J. Tankard, R. S. Soruco and H. J. Welsink, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 62: 741-756.
	
Parnaud, F., et al. (1994). Bio-Lithostratigraphic model of western Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 161-163.
	
Parnell, J., et al. (in press). "Oil migration and bitumen formation in a hydrothermal system, Cuba." Journal of Geochemical Exploration 3978: 1-7.
	
Parson, K. M. (1993). Taphonomic Attributes of Mollusks as Predictors of Environment of Deposition in Modern Carbonate Systems: Northeastern Caribbean (Deposition). Rochester, New York, The University of Rochester: 434.
	
Parsons Corporation, et al. (1972). The Geology of Western Nicaragua: Tax Improvements and Natural Resources Inventory Project, Final Technical Report, IV: 221.
	
Parsons, K. M. (1993). Taphonomic Attributes of Mollusks as Predictors of Environment of Deposition in Modern Carbonate Systems: Northeastern Caribbean. Department of Geological Sciences. Rocherster, NY, University of Rochester: 434.
	
Passalacqua, H., et al. (1995). Crustal architecture and strain partitioning in the Eastern Venezuelan Ranges. Petroleum Basins of South America. A. J. Tankard, R. Suarez and H. J. Welsink. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 62: 667-679.
	
Patino, L. C., et al. (1993). "A geochemical arc-transect:  Honduras, Central America." EOS (American Geophysical Union Transactions) 74: 349.
	
Patino, L. C., et al. (2000). "Local and regional variations in Central American arc lavas controlled by variations in subducted sediment input." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 138(3): 265-283.
	
Patterson, S. H. and H. H. Murray (1984). Kaolin, refractory clay, ball clay, and halloysite in North America, Hawaii, and the Caribbean region. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey: 56.
	
Paul, C. R. C. (1989). "Caribbean molluscs and plate tectonics." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 25: 16-26.
	
Pavlis, T. L. and R. L. Bruhn (1983). "Deep-seated flow as a mechanism for the uplift of broad forearc ridges and its role in the exposure of high P/T metamorphic terranes." Tectonics 2: 473-497.
	
Pavlov, I. (1970). "Informe sobre los trabajos de búsqueda-levantamiento a escala 1:50 000 realizados en el área comprendida entre las ciudades de Cumanayagua y Fomento (provincia Las Villas) (Report on the works of searches-uplift at scale 1:50000 realized in the comprendida? area between the cities of Cumanayagua and Fomento (Las Villas province)."
	
Payne, N. (1991). An evaluation of post-middle Miocene geological sequences, offshore Trinidad. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago. K. A. Gillezeau. San Fernando, Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago: 70-87.
	
Pearce, J. A. (1980). Geochemical evidence for the genesis and eruptive setting of lavas from Tethyen ophiolites. Ophiolites (Proceedings of the Institute of Ophiolite Sympium, Cyprus 1979). Panayioton: 261-272.
	
Pearce, J. A. and M. J. Norry (1979). "Petrogenetic implications of Ti, Zr, Y and Nb variations in volcanic rocks." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 69: 33-47.
	
Pearce, J. A. and D. W. Peate (1995). "Tectonic implications of the composition of volcanic arc magmas." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 23: 251-285.
	
Pecheux, M. and F. Michaud (1997). "Yucatan subsurface stratigraphy: Implications and constraints for the Chicxulub impact: Comment." Geology 25(1): 92-93.
	
Pecora, L., et al. (1999). "Paleogene accretion and dextral displacement of an oceanic terrane in northern Peru." Comptes Rendus de L Academie Des Sciences Serie II Fascicule A - Sciences de La Terre et Des Planetes 329(6): 389-396.
	
Peebles, M. W. (1993). Carbonate Sedimentology and Foraminiferal Ecology of Deep, Current-Swept Platforms, Northern Nicaraguan Rise, Caribbean Sea. Department of Geology. Tampa, FL, University of South Florida: 200.
	
Peebles, M. W., et al. (1997). "Benthic foraminiferal assemblages from current-swept carbonate platforms of the Northern Nicaraguan Rise, Caribbean sea." Journal of Foraminiferal Research 27(1): 42-50.
	
Pennington, W. D. (1980). Subduction of the Eastern Panama Basin and Seismotectonics of Northwestern South America. Department of Environmental Sciences. Madison, Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin: 175.
	
Pennington, W. D. (1981). "Subduction of the eastern Panama Basin and seismotectonics of northwestern South America." Journal of Geophysical Research 86(B11): 10753-10770.
	
Pennington, W. D., et al. (1979). "Results of a microearthquake reconnaissance survey of Bucaramanga, Colombia." Geophysical Research Letters 6: 65-68.
	
Pennington, W. D., et al. (1979). "Results of a reconnaissance microearthquake survey of Bucaramanga, Colombia." Geophysical Research Letters 6: 65-68.
	
Peralta-Villar, J. (1985). Geologie und erzführung in der umgebung des intrusionsbrekzienkorpers von Los Jobos/Pedro Garcia? Dominikanische Republik, Institut der Universitat Heidelberg, West Germany: 111.
	
Pereira, J. (1977). An Engineering Seismology Study of Jamaica. London, Imperial College, London University: ???
	
Pereira, J. G., et al. (1985). "Interpretacion sismo-estraigrafica del sector oriental de la cuenca de Carupano (Seismo-stratigraphic interpretation of the eastern sector of Carupano Basin)." Proceedings Vl Congress Geologica Venezolano, Caracas: 454-464.
	
Perera Falcon, C. (1996). Vulcanitas de la region de Pina, Ciego de Avila (Volcanics of the region of Pina, Ciego de Avila). Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 200.
	
Perez De Armas, J. G. (2005). Tectonic and thermal history of the western Serrania del Interior foreland fold and thrust belt and Guarico Basin, north central Venezuela: Implications of new apatite fission track analysis and seismic interpretation. Houston, Rice University: 751.
	
Perez, G. and Y. Aggarwal (1981). "Present day tectonics of SE Caribbean and NE Venezuela." Journal of Geophysical Research 86: 10791-10804.
	
Perez, M., et al. (1979). "Características generales del magmatismo de la Sierra Maestra (General characterics of the magmatism of La Sierra Maestra)." Revista de La Minería en Cuba 5(1): 32-38.
	
Pérez, M., et al. (19??). "Caracteristicas generales del magmatismo Sierra Maestra (General characteristics of Sierra Maestra magmatism)."??? ???: 32-38.
	
Perez, M., et al. (1986). "Particularidades petrológicas de los granitoides de las provincias villaclareñas (Petrologic particularities of the granitoides of the Villaclarenas provinces)." Serie Geológica del Centro de Investigaciones Geológicas 3: 3-14.
	
Pérez, M., et al. (1986). "Particularidades petrologicas de los granitoides de las provincias Villaclareñas (Cuba) [Petrological particularities of the granites of Villa Clara Province (areas) (Cuba)]." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 3: 3-14.
	
Perez, M., et al. (1992). "Quimismo de los granitoides del arco volcánico cretácico de Cuba central (Chemistry of the granitoids of the Cretaceous volcanic arc of central Cuba)." Resúmenes 13va Conferencia Geológica del Caribe: 102.
	
Perez, M., et al. (1989). "Granitoides de Cuba, posición geológica y perspectivas metalogénicas (Granitoides of Cuba, geologic position and metalogenic perspectives)." Resúmenes Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 88.
	
Pérez, O., Bilham, R., Bendick, R., Velandia., J., Hernadez, C., Hoyer, M. and Kozuch, M. (2001). "Velocity field across the southern Caribbean plate boundary and estimates of Caribbean-South American plate motion using GPS geodesy 1994-2000." Geophysical Research Letters 28: 2987-2990.
	
Pérez, O. J. and Y. P. Aggarwal (1981). "Present-day tectonics of the southeastern Caribbean and northeastern Venezuela." Journal of Geophysical Research 86(B11): 10791-10804.
	
Perez, O. J., et al. (2001). "Velocity field across the southern Caribbean plate boundary and estimates of Caribbean/South-American plate motion using GPS geodesy 1994-2000." Geophysical Research Letters 28(15): 2987-2990.
	
Pérez Pérez, M., et al. (1984). "Algunas particularidades del metasomatismo y del metamorfismo de contacto en las rocas del macizo Daiquirí (Some particularities of the metasomatism and contact metamorphic in the rocks of the Daiquiri massif)." Revista de Minería y Geología 3: 41-66.
	
Pérez-Arias, C. L. (1989). Preliminary Geologic-Geotechnical Characterization of the Rocky Core at the Site of the Siquirres Hydroelectric Site, Limón Province, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 77.
	
Perez-Estaun, et al. (2002). "Geologic evolution of the Northern Margin of the Caribbean Plate, Dominican Republic." Acta Geologica Hispanica 37(2-3): 77-78.
	
Perez-Othon, J. and V. A. Yarmoliuk (1985). Geologic Map of Cuba. La Habana, Cuba, Ministerio de la Industria Basica, Centro de Investigaciones Geologicas.
	
Pérez-Parcareu, L. J. (19??). "Geologic-geophysic considerations on northern Pinar del Rio." Ciencias Técnicas???: 117-131.
	
Pérez-Vázquez, R. G. and J. C. Melgarejo (1998). "El yacimiento Matahambre (Pinar del Río, Cuba): estructura y mineralogía (The Matahambre ore deposit (Pinar del Río, Cuba): Structure and mineralogy)." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 133-152.
	
Perfit, M. and E. Williams (1990). "Geological contraints and biological retrodictions in the evolution of the Caribbean sea and its surroundings." Biogeography of the West Indies: Past, Present, and Future: 47-102.
	
Perfit, M. and E. E. Williams (1990). Geological constraints and biological retrodictions in the evolution of the Caribbean sea and its surroundings. Biogeography of the West Indies: Past, Present, and Future. C. Woods. Gainesville, FL, Sandhill Crane: 47-102.
	
Perfit, M. R. (1977). "Petrology and geochemistry of mafic rocks from the Cayman Trench: Evidence for spreading." Geology 5: 105-110.
	
Perfit, M. R. and B. C. Heezen (1978). "The geology and evolution of the Cayman trench." Geological Society of America Bulletin 89: 1155-1174.
	
Perfit, M. R., et al. (1980). "Chemistry, origin and significance of metamorphic rocks from the Puerto Rico Trench." Marine Geology 34: 125-156.
	
Perry, C. T. (2000). "Factors controlling sediment preservation on a North Jamaican fringing reef; a process-based approach to microfacies analysis." Journal of Sedimentary Research 70(3): 633-648.
	
Perry, E. and et al. (1989). "Geologic and environmental aspects of surface cementation, north coast, Yucatan, Mexico." Geology 17: 818-821.
	
Perry, E., et al. (1995). "Ring of Cenotes (sinkholes), northwest Yucatan, Mexico: Its hydrogeologic characteristics and possible association with the Chicxulub impact crater." Geology 23(1): 17-20.
	
Perry, R. K. (1984). Bathymetry of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Seal, American Association of Petroleum Geologists.
	
Persad, K. (1986). Presentation of a New Tectonic Map of Trinidad and Tobago. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Persad, K. M. (1984). Geologic Tectonic Map of Trinidad and Tobago. United States, Robertson Research.
	
Persad, K. M. (1984). Geologic-tectonic map of Trinidad and Tobago. ???, ???
	
Persad, K. M. (1985). Outline of the geology of the Trinidad area. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, July 7-15, 1979. 4: 738-758.
	
Persad, K. M. (1985). Outline of the Geology of Trinidad. Fourth Latin American Geological Congress, Trinidad and Tobago, ???, ???
	
Persad, K. M., et al. (1993). Tectonic control in source rock maturation and oil migration in Trinidad and Implications for petroleum exploration. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region:  A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration. J. L. Pindell and R. F. Perkins. ???, Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation: 237-249.
	
Pessagno, E. (1963). "Planktonic foraminifera from the Juana Díaz Formation, Puerto Rico." Micropaleontology 9(1): 53-60.
	
Pessagno, E. A., Jr. (1971). "Jurassic and Cretaceous Hagiastridae From the Blake-Bahama Basin (Site 5a, JOIDES Leg 1) and the Great Valley equence, California Coast Ranges." Bulletin of American Paleontology 6-(264): 83.
	
Pessagno, E. A., Jr. (1972). "Cretaceous Radiolaria. Pt. I: The Phaseliformidae, New Family, and Other Spongodiscacea From the Upper Cretacoues Portion of the Great Valley Sequence. Pt. II: Pseudoaulophicidae Riedel From the Cretaceous of California and the Blake-Bahama Basin (JOIDES Leg I)." Bulletin of American Paleontology 61(270): 65.
	
Pessagno, E. A., Jr., et al. (1999). Stratigraphic evidence for northwest to southeast tectonic transport of Jurassic terranes in central Mexico and the Caribbean (western Cuba). Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 123-150.
	
Pessagno, E. A., Jr. and C. Martin (2003). "Tectonostratigraphic evidence for the origin of the Gulf of Mexico." AAPG Memoir 79: 46-74.
	Tectonostratigraphic data derived from ongoing biostratigraphic, chronostratigraphic, paleobathymetric, paleobiogeographic, and lithostratigraphic investigations in west-central and east-central Mexico suggest that the Gulf of Mexico formed in two phases: Phase 1: Rifting and subsequent sea-floor spreading during the Late Jurassic (middle Oxfordian). All but the southwestern portion of the Gulf of Mexico formed during Phase 1. Phase 2: Northwest-to-southeast tectonic transport of allochthonous San Pedro del Gallo terrane remnants along the west side of Walper Megashear during the Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. Where the stratigraphic successions are complete, megafossil data indicates that the San Pedro del Gallo terrane was situated at Southern Boreal paleolatitudes (>30 degrees N) in the Nevadan back arc domain during the Middle Jurassic (late Bathonian to early Callovian) and was subsequently carried to lower paleolatitudes during the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous. For example, in the Huayacocotla remnant, the Boreal ammonite Kepplerites was recovered in the subsurface from the Palo Blanco Formation by Cantu-Chapa. In North America, Kepplerites is known from the Izee terrane (east-central Oregon), Western Interior (Montana and Saskatchewan), and northward to southern Alaska. Radiolarian, calpionellid, ammonite, and bivalve faunal data indicate that the Huayacocotla remnant had been transported to Northern Tethyan paleolatitudes (23 degrees N to 29 degrees N) during the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian and to Central Tethyan paleolatitudes (<23 degrees N) by the beginning of the Early Cretaceous.

Pessagno, E. A., Jr. and C. Martin (2003). Tectonostratigraphic evidence for the origin of the Gulf of Mexico. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, Buffler, Richard T. Blickwede, Jon F. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 46-74.
	Tectonostratigraphic data derived from ongoing biostratigraphic, chronostratigraphic, paleobathymetric, paleobiogeographic, and lithostratigraphic investigations in west-central and east-central Mexico suggest that the Gulf of Mexico formed in two phases: Phase 1: Rifting and subsequent sea-floor spreading during the Late Jurassic (middle Oxfordian). All but the southwestern portion of the Gulf of Mexico formed during Phase 1. Phase 2: Northwest-to-southeast tectonic transport of allochthonous San Pedro del Gallo terrane remnants along the west side of Walper Megashear during the Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous. Where the stratigraphic successions are complete, megafossil data indicates that the San Pedro del Gallo terrane was situated at Southern Boreal paleolatitudes (>30 degrees N) in the Nevadan back arc domain during the Middle Jurassic (late Bathonian to early Callovian) and was subsequently carried to lower paleolatitudes during the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous. For example, in the Huayacocotla remnant, the Boreal ammonite Kepplerites was recovered in the subsurface from the Palo Blanco Formation by Cantu-Chapa. In North America, Kepplerites is known from the Izee terrane (east-central Oregon), Western Interior (Montana and Saskatchewan), and northward to southern Alaska. Radiolarian, calpionellid, ammonite, and bivalve faunal data indicate that the Huayacocotla remnant had been transported to Northern Tethyan paleolatitudes (23 degrees N to 29 degrees N) during the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian and to Central Tethyan paleolatitudes (<23 degrees N) by the beginning of the Early Cretaceous.

Pestman, P. J., et al. (1994). Influencia tectonica y de fluctuaciones del mar en sistemas fluviales, con ejemplos del eoceno en la cuenca de Maracaibo, Venezuela (Tectonic and sea level influences on fluvial systems, with Eocene examples from the Maracaibo Basin ). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 65-84.
	
Peter, G. and G. K. Westbrook (1976). "Tectonics of the southwestern North Atlantic and the Barbados Ridge Complex." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 60: 1078-1106.
	
Peters, J. L., et al. (2000). Terrigenous matter and dispersed ash in sediment from the Caribbean Sea; results from Leg 165. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. P. Garman. 165: 115-124.
	Records of long-term sediment deposition in the Caribbean Sea were recovered during Ocean Drilling Program Leg 165. Samples from the Cayman Rise (Site 998), the Colombian Basin (Site 999), and the Hess Escarpment (Site 1001) were analyzed for calcium carbonate (CaCO (sub 3) ) by coulometry and for selected major and trace elements by X-ray fluorescence and inductively coupled plasma-emission spectrometry. These data were used to quantify in the bulk sediment the absolute concentrations of CaCO (sub 3) , terrigenous matter, and dispersed ash (as opposed to discrete ash layers). The weight percent of terrigenous matter was computed using a Cr-based normative calculation, and dispersed ash content was calculated by difference; the assumption of a three component system (CaCO (sub 3) , ash, and terrigenous matter) is justified by and consistent with petrographic analysis. Sites 998 and 999 broadly exhibit the same pattern of terrigenous accumulation. Both show a general decrease in terrigenous accumulation rates during the Oligocene and early Miocene, except for a sharp increase at Site 998 during the early Oligocene (30-40 Ma) and significant increases in the late Miocene and late Pliocene/early Pleistocene. The same pattern in terrigenous accumulation is recorded at Sites 925 and 929 in the Ceara Rise (Atlantic Ocean), which receives input from an Amazon River source, demonstrating that Sites 925, 929, 998, and 999 collectively provide a circum-Andean record of tectonic uplift, with the Leg 165 sites responding to inputs from the Magdelena River system. Both Sites 998 and 999 appear to be responding to South and Central American inputs, particularly after the middle Miocene; however, the variation in the terrigenous, carbonate, and dispersed ash at Site 998 point to an erosional event during the Oligocene that is apparently unique to this site's location. Dispersed ash commonly accounts for 15-20 wt% of the bulk sediment, and in some cases up to 45 wt%. The accumulation of dispersed ash typically leads the accumulation of discrete layers by 2-10 m.y. These changes in sediment composition could signify (1) the distance from the source of volcanism, (2) periods of small volume volcanic activity preceding the large eruptions, or (3) the transportation to the deep sea of terrestrially deposited ash preceding the large eruptions.

Petersen, E. W. and H. Zantop (1980). "The Oxec deposit, Guatemala: an ophiolite copper occurrence." Economic Geology 75: 1053-1065.
	
Peterson, J. A. (1983). Petroleum Geology and Resources of Southeastern Mexico, Northern Guatemala and Belize.
	
Peterson, L. C., et al. (2000). Late Quaternary stratigraphy and sedimentation at Site 1002, Cariaco Basin (Venezuela). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Caribbean Ocean history and the  Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary event; covering Leg 165 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Miami, Florida, to San Juan Puerto Rico, sites 998-1002, 19 December 1995-17 February 1996,. R. M. Leckie, H. Sigurdsson, G. D. Acton et al. College Station, TX, Texas A & M University, Ocean Drilling Program. 165: 85-99.
	
Petty Geophysical Co. (1955). Geophysical Report [Experimental work, Escambray area, Las Villas Province, Cuba], Petty Geophysical Co.: 8.
	
Petty Geophysical Co. (1955). Geophysical Report [Reflection Seismograph on Punta Alegre Prospect, Camaguey Province, Cuba [plus supplemental report]], Petty Geophysical Co.: 14.
	
Petty Geophysical Co. (1955). Geophysical Report [Reflection Seismograph on Turiquano prospect, Camaguey Province, Cuba, Petty Geophysical Co.: 6.
	
Petty Geophysical Co. (1956). Geophysical Report [Reflection and Refraction Seismograph, Escambray Area, Las Villas Province, Cuba], Petty Geophysical Co.
	
Petuch, E. J. (1980). A Re-analysis of Neogene Caribbean Provinciality With Reference to the Discovery of a Relict Caenogastropod Fauna Off Northern South America. Department of Geological Sciences. Miami, FL, University of Miami: 174.
	
Petzall, C., Ed. (1972). Transactions of the 6th Caribbean Geological Conference, Margarita Island, Venezuela, 6-14 July 1971.
	
Petzall, C., Ed. (1972). Transactions of the 6th Caribbean Geological Conference, Margarita Island, Venezuela, July 6-14, 1971. Caracas, Escuela de Geologia y Minas.
	
Petzet, A. (2000). "Heavy oil production rising, but exploration low in Cuba." Oil and Gas Journal 98(14): 70-71.
	
Petzet, G. A. (1990). "Complex geology yields surprise off Trinidad." Oil and Gas Journal 88(29): 73.
	
Pflum, C. E. and W. E. Frerichs (1976). Gulf of Mexico Deep-Water Foraminifers, Cushman Foundation for Foraminiferal Research. 14: 7-125.
	
Phair, R. L. (1984). Seismic Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous Rocks in the Southwestern Florida Straits, Southeastern Gulf of Mexico. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 319.
	
Phair, R. L. and R. T. Buffler (1983). Pre-Middle Cretaceous geologic history of the deep southeastern Gulf of Mexico. Seismic Expression of Structural Styles- A Picture and Work Atlas. A. W. Bally. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 15: 2.2.3-141.
	
Phillips, P. J. (1983). Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and Petrologic Evolution of Tertiary Sediments in Southwestern Costa Rica. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisana State University: 153.
	
Phillips, S., et al. (1997). "Vegetation zones and diagnostic pollen profiles of a coastal peat swamp, Bocas del Toro, Panama." Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 128(1-4): 301-338.
	
Piatanesi, A., et al. (1996). "The slip distribution of the 1992 Nicaragua earthquake from tsunami run-up data." Geophysical Research Letters 23(1): 37-40.
	
Piburn, M. D. (1967). Metamorphism and Structure of the Villa de Cura Group, Northern Venezuela, Princeton Unviersity: 148.
	
Pichavant, M. and R. MacDonald (2003). "Mantle genesis and crustal evolution of primitive calc-alkaline basaltic magmas from the Lesser Antilles arc." Geological Society Special Publication 219: 239-254.
	Most eruptive rocks in the Lesser Antilles arc are compositionally evolved. However, lavas with primitive characteristics do occur including, in the central part of the arc, a suite of rocks from Soufriere, St Vincent, and the Ilet a Ramiers basalt from Martinique. High-pressure experiments performed on a Soufriere basalt point to a spinel lherzolite source. Glass inclusion data and phase equilibria analysis suggest extraction of the Soufriere melt under relatively dry conditions (c. 2 wt% H<inf>2</inf>O in melt). Using estimates of the H<inf>2</inf>O content of mantle sources fluxed by an hydrous slab-derived component, H<inf>2</inf>O concentrations as high as 5 wt% are considered possible for primary mantle melts in the Lesser Antilles arc. Experiments at low pressures (4 kbar) simulate the evolution of primitive melts within the arc crust. For elevated melt H<inf>2</inf>O concentrations (6-8.5 wt%), derivative liquids ranging from low-MgO basalt to basaltic andesite are generated at 1050-1100< degrees >C. Their crystallization at 950-1000< degrees >C yield andesitic liquids similar to those erupting at active volcanic centres such as Mt Pelee, Martinique, and Soufriere Hills, Montserrat. Therefore, experimental data support the derivation of Lesser Antilles arc eruptives by different degrees of fractionation from primary mantle melts.

Pichler, H., et al. (1974). "Basicher Magmatismus und Krustenbau im südlichen Mittelamerika, Kolumbien und Ecuador ( )." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte???: 102-126.
	
Pichler, H. and R. Weyl (1974). "Petrochemical aspects of Central American magmatism." Geologische Rundschau 62: 357-396.
	
Pichler, H. and R. Weyl (1975). "Magmatism and crustal evolution in Costa Rica (Central America)." Geologische Rundschau 64: 457-475.
	
Pichler, H. and R. Weyl (1976). "Quaternary alkalic volcanic rocks in eastern Mexico and Central America." Münster Forschungen zur Geologie und Paläontologie 38/39: 159-178.
	
Pickerill, R. K., et al. (2002). Late Cenocoic trace fossils from southeast coastal Jamaica. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 155-165.
	
Pierazzo, E. and H. J. Melosh (1999). "Hydrocode modeling of Chicxulub as an oblique impact event." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 165(2): 163-176.
	
Pilger, R. H. J. (1978). "A closed Gulf of Mexico, pre-Atlantic ocean plate reconstruction and the early rift history of the Gulf and North Atlantic." Transactions of Gulf Coast Association of the Geological Society 28: 385-393.
	
Pilger, R. H. J. (1981). "Plate reconstructions, aseismic ridges, and low-angle subduction beneath the Andes." Geological Society of America Bulletin 92: 448-456.
	
Pilger, R. H. J. (1983). Kinematics of the South American subduction zone from global plate reconstructions. Geodynamics of the Eastern Pacific Region, Caribbean and Scotia Arcs. R. C. S. J. ??? ???, American Geophysical Union/Geological Society of America. 9: 113-125.
	
Pilkey, O. H., et al. (1987). Bottom sediment types of the northern insular shelf of Puerto Rico: Punta Pe-on to Punta Salinas, U.S. Geological Survey.
	
Pilkey, O. H., et al. (1978). "Equilibrium shelf sedimentation, Rio de la Plata shelf, Puerto Rico." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 48(2): 389-400.
	
Pilkington, M. and A. R. Hildebrand (2000). "Three-dimensional magnetic imaging of the Chicxulub Crater." Journal of Geophysical Research   Solid Earth 105(B10): 23479-23491.
	
Pilsbry, H. A. and A. A. Olsson (1935). Tertiary fresh-water mollusks of the Magdalena embayment. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 87: 7-20.
	
Pilsbury, H. A. (1930). "Land molluscs of the Caribbean islands." Proceedings of the National Science Academy, Philadelphia 82: 221-261.
	
Pindell, J. (2000). Field Guide to East Venezuela. Cokes Barn, West Burton, Pulborough, West Sussex, RH20 1HD, England, Tectonic Analysis Ltd.
	
Pindell, J. (2000). Field Guide to Trinidad. Cokes Barn, West Burton, Pulborough, West Sussex, RH20 1HD, England, Tectonic Analysis Ltd.
	
Pindell, J. and J. F. Dewey (1982). "Permo-Triassic reconstruction of western Pangea and the evolution of the Gulf of Mexico/Caribbean region." Tectonics 1(2): 179-211.
	
Pindell, J. and G. Draper (1991). "Geologic development of the Puerto Plata region, northern Dominican Republic." Geological and tectonic development of the North American-Caribbean plate boundary in Hispaniola 262: 97-114.
	
Pindell, J. and G. Draper (1991). Geologic development of the Puerto Plata region, northern Dominican Republic. Geological and tectonic development of the North American-Caribbean plate boundary in Hispaniola. J. a. D. Pindell, G., 1991, Geologic development of the Puerto Plata region, northern Dominican Republic: in Mann, P., Draper, and Lewis, J.F. (eds.), Geological and tectonic development of the North American-Caribbean plate boundary in Hispaniola, Geol Soc America,  Special Paper 262,  p. 97-114. Boulder, CO, Geologic Society of America. 262: 97-114.
	
Pindell, J., et al. (2000). "Kinematics:  A key to unlocking play." AAPG Explorer 21(7): 14-17.
	
Pindell, J., et al. (2005). Plate kinematics and crustal dynamics of circum-Caribbean arc-continent interactions; tectonic controls on basin development in proto-Caribbean margins. Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 7-52.
	
Pindell, J., et al. (2006). Foundations of Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean evolution: eight controversies resolved. Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 303-341.
	
Pindell, J. L. (1981). Permo-Triassic reconstruction of Western Pangea and the evolution of the Gulf Of Mexico-Caribbean region, State University of New York at Albany: 121.
	A Permo-Triassic reconstruction of western Pangea (North America, South America, Africa) is proposed that is characterized by: 1) definition of the North Atlantic fit by matching of marginal offsets (fracture zones) along the opposing margins, 2) a South Atlantic fit that is tighter than the Bullard fit and that is achieved by treating Africa as two plates astride the Benue Trough and related structures during the Cretaceous, 3) complete closure of the Proto-Atlantic Ocean between North and South America, accomplished by placing the Yucatan block between the Ouachita Mountains and Venezuela, 4) a proposed Hercynian suture zone that separates zones of foreland thrusting from zones of arc-related magmatic activity; to the northwest of this suture lie the Chortis block and Mexico and most of North America, and to the southeast of this suture lie South America, the Yucatan block, Florida and Africa, and 5) satisfaction of paleomagnetic data from North America, South America and Africa. Beginning with the proposed reconstruction, the relative motion history of South America with respect to North America is defined using the finite difference method. Within the framework provided by the proposed relative motion history, an evolutionary model for the development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean region is outlined in a series of 13 plate boundary reconstructions at various time intervals from the Jurassic to the present. The model includes: 1) formation of the Gulf of Mexico by 140ma, 2) Pacific provenance of the Caribbean plate through the North America-South America gap during Cretaceous time, 3) Paleocene-Early Eocene back-arc spreading origin for the Yucatan Basin, whereby Cuba is the frontal arc and the Nicaragua Rise-Jamaica is the remnant arc, and 4) 1400 km of post-Eocene cumulative offset along both the Northern and Southern Caribbean Plate Boundary Zones, allowing grandiose eastward migration of the Caribbean plate with respect to the North and South American plates. 

Pindell, J. L. (1985). "Alleghenian reconstruction and the subsequent evolution of the Gulf of Mexico, Bahamas:  proto-Caribbean Sea." Tectonics 4: 1-39.
	
Pindell, J. L. (1985). Plate tectonic evolution of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean region. Durham, United Kingdom, University of Durham: 287.
	
Pindell, J. L. (1990). Geological arguments suggesting a Pacific origin for the Caribbean Plate. Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geologic Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 1-4.
	
Pindell, J. L. (1991). "Geological rationale for hydrocarbon exploration in the Caribbean and adjacent regions." Journal of Petroleum Geology 14(3): 237-257.
	
Pindell, J. L. (1993). Regional synopsis of Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean evolution. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region: Selected Papers Presented at the G.C.S.S.E.P.M Foundation Thirteenth Annual Research Conference. J. L. Pindell and B. F. Perkins. ???, ???: 251-274.
	
Pindell, J. L. (1994). Evolution of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 13-39.
	
Pindell, J. L. (1994). Transtension in eastern Venezuela and Trinidad since 10Ma. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 263.
	
Pindell, J. L. and S. F. Barrett (1990). Geologic evolution of the Caribbean: A plate-tectonic perspective. The Geology of North America Vol H, The Caribbean Region. G. Dengo and J. E. Case. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. H: 405-432.
	
Pindell, J. L., et al. (1988). "A plate-kinematics framework for models of Caribbean evolution." Tectonophysics 155: 121-138.
	
Pindell, J. L. and J. F. Dewey (1991). Cenozoic transpressional model for the tectonic and basinal development of Venezuela and Trinidad. Annual Meeting of the AAPG, 7-10 April, Dallas, Texas.
	
Pindell, J. L. and C. Drake, Eds. (1998). Paleogeographic Evolution and Non-glacial Eustacy: North America. SEPM Special Publication. Tulsa OK, Society for Sedimentary Geology.
	
Pindell, J. L. and G. Draper (1991). Stratigraphy and geological history of the Puerto Plata area, northern Dominican Republic. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 97-114.
	
Pindell, J. L. and J. P. Erikson (1994). Mesozoic passive margin of northern South America. Cretaceous tectonics in the Andes. J. A. Salfity. Wiesbaden, FRG, Vieweg Publishing, Earth Evolution Sciences: 1-60.
	
Pindell, J. L. and J. P. Erikson (1994). Sub-surface Jurassic shelf?, NE Venezuela and Trinidad. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 244-262.
	
Pindell, J. L., et al. (1991). The relationship between plate motions and the sedimentary basin development in northern South America: from a Mesozoic passive margin to a Cenozoic eastwardly- progressive transpressional orogen. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago, San Fernando, Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago.
	
Pindell, J. L., et al. (1998). Cenozoic palinspastic reconstruction, paleogeographic evolution and hydrocarbon setting of the northern margin of South America. Paleogeographic Evolution and Non-glacial Eustacy: North America. J. L. Pindell and C. Drake. Tulsa OK, Society for Sedimentary Geology. 58: 45-85.
	
Pindell, J. L., et al. (1998). Cenozoic setting of the northern margin of South America, Paleographic evolution and non-glacial eustacy, Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists.
	
Pindell, J. L. and R. F. Perkins, Eds. (1993). Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region:  A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration, Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation.
	
Pinet, B., et al. (1985). Structure of Aves Ridge and Grenada Basin from multi-channel seismic data. Symposium Geodynamique des Caraibes. A. Mascle. Paris, Technip: 53-64.
	
Pinet, P. R. (1971). "Structural configuration of the northwestern Caribbean plate boundary." Geological Society of America Bulletin 82: 2027-2032.
	
Pinet, P. R. (1972). Structural Development of the Northern Continental Margin of Honduras and the Adjacent Sea Floor, Northwestern Caribbean Sea. Department of Geology. Kingston, RI, University of Rhode Island: 123.
	
Pinilla-Bonilla, G. A. (1992). Regional Geochemistry of the Abra and Barba Topographic Sheets, Valle Central, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: ???
	
Pinter, N. (1988). Isostasy and Eustasy on the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica: Unraveling of Late Quaternary Geologic History  Through Uplift and Sea Level Change. University Park, PA, Pennsylvania State University: 144.
	
Pinzón-Jeréz, O. E. (1983). Investigation and Potential of Basic Metals, Canaan-Managua project, Izabel y Zacapa Department, Guatemala. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 108.
	
Piotrowska, J. and R. Myczynski (1986). "Los depositos vulcanogeno-sedimentarios de la zona Zaza en la provincia de Matanzas (Igneous-sedimentary deposits of the Zaza zone in Metanzas province)." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 34: 49-66.
	
Piotrowska, K. (1972). "The tectonics of the Sierra de los Organos in the area within the locality of El Cangre, Santo Tomás, Santa Lucia, Bajá, and San Juan de Martinez." Actas, Instituto de Geológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 2: 35-39.
	
Piotrowska, K. (1975). "The nappe development in the Sierra de los Organos (Western Cuba)." Bulletin Acad. Polon. Science Earth Science 23(1): 43-51.
	
Piotrowska, K. (1976). "Outline of tectonics of the Pinar del Rio Province (Cuba)." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 24(3/4): 183-191.
	
Piotrowska, K. (1976). "Tectonic style of the Sierra de los Organos (Cuba)." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 24(3/4): 217-226.
	
Piotrowska, K. (1978). "Nappe structure in the Sierra de los Organos, western Cuba." Acta Geologica Polonica 28(1): 97-170.
	
Piotrowska, K. (1978). "Nappe structures in the Sierra de los Organos, western Cuba." Acta Geologica Polonica 28: 97-170.
	
Piotrowska, K. (1982). "Succession of deformation in Matanzas Province." J. Ciencias, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 9: 48-50.
	
Piotrowska, K. (1986). "Study of the deformations in Matanzas Province in comparison with Pinar del Rio Province." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 34: 17-27.
	
Piotrowska, K. (1986). "Tectonics of the central part of Matanzas province." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 34: 2-16.
	
Piotrowska, K. (1987). Nappe structures in the Sierra de los Organos. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincia Pinar del Rio (Contributions to the Geology of Pinar del Rio Province). A. Pszczolkowski, K. Pistrowska, J. Piotrowski et al. Ciudad de la Habana, La Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 85 -156.
	
Piotrowska, K. (1993). "Interrelationship of terranes in western and central Cuba." Tectonophysics 220: 1-10.
	
Piotrowska, K. (1993). "Interrelationship of the terranes in western and central Cuba." Tectonophysics 219(4): 273-282.
	
Piotrowski, J. (1977). "First manifestations of volcanism in the Cuban geosyncline." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 24(3/4): 227-234.
	
Piotrowski, J. (1986). "The nappe units in the Yumurí and Caunavaco valleys." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 34: 29-36.
	
Piotrowski, J. (1987). Nuevos datos sobre los sedimentos del Cretácico Superior Tardío y Paleógeno en la zona estructuro-facial de San Diego de los Baños (New data about late Upper Cretaceous and Paleogene sediments in the San Diego structural-facies zone of Los Banos). Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincia Pinar del Rio (Contributions to the Geology of Pinar del Rio Province). A. Pszczolkowski, K. Pistrowska, J. Piotrowski et al. Ciudad de la Habana, La Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 185 - 196.
	
Piotrowski, J. (1987). Volcanic activity in the Mesozoic and Paleogene ? of Pinar del Rio province. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincia Pinar del Rio (Contributions to the Geology of Pinar del Rio Province). A. Pszczolkowski, K. Pistrowska, J. Piotrowski et al. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 157 - 161.
	
Piotrowski, J. and J. F. d. Albear (1986). "The evolution of the evaporite sequence in Matanzas Province, Cuba." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 34: 37-47.
	
Piotrowski, J. and R. Myczynski (1986). "Los depósitos vulcanógeno-sedimentarios de la zona Zaza de la provincia de Matanzas (The volcanogenic-sedimentary deposits of the Zaza zone of the province of Matanzas)." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 34(1): 50-66.
	
Pisot, N. (1989). Contribution á l'étude Geologique du Jamaique (Contribution to the Geological Study of Jamaica). Nice, France, Université de Nice: 350.
	
Pisot, N. (1989). Lithostratigraphic and Tectonic Synthesis of the Island of Jamaica and Its Septentrional Margin (Synthèse lithostratigraphique et tectonique de l'île de la Jamaïque et de sa marge septentrionale). Sophia Antipolis, Nice, France, Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis: 366.
	
Pittelli Viapiana, R. (1990). Eocene stratigraphical studies, Maracaibo Basin, Northwestern Venezuela. Transactions of the Twelfth Caribbean Geological Conference, 7th-11th August, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, Miami Geological Society, Florida: 485-494.
	
Pizarro, D. (1987). "Biostratigraphy of the Uscari Formation based on planktic foraminifera." Geological Magazine of Central America 7: ???
	
Pizarro-Araya, D. M. (1985). Biostratigraphy of the Uscari Formation (Middle to Upper Miocene) Using Planktic Foraminifera. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 34.
	
Plafker, G. (1976). "Tectonic aspects of the Guatemala earthquake of 4 February, 1976." Science 193: 1201-1208.
	
Plafker, G. (1977). "The Guatemala earthquake and Caribbean Plate tectonics." Earthquakes and Volcanoes 9(2): 18-20.
	
Plafker, G. and S. N. Ward (1992). "Backarc thrust faulting and tectonic uplift along the Caribbean Sea coast during the April 22, 1991 Costa Rica earthquake." Tectonics 11(4): 709-718.
	
Plafker, G. and S. N. Ward (1992). "Thrust faulting and tectonic uplift along the April 22, 1991 Costa Rica earthquake." Tectonics 11: 709-718.
	
Plank, T., et al. (2002). "Nicaraguan volcanoes record paleoceanographic changes accompanying closure of the Panama gateway." Geology Boulder 30(12): 1087-1090.
	A major oceanographic event preserved in the Cocos plate sedimentary column survived subduction and is recorded in the changing composition of Nicaraguan magmas. A uranium increase in these magmas since the latest Miocene (after 7 Ma) resulted from the "carbonate crash" at 10 Ma and the ensuing high organic carbon burial in the sediments. The response of the arc to this paleoceanographic event requires near steady-state sediment recycling at this margin since 20 Ma. This relative stability in sediment subduction invites one of the first attempts to balance sedimentary input and arc output across a subduction zone. Calculations based on Th indicate that as much as 75% of the sedimentary column was subducted beneath the arc. The Nicaraguan margin is one of the few places to observe such strong links between the oceans and the solid earth.

Pleydell, S. M., et al. (1990). "Dolomitization of the Oligocene-Miocene Bluff Formation on Grand Cayman, British West Indies." Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 27: 1098-1110.
	
Poag, C. W. (1981). Ecologic Atlas of Benthic Foraminifera of the Gulf of Mexico. Stroudsburg, PA, Hutchinson Ross Publishing  Company.
	
Pocknall, D. T., et al. (1995). Depositional facies in the Pliocene-Pleistocene section, offshore eastern Trinidad. Transactions of the 3rd Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago and 14th Caribbean Geologic Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad. T. Paul. 2: 713-732.
	
Poddubiuk, R. H. (1985). Evolution and adaptation in some Caribbean Oligo-Miocene Clypeasters. Echinodermata: Proceedings of the Fifth International Echinoderm Conference, Galaway: September, 24-29 1984, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
	
Poddubiuk, R. H. and E. P. F. Rose (1984). Relationships between mid-Tertiary echinoid faunas from the central Mediterranean and eastern Caribbean and their palaeobiogeographic significance. Interim Colloquium on Mediterranean Neogene Marine Megafaunal Palaeoenvironments and Biostratigraphy. M. D. Dermitzakis, E. Georgiades-Dikeoulia and G. Theodorou. London, UK, Univ of London, Bedford College. 32: 115-127.
	
Poddubiuk, R. H. and E. P. F. Rose (1985). "Relationships between mid-Tertiary echinoid faunas from the central Mediterranean and eastern Caribbean and their palaeobiogeographic significance." Annales Geologiques des Pays Helleniques 32: 115-127.
	
Pohly, W. M. (1986). "El Terremoto de San Estanislao del 7 Mayo de 1822.  Un gran temblor de subduccion del sur de Costa Rica? (The earthquake of San Estanislao of May 7, 1822: A large temblor of southern Costa Rican subduction?)." Cien. Tec. ??? 10(2): 11-20.
	
Pollitz, F. F. and T. H. Dixon (1998). "GPS measurements across the northern Caribbean plate boundary zone: Impact of postseismic relaxation following historic earthquakes." Geophysical Research Letters 25(12): 2233-2236.
	
Polson, I. L. and D. Henao (1965). The Santa Marta wrench fault.  A rebuttal. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean Printers, Arima, Trinidad and Tobago.
	
Ponce, D. A. (1986). Gravity Observations in Northwest Costa Rica, United States Geological Survey.
	
Ponce, D. A. and J. E. Case (1987). Geophysical Interpretation of Costa Rica:  U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Map I-1865. Reston, VA, U.S. Geological Survey.
	
Ponce, L., et al. (1992). "Geometry and state of stress of the downgoing Cocos Plate in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico." Geophysical Research Letters 19(8): 773-776.
	
Poole, F. G., et al. (1995). "Ordovician ocean-basin rocks of Sonora, Mexico." Pacific Section, Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Field Trip Guidebook 77: 277–284.
	
Poole, W. G. (1968). Some sedimentary features of the Herrera sands of the Clarke Road area, Barrackpore oilfield, Trinidad, West Indies. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean Printers, Arima, Trinidad and Tobago.
	
Pope, K. O., et al. (1999). "Chicxulub impact ejects from Albion Island, Belize." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 170(4): 351-364.
	
Pope, K. O., et al. (1996). "Surface expression of the Chicxulub crater." Geology 24(6): 527-530.
	
Porter, A. R. D. (1990). Jamaica: A Geological Portrait. Kingston, Jamaica, Institute of Jamaica: 152.
	
Porter, A. R. D., et al. (1982). Minerals and Rocks of Jamaica - A Guide to Their Identification, Location, Occurrence and Geological History. Kingston, Jamaica, Jamaica Publishing House.
	
Potter, E.-K. and K. Lambeck (2004). "Reconciliation of sea-level observations in the Western North Atlantic during the last glacial cycle." Earth-and-Planetary-Science-Letters 217(1-2): 171-181.
	A south to north gradient of increasing marine isotope substage (MIS) 5a (< similar-to >80 ka BP) sea level has been recorded across the Caribbean and surrounding region. Relative to present, MIS-5a sea levels range from -19 m to more than +3 m between Barbados, Haiti, the Bahamas, Florida, Bermuda and the US Atlantic Coast. In contrast, no gradient in sea level is observed for the last interglacial period MIS-5e (< similar-to >128-118 ka BP) at tectonically stable localities in the same region, with deposits generally lying several metres above present. We demonstrate here that these controversial observations are reconciled by taking into account the isostatic response of the Earth to glacial loading and unloading - a fundamental effect that is commonly overlooked in the interpretation of sea-level observations from different locations to define a 'global sea-level curve'. Furthermore, the observed gradient can be used to place constraints on Earth rheology and is an important indicator of the behaviour of the North American ice sheets during the last glacial cycle.

Potter, H. (1976). "Type sections of the Maraval, Maracas, and Chancellor Formations in the Caribbean Group of the Northern Range of Trinidad." Transactions of the Seventh Caribbean Geological Conference, Guadeloupe: 505-527.
	
Potter, H. C. (1968). A preliminary account of the stratigraphy and structure of the eastern part of the Northern Range, Trinidad. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean Printers, Arima, Trinidad and Tobago.
	
Potter, H. C. (1972). "Comments on the goelogy of northwestern Trinidad in relation to the geology of Paria, Venezuela." Sixth Caribbean Geological Congress Memoirs: 178-181.
	
Potter, H. C. (1985). The geology of the central part of the Northern Range, Trinidad. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, July 7-15, 1979. 4: 102-105.
	
Poulton, D. (1987). Petroleum source rock potential in jamaica. Proceedings of a Workshop on the Status of jamaican Geology. R. Ahmad, Geological Society of Jamaica. Special issue: 310-330.
	
Powers, S. (1918). "Notes on the geology of eastern Guatemala and northwestern Spanish Honduras." Journal of Geology 26: 507-523.
	
Pratt, T. L., et al. (2003). "High resolution seismic imaging of faults beneath Limon Bay, northern Panama Canal, Republic of Panama." Tectonophysics 368(1-4): 211-227.
	
Precht, W. F. (1997). "Divergent wrench faulting in the Belize southern lagoon: Implications for tertiary Caribbean plate movements and Quaternary reef distribution: Discussion." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 81(2): 329-333.
	
Prell, W. L. (1974). Late Pleistocene Faunal, Sedimentary, and Temperature History of the Colombia Basin, Caribbean Sea. Department of Geological Sciences. Palisades, NY, Columbia University: 528.
	
Prell, W. L. and J. V. Gardner (1982). Leg 68. Washington D.C., US Government Printing Office.
	
Prentice, C., S., et al. (1993). "Paleoseismicity of the North American-Caribbean plate boundary (Septentrional Fault), Dominican Republic." Geology 21(1): 49-52.
	
Prentice, C. and J. C. Moya (1999). Paleoseismology and active faults working group report. Seismic and tsunami hazard in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. U. ten Brink, W. Dillon, A. Frankel, C. Mueller and R. W. Rodriguez. San Juan, Puerto Rico, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
Prentice, C., et al. (2003). Field Trip: Recent Tectonics and Paleoseismology in Western Puerto Rico, May 3-4, 2003, Seismological Society of America: 52.
	
Prentice, C. S. and P. Mann (2005). Paleoseismic study of the South Lajas fault: First documentation of an onshore Holocene fault in Puerto Rico. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 215–222.
	
Prentice, C. S., et al. (2003). "Slip rate and earthquake recurrence along the central Septentrional fault, North American-Caribbean plate boundary, Dominican Republic." Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth 108(3): ESE 8-1 - 8-17.
	The Septentrional fault zone (SFZ) is the major North American-Caribbean, strike-slip, plate boundary fault at the longitude of eastern Hispaniola. The SFZ traverses the densely populated Cibao Valley of the Dominican Republic, forming a prominent scarp in alluvium. Our studies at four sites along the central SFZ are aimed at quantifying the late Quaternary behavior of this structure to better understand the seismic hazard it represents for the northeastern Caribbean. Our investigations of excavations at sites near Rio Cenovi show that the most recent ground-rupturing earthquake along this fault in the north central Dominican Republic occurred between A.D. 1040 and A.D. 1230, and involved a minimum of < similar-to >4 m of left-lateral slip and 2.3 m of normal dip slip at that site. Our studies of offset stream terraces at two locations, Rio Juan Lopez and Rio Licey, provide late Holocene slip rate estimates of 6-9 mm/yr and a maximum of 11-12 mm/yr, respectively, across the Septentrional fault. Combining these results gives a best estimate of 6-12 mm/yr for the slip rate across the SFZ. Three excavations, two near Tenares and one at the Rio Licey site, yielded evidence for the occurrence of earlier prehistoric earthquakes. Dates of strata associated with the penultimate event suggest that it occurred post-A.D. 30, giving a recurrence interval of 800-1200 years. These studies indicate that the SFZ has likely accumulated elastic strain sufficient to generate a major earthquake during the more than 800 years since it last slipped and should be considered likely to produce a destructive future earthquake.

Prentice, C. S., et al. (2003). "Slip rate and earthquake recurrence along the central Septentrional fault, North American-Caribbean plate boundary, Dominican Republic." Journal of Geophysical Research 108(B3): 2149.
	The Septentrional fault zone (SFZ) is the major North American-Caribbean, strikeslip, plate boundary fault at the longitude of eastern Hispaniola. The SFZ traverses the densely populated Cibao Valley of the Dominican Republic, forming a prominent scarp in alluvium. Our studies at four sites along the central SFZ are aimed at quantifying the late Quaternary behavior of this structure to better understand the seismic hazard it represents for the northeastern Caribbean. Our investigations of excavations at sites near Rio Cenovi show that the most recent ground-rupturing earthquake along this fault in the north central Dominican Republic occurred between A.D. 1040 and A.D. 1230, and involved a minimum of _4 m of left-lateral slip and 2.3 m of normal dip slip at that site. Our studies of offset stream terraces at two locations, Rio Juan Lopez and Rio Licey, provide late Holocene slip rate estimates of 6-9 mm/yr and a maximum of 11-12 mm/yr, respectively, across the Septentrional fault. Combining these results gives a best estimate of 6-12 mm/yr for the slip rate across the SFZ. Three excavations, two near Tenares and one at the Rio Licey site, yielded evidence for the occurrence of earlier prehistoric earthquakes. Dates of strata associated with the penultimate event suggest that it occurred post-A.D. 30, giving a recurrence interval of 800-1200 years. These studies indicate that the SFZ has likely accumulated elastic strain sufficient to generate a major earthquake during the more than 800 years since it last slipped and should be considered likely to produce a destructive future earthquake.

Prentice, C. S., et al. (1993). "Paleoseismicity of the North American-Caribbean plate boundary (Septentrional fault), Dominican-Republic." Geology 21: 49-52.
	
Priem, H. N. A., et al. (1986). "On the age of the Late Cretaceous tonalitic/gabbroic batholith on Aruba, Netherlands Antilles (southern Caribbean borderland)." Geologie en Mijnbouw 65(3): 247-256.
	
Priem, H. N. A., et al. (1978). "Rb-Sr evidence for episodic intrusion of the late Cretaceous tonalitic batholith of Aruba, Netherlands Antilles." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 293-296.
	
Priem, H. N. A., et al. (1986). "Precambrian rocks in an early Tertiary conglomerate on Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles (southern Caribbean borderland): Evidence for a 300 km eastward displacement relative to the South American mainland?" Geologie en Mijnbouw 65(1): 35-40.
	
Priem, H. N. A., et al. (1973). "Age of the PreCambrian Roraima Formation in northeastern South America:  Evidence from isotopic dating of Roraima pyroclastic volcanic rocks in Suriname." Geological Society of America Bulletin 84: 1677-1684.
	
Prieto, R. (1987). Seismic stratigraphy and depositional systems of the Orinoco platform area, northeastern Venezuela. Austin, University of Texas at Austin: 144.
	
Pringle, C. M., et al. (1990). "Spatial variation in basic chemistry of streams draining a volcanic landscape on Costa Rica's Caribbean slope." Hydrobiologia 206: 73-85.
	
Proenza, J., et al. (1999). "Al- and Cr-rich chromitites from the Mayari-Baracoa ophiolitic belt (eastern Cuba): Consequence of interaction between volatile-rich melts and peridotites in suprasubduction mantle." Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists 94(4): 547-566.
	The Mayari-Baracoa belt occupies the easternmost part of the east-west-trending Cuban ophiolitic belt. It comprises two large, chromite-rich massifs: Mayari-Cristal and Moa-Baracoa. Neither of these massifs show a complete ophiolite sequence, but they consist of a part of an ideal section made up of (1) harzburgites grading upward into interlayered harzburgites and dunites, (2) interlayered harzburgites (with minor dunites) and gabbros, (3) gabbros, microgabbros, dolerites, and diabase dikes, and (4) pillowed basalt, cherts, and radiolarites. Chromite deposits can be grouped into three mining districts according to the chemistry of chromite ore: the Mayari district and the Sagua de Tanamo district, both in the Mayari-Cristal massif, and the Moa-Baracoa district in the Moa-Baracoa massif. The latter is the most important as it contains more than 5.5 million tons of ore. All chromitites mainly exhibit massive texture, show a pseudotabular, lenticular shape, and are concordant with the foliation of the enclosing harzburgites. In Moa-Baracoa they tend to occur in the mantle-crust transition zone, commonly contain dunite and gabbro bodies oriented parallel to the elongation of the lenses, and are cut by late pegmatitic gabbro dikes. By contrast, in Mayari, and to some extent in Sagua de Tanamo, chromitites occur deeper in the mantle tectonites and are cut by websterite dikes. Intergranular minerals are olivine, serpentine, and chlorite. Chromite has abundant, randomly distributed solid inclusions of olivine and pargasite, and minor pyroxene, laurite, and millerite. Toward the contact with the included gabbros, chromitite from Moa-Baracoa shows increasing amounts of gabbro-related alteration products. Abundant clinopyroxene, partly altered plagioclase, and rutile occur as inclusions in the chromite. The composition of the chromite ore varies from typical refractory grade (Al rich) at Moa-Baracoa to metallurgical grade (Cr rich) at Mayari, where the Cr no. ranges between 0.41 and 0.75, the Mg no. between 0.57 and 0.81, and the TiO (sub 2) content between 0.09 and 0.52 wt percent. At Moa-Baracoa, the Cr no. of chromite decreases and TiO (sub 2) content increases from harzburgite to dunite and massive chromitite, positively correlated with the forsterite content of coexisting olivine. At Mayari, both the Cr no. and TiO (sub 2) content of chromite, and the forsterite content of olivine increase from harzburgite to dunite and chromitite. Bulk platinum-group element abundances in chromitite vary from 20 to 538 ppb and show a broad positive correlation with Cr (sub 2) O (sub 3) percent of chromite. The latter correlation is strongest in the Sagua de Tanamo district. Structural, textural, mineralogical, and chemical characteristics of the studied chromite deposits, as well as the lithophile trace element geochemistry of their host rocks, support a genetic model based on the crystallization of chromite from different types of melts (from back-arc basin basalts to boninitic andesites) at around 1,200 degrees C, at variable f (sub O2) . Chromite formed when calc-alkaline melts, formed by melt-rock reactions at increasing melt volume, percolated through subhorizontal, porous dunitic channels and mixed with oxidized melts formed by low degrees of hydrous melting and low-temperature melt-rock reactions in suprasubduction zone mantle. Mixing of these two melts generated a hybrid melt whose bulk composition fell within the chromite liquidus field in the P-T-f (sub O2) space (Hill and Roeder, 1974). Percolation of the hybrid melt through the dunitic channels promoted dissolution of preexisting silicate minerals and chromite crystallization. The Al-rich chromitites formed at the mantle crust transition zone at high f (sub O2) ( nearly equal log f (sub O2) = -7), whereas Cr-rich chromitites formed deeper in mantle tectonites under more reducing conditions, at log f (sub O2) nearly equal -10, depending on Cr contents of the parental magma.

Proenza, J., et al. (2001). "Genesis of sulfide-rich chromite ores by the interaction between chromitite and pegmatitic olivine-norite dikes in the Potosí massif Mine (Moa-Baracoa ophiolitic massif, eastern Cuba) " Mineralium Deposita 36: 658-669.
	
Proenza, J., et al. (1997). Compositional variations of podiform chromitites among different mining districts in the Mayarí-Baracoa ophiolitic belt (eastern Cuba). Mineral deposits: Research and exploration where do they meet? H. Papunen. 1: 487-490.
	
Proenza, J., et al. (1999). "La Moho Transition Zone en el Macizo Ofiolítico Moa-Baracoa: un ejemplo de interacción magma/peridotita (The Moho Transition Zone in the Moa-Baracoa Ophiolitic Massif (Cuba): Example of melt-peridotite interaction)." Revista de la Sociedad Geológica de España 12(3-4): 309-327.
	
Proenza, J., et al. (1999). "Al- and Cr- rich chromitites from the Mayarí-Baracoa Ophiolitic Belt (eastern Cuba) consequence of interaction between volatile-rich melts and peridotite in suprasubduction mantle." Economic Geology 94: 547-566.
	
Proenza, J. and J. C. Melgarejo (1996). "Granates de la serie grosularia-uvarovita en cromititas podiformes del Yacimiento Mercedita (Cuba) (Grossular-uvarovite garnets in podiform chromitite from Mercedita deposit (Cuba))." Geogaceta 20: 1517-1519.
	
Proenza, J., et al. (1999). "Los niveles de gabros bandeados en el Macizo Ofiolítico Moa-Baracoa (Cuba). Gabros característicos de cumulados de ofiolitas de zona de suprasubducción (Layered gabbro in the Moa-Baracoa Ophiolitic Massif (Cuba): Cumulate of suprasubduction zone ophiolites)." Minería y Geología 16(2): 5-12.
	
Proenza, J., et al. (1999). Sulphide-rich and sulphide-free chromitite ores in the Potosí mine (Moa-Baracoa ophiolitic massif eastern Cuba). Mineral Deposits: Processes to Processing. J. Stanley and et al. 1: 775-778.
	
Proenza, J., et al. (1999). "Uvarovitic garnets in podiform chromitites: The Mayarí-Baracoa ophiolitic belt (Cuba)." The Canadian Mineralogist 37: 679-690.
	
Proenza, J. A., et al. (2003). "D, O and C isotopes in podiform chromitites as fluid tracers for hydrothermal alteration processes of the Mayarí-Baracoa Ophiolitic Belt, eastern Cuba." Journal of Geochemical Exploration: 78-79, 117-122.
	
Proenza, J. A., et al. (2006). Primitive Cretaceous island-arc volcanic rocks in eastern Cuba: The Téneme Formation Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 103-122.
	
Proenza, J. A., et al. (1998). "Las cromititas ofiolíticas del yacimiento Mercedita (Cuba). Un ejemplo de cromitas ricas en Al en la zona de transición manto-corteza (Ophiolitic chromitites from the Mercedita deposit (Cuba). Example of Al-rich chromites at the mantle-crust transition zone)." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 179-212.
	
Proenza, J. A. and J. C. Melgarejo (1998). "Una introducción a la metalogenia de Cuba bajo la perspectiva de la tectónica de placas (An introduction to Cuba metallogeny on a plate tectonics perspective)." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 89-131.
	
Proenza, J. A., et al. (1998). "Cromititas podiformes en la Faja Ofiolítica Mayarí-Baracoa (Cuba) (Podiform chromitites from the Mayarí-Baracoa Ophiolitic Belt (Cuba))." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 153-177.
	
Project, S. A. (2005). "Field Guide to Guatemalan Geology." Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University: 62.
	
Prosser, J. T. (1983). The Geology of Poás Volcano, Costa Rica. Hanover, NH, Dartmouth College: 165.
	
Protti, M. (1991). Correlation between the age of subducting Cocos plate and the geometry of the Wadati-Benioff zone under Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Santa Cruz, University of California: 66.
	
Protti, M. (1994). The most recent large earthquakes in Costa Rica (1990 Mw 7.0 and 1991 Mw 7.6) and three-dimensional crustal and upper mantle P-wave velocity structure of central Costa Rica. Santa Cruz, California, University of California: 116.
	
Protti, M., et al. (1995). Correlation between the age of the subducting Cocos plate and the geometry of the Wadati-Benioff zone under Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 309-326.
	
Protti, M., et al. (1994). The geometry of the Wadati-Benioff zone under southern Central America and its tectonic significance: Results from a high-resolution local seismographic network. 10 years of GEOSCOPE-broadband seismology. J.-P. Montagner and B. Romanowicz. Paris, France. 84: 271-287.
	We present here a detailed geometry of the Wadati-Benioff zone under Costa Rica, obtained from seismicity recorded by a dense local seismographic network jointly operated by the Costa Rica Volcanological and Seismological Observatory, National University, and the Charles F. Richter Seismological Laboratory, University of California, Santa Cruz. Underneath the Nicaragua-Costa Rica border the Wadati-Benioff zone smoothly contorts (from steep to shallow dip angles, NW to SE), but does not show evidence of a brittle tear, as postulated by others. However, further to the SE, NE of Puerto Caldera, Costa Rica, the Wadati-Benioff zone does show a segmentation (the Quesada Sharp Contortion) at intermediate depths (h>70 km). NW of this sharp contortion the deepest portion of the seismically active slab dips at about 80 degrees and reaches maximum depths ranging from 200 km, near the Nicaragua-Costa Rica border, to 135 km under Ciudad Quesada. To the SE the deeper portion of the Wadati-Benioff zone dips at about 60 degrees and the seismicity does not extend below depths ranging from 125 km, behind the volcanic arc, to 50 km, east of Quepos. In southern Costa Rica, east of 83 degrees 55'W, we find no evidence of the Wadati-Benioff zone deeper than 50 km. The obtained geometry and other known tectonic features related to the subduction of the Cocos plate under the Caribbean plate along the southern terminus of the Middle America Trench (Nicaragua and Costa Rica) correlate well with along-trench variations in age of the subducted Cocos plate. Some of these tectonic features are: (1) the shallowing of Middle America Trench bathymetry from NW to SE; (2) variations in the energy release within the subducted slab; (3) differences in coupling between Cocos and Caribbean plates; (4) the termination of the Central America Volcanic Chain in central Costa Rica; (5) distinct stress field variations on the overriding Caribbean plate. The subduction of the Cocos Ridge under southern Costa Rica is partially responsible for some of these features (shallowing of the Middle America Trench in southern Costa Rica) and for the high uplift rates of the outer arc. However, as the presence of the Panama Fracture Zone limits the subducted extension of the Cocos Ridge to less than 100 km from the trench, we propose that the overall geometry of the Wadati-Benioff zone is controlled by abrupt along-trench changes in the age of the subducted Cocos plate.

Protti, M., et al. (1995). Correlation between the age of the subducting Cocos Plate and the geometry of the Wadati-Benioff zone under Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean Plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 295: 309-326.
	
Protti, M., et al. (1995). "The March 25 1990 (M(W)=7.0 M(L)=6.8), earthquake at the entrance of the Nicoya Gulf, Costa Rica: Its prior activity, foreshocks, aftershocks, and triggered seismicity." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 100(B10): 20345-20358.
	
Protti, M., et al. (1996). "Simultaneous inversion for earthquake location and velocity structure beneath central Costa Rica." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 86(1, Part A): 19-31.
	We have imaged the complex crustal and upper mantle structure beneath central Costa Rica using P-wave arrival times from locally recorded earthquakes. Thurber's (1983) iterative inversion method is used to simultaneously estimate velocities along a three-dimensional grid and hypocentral parameters of local earthquakes. Our data consist of over 12,000 arrival times from more than 1300 earthquakes recorded by stations of a permanent seismographic network in Costa Rica. Our resulting velocity model correlates well with mapped geologic units at very shallow depth and with tectonic features at greater depth. We find low velocities (4.0 to 4.8 km/sec) in the shallow crust (above 10 km) near the active volcanoes and associated with a NW-SE trending late Cretaceous to late Tertiary sedimentary basin southeast of Herradura peninsula. High velocities (5.4 to 5.7 km/see) in the shallow crust correlate with outcrops of late Jurassic to early Tertiary ultramafic ophiolitic units and with basic Tertiary volcanic units. At depths between 20 and 30 km, high velocities (6.8 to 7.2 km/sec) are associated with the subducting Cocos plate under Costa Rica and two prominent low-velocity bodies (6.3 to 6.5 km/sec) are present about 30 km trenchward of the volcanic arc and along the projection of the aseismic Cocos Ridge as it subducts beneath Costa Rica. The thickened oceanic crust of the Cocos Ridge is most likely responsible for its low velocities. The deep low-velocity anomaly located trenchward of the axis of the volcanoes may indicate the presence of a low-density intrusive resulting from an earlier phase of magmatism, possibly the late Miocene episode that produced the Talamanca intrusive complex.

Protti-Quesada, J. M. (1991). Correlation between the age of the subducting Cocos Plate and the geometry of the Wadati-Benioff Zone under Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Santa Cruz, CA, United States, University of California, Santa Cruz.
	
Protti-Quesada, J. M. (1991). Correlation between the Age of the Subducting Cocos Plate and the Geometry of the Wadi-Benioff Zone under Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Santa Cruz, CA, University of California Santa Cruz: 66.
	
Protti-Quesada, R. (1981). Geology and Geophysics Applied to Hydrogeology in the Jicara-San Rita Coastal Plain, Nicoya Peninsula. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 47.
	
Pszczolkowki, A. (1999). The exposed passive margin of North America in western Cuba. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 93-121.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1971). "Jurassic, Cretaceous and Paleogene deposits of Sierra del Rosario (Cuba)." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 19: 249-259.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1973). Informe de las investigaciones de campo al Mapa Geologica de la provincia de Pinar del Rio a escala 1:250000 realizados en el periodo 27.XII. 1971-14.V.1973 en el area entre La Palma y Cayajabos (Report on the Field Investigations to the Geologic Map of the Province of Pinar del Rio at Scale 1:250000 Realized in the period 27.XII. 1971-14.V.1973 in the Area Between La Palma and Cayajabos), Archivo Instituto Geologia y Paleontologia, Academia Ciencia de Cuba, La Habana.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1976). "Nappe structure of Sierra del Rosario (Cuba)." Bulletin Polish Acad. Sc., Earth Sciences 24(3-4): 205-215.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1976). "Stratigraphic-facies sequences of the Sierra del Rosario (Cuba)." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 24(3/4): 193-203.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1978). "Geosynclinal sequences of the Cordillera de Guaniguanico in western Cuba; their lithostratigraphy, facies development, and paleogeography." Acta Geologica Polonica 28: 2-93.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1981). "The Jurassic carbonate bank of the Sierra de los Organos: its paleogeographic development." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(3): 37-50.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1982). "Cretaceous sediments and paleogeography in the western part of the Cuban miogeosyncline." Acta Geologica Polonica 32(1-2): 135-161.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1983). "Tectónica del miogeosinclinal cubano en el área limítrofe de las provincias de Matanzas y Villa Clara (Tectonics of the Cuban miogeosyncline in the bordering area of the provinces of Matanzas and Villa Clara)." Revista de Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(6): 53-61.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1985). "About the age of metamorphic and tectonic structure of the Cangre Belt, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(10): 31-36.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1986). "Composition of the clastic material from the arenites of the San Cayetano Formation, in Sierra de los Organos (Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba)." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(11): 67-78.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1986). "Megacapas del Maestrichtiano de Cuba occidental y central (Maestrichtian megabeds in western and central Cuba)." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 34: 82-94.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1986). "Secuencia estratigráfica de Placetas en el área limítrofe de las provincias de Matanzas y Villa Clara (Cuba) (Stratigraphic sequence of Placetas in the bordering area of the provinces of Matanzas and Villa Clara (Cuba))." Bulletin of the Polish Academy Science 34(1): 67-79.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1987). Miogeosynclinal sequences of the Cordillera de Guaniguanico: Lithostratigraphy, facies description and paleogeography. Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincia Pinar del Rio (Contributions to the Geology of Pinar del Rio Province). A. Pszczolkowski, K. Pistrowska, J. Piotrowski et al. Ciudad de la Habana, Editorial Científco-Técnica: 5 - 84.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1987). "Paleogeography and paleotectonic evolution of Cuba and adjoining areas during the Jurassic-Early Cretaceous." Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae 57: 127-142.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1987). "Paleogeography and tectonic evolution of Cuba and adjoining areas during the Jurassic-Early Cretaceous." Ann. Soc. Geol. Pol..
127-142 57.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1987). "Paleotectonic and paleogeographic development of Cuba in the Jurassic." Boletin de Geociences 2(1): 46-55.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1989). "La edad y posición de la secuencia vulcanógeno-sedimentaria (Formación Sábalo) en la estructura geológica de la Sierra del Rosario (Cuba occidental) (The age and position of the volcanogenic-sedimentary sequence (Sabalo Formation) in the geologic structure of La Sierra del Rosario)." Resúmenes Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 66.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1990). "Late Paleozoic fossils in cobbles collected from the San Cayetano formation, Sierra del Rosario, Pinar del Rio province." Boletin de Geociences 4(1): 1-17.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1994). "Geological cross-sections through the Sierra del Rosario thrust belt,  western Cuba." Studia Geologica Polonica: Geology of Western Cuba 105: 67-90.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1994). "Interrelationship of the terranes in western and central Cuba - Comment." Tectonophysics 234(4): 339-344.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1994). "Interrelationships of the terranes in western and central Cuba - Comment." Tectonophysics 234: 341-344.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. (1994). "Lithostratigraphy of Mesozoic and Palaeogene rocks of Sierra del Rosario, western Cuba." Studia Geologica Polonica: Geology of Western Cuba 105: 39-66.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. and J. F. d. Albear (1983). "La secuencia vulcanógeno-sedimentaria de la Sierra del Rosario (The volcanogenic-sedimentary sequence of La Sierra del Rosario)." Revista de Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio 6: 42-52.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. and J. F. de Albear (1982). "Subzona estructuro-facial de Bahía Honda, Pinar del Río; su tectónica y datos sobre la sedimentación y paleogeografía del Cretácico Superior al Paleógeno (Bahía Honda structural-facies subzone, Pinar del Rio: its tectonics and data about the sedimentation and paleogeography of the Upper Cretaceous and the Paleogene)." Revista de Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio 5: 3-24.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. and R. Flores (1985). "Fases tectonicas del Cretaceous y del Paleogeno de Cuba occidental y central (Tectonic facies of the Cretaceous and the Paleogene of western and central Cuba)." Serie Geologica 20: Caribbean,Cuba,tectonic,stratigraphy.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. and R. Flores (1986). "Fases tectonicas del Cretacico y del Paleogene en Cuba occidental y central (Cretaceous and Paleogene tectonic phases in western and central Cuba)." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Earth Science 34(1): 95-111.
	
Pszczolkowski, A. and R. Flores (1986). "Fases tectónicas del Cretácico y del Paleógeno en Cuba occidental y central (Tectonic facies of the Cretaceous and Paleogene in western and central Cuba)." Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Science 34(95-111).
	
Pszczolkowski, A., et al. (1975). Texto explicativo para el mapa geologico a escala 1:250000 de la province de Pinar del Rio (Explicative Text for the Geologic Map at Scale 1:25000 of the Province of Pinar del Rio), Archivo Instituto Geologia y Paleontologia, Academia Ciencia de Cuba, La Habana.
	
Pszczolkowski, A., et al. (1987). Contribucion a la Geologia de las Provincia Pinar del Rio (Contributions to the Geology of Pinar del Rio Province). Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Editorial Científco-Técnica.
	
PszczolLkowski, A. and R. Myczynski (2003). Stratigraphic constraints on the Late Jurassic-Cretaceous paleotectonic interpretations of the Placetas Belt in Cuba. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, R. T. Buffler and J. F. Blickwede. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 545-581.
	The Placetas belt in north-central Cuba consists of Late Jurassic-Cretaceous rocks that were highly deformed during the Paleocene to middle Eocene arc-continent collision. The Late Proterozoic marble and Middle Jurassic granite are covered by the shallow-marine arkosic clastic rocks of late Middle Jurassic(?) or earliest Late Jurassic(?) ages. These arkosic rocks may be older than the transgressive arkosic deposits of the Late Jurassic-earliest Cretaceous Constancia Formation. The Berriasian age of the upper part of the Constancia Formation in some outcrops at Sierra Morena and in the Jarahueca area does not confirm the Late Jurassic (pre-Tithonian) age of all deposits of this unit in the Placetas belt. The Tithonian and Berriasian ammonite assemblages are similar in the Placetas belt of north-central Cuba and the Guaniguanico successions in western Cuba. We conclude that in all paleotectonic interpretations, the Placetas, Camajuani, and Guaniguanico stratigraphic successions should be considered as biogeographically and paleogeographically coupled during the Tithonian and the entire Cretaceous. These successions could not have been separated by any large continental block and/or wide oceanic basin. The Tithonian-Berriasian ammonite assemblages reported from the Placetas belt and coeval assemblages known in Mexico are different; in particular, Suarites, Acevedites, and Kossmatia (characteristic Mexican genera) are unknown from the Tithonian sections of the Placetas belt. Moreover, the Early Cretaceous and Cenomanian deep-water formations of the Placetas belt do not contain deposits symptomatic of a presence of a nearby large landmass (Chortis Terrane?) to the south. Dissimilarities existing between the Huayacocotla remnant and the Guaniguanico (and Placetas) successions in Cuba are not consistent with the conclusion of some authors that the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous successions in western Cuba are nearly identical to those of San Pedro del Gallo Terrane remnants in east-central Mexico. Also, the composition of Late Jurassic ammonite and microfossil assemblages in western Cuba is not in agreement with the paleolatitudinal position of the Guaniguanico Terrane at approximately 30 degrees N, close to the Pacific coast. Many authors accept interpretations linking the Placetas succession with the southern slope of the Bahamas and/or with the Proto-Caribbean basin floor. However, the stratigraphic record strongly suggests that only the southernmost Tithonian deposits of the Placetas succession (Sierra de Camajan) may represent the basinal section accumulated on the Proto-Caribbean oceanic floor. The original proximity or even continuity of the Late Jurassic-Cretaceous Placetas and Camajuani successions is probable on the basis of existing stratigraphic data.

Pubellier, M., et al. (2000). "Plate boundary readjustment in oblique convergence: Example of the Neogene of Hispaniola, Greater Antilles." Tectonics 19(4): 630-648.
	
Pubellier, M., et al. (1995). Cenomanian thrust tectonics in the Sahuaripa region, Sonora: Implications about northwestern Mexico megashears. Studies on the Mesozoic of Sonora and Adjacent Areas. C. Jacquesayala, C. M. Gonzalezleon and J. Roldanquintana. Boulder, CO, Geological Soc America Inc: 111-120.
	
Pubellier, M., et al. (1991). "North Caribbean neotectonic events:  The Trans-Haitian fault system:  Tertiary record of an oblique transcurrent shear zone uplifted in Hispaniola." Tectonophysics 194(3): 217-236.
	
Pudsey, C. and H. Reading (1982). Sedimentology and structure of the Scotland Group, Barbados. Trench-Forearc Geology: Sedimentary and Tectonics on Modern and Ancient Active Plate Margins:  Geological Society of London ??? J. Leggett. London, Geological Society of London: 291-308.
	
Pujol-G., A. (1973). "La cueca del Rio Chiriqui Viecho (Rio Chiriqui Viecho Basin)." I.P.G.H., Direccion General de Recursos Minerales, Ministerio de Commercio e Industrias???: ???
	
Pujos, M. and O. Javelaud (1991). "Depositional facies of a mud shelf between the Sinu River and the Darien Gulf (Caribbean coast of Colombia): Environmental factors that control its sedimentation and origin of deposits." Continental Shelf Research 11(7): 601-623.
	
Pujos, M. and J. Y. Le Tareau (1988). "Hydrogeologie de la plate forme continentale Caraibe colombienne au large du delta du Dique en saison des pluies: Consequence sur la circulation (Hydrogeology of the Colombian Caribbean continental platform around the Dique Delta in the rainy season: Consequences on circulation." Bulletin de l'Institut de Geologie du Bassin d'Aquitaine 44: 97-107.
	
Purdy, E. G. and E. Gischler (2003). "The Belize margin revisited: 1. Holocene marine facies." International Journal of Earth Sciences 92(4): 532-551.
	Belize is best known for its 260-km-long barrier reef and associated lagoon reef shoals, but also exhibits a complete transition from near-shore siliciclastics to pure carbonate deposits across a narrow shelf lagoon and, in addition, has three of the very few occurrences of Caribbean atolls. Published Holocene facies relationships on the Belize shelf have been semi-quantitative in that they are based on quantitative point count thin section data in the northern shelf lagoon and on qualitative estimates of thin section composition in the southern shelf lagoon. This contrast has been rectified by point counting southern shelf lagoon thin sections and incorporating the result with published point count data from the northern shelf, supplemented by additional information, to produce a modified factor analysis facies distribution for the entire shelf. The resulting nine facies are extended seaward to include previously published analysis of sediment on the three Belize off-shelf atolls, resulting in a total of 11 facies. In addition, the carbonate mud distribution has been mapped over both the shelf and atolls with the not unexpected result that, in places, the distribution pattern clearly indicates a barrier platform source of lagoon-deposited carbonate mud. Dunham's limestone classification terminology has been used as a basis for description to make these relationships more useful to those reconstructing ancient limestone depositional environments.

Purdy, E. G., et al. (2003). "The Belize margin revisited. 2. Origin of Holocene antecedent topography." International Journal of Earth Sciences 92(4): 552-572.
	The importance of antecedent topography in dictating Holocene facies patterns has been generally recognized. There is, however, disagreement as to origin or lithology of the antecedent topography, particularly with respect to the siliciclastic or carbonate nature of the underlying topography and structural patterns. To help resolve these problems, published and unpublished information have been compiled to produce a structural fabric map of onshore and offshore Belize that includes a new geologic map of the country. The map, along with illustrated seismic lines, demonstrates the occurrence of a number of NNE-trending transpressional faults in which landward directed thrusting is consistently displayed along with tectonic inversion. Offshore wells in conjunction with the seismic lines document the inversion as post-Eocene, suggesting a similar age for transpressional fault movement. Presumably, the landward-directed thrusting reflects the opposing force of eastward-directed subduction along the western margin of Central America relative to the westward seafloor spreading of the Caribbean Cayman Ridge. The Belize faults show little current seismicity, but, nevertheless, the resulting structures have affected Quaternary carbonate deposition as evidenced on an illustrated seismic line by both seaward and landward (bi-directional) progradation of the reef margin from an underlying structural high. The structural influence on the development of Holocene antecedent topography is further suggested by the occurrence of a Bouguer gravity plateau in the same shelf area that marks the occurrence of the Belize lagoon rhomboid shelf atolls. The youngest documented lithology of 12 illustrated offshore exploration wells is Miocene carbonate. In some wells, the carbonate is interpreted as extending into the Pliocene and Holocene although no age diagnostic criteria are in evidence. In other wells, siliciclastics of unknown age and thickness are identified as overlying Neogene carbonates. The regional distribution and age of onshore limestones suggests that unroofing of the Cretaceous carbonate cap of the Maya Mountains siliciclastic sediment source did not occur until late in Neogene time, perhaps no earlier than late Pliocene. Consequently, the Maya Mountains could not have been a major offshore source of siliciclastics until the Quaternary. Information on the lithology of the immediately underlying pre-Holocene is provided by limited penetration core data and shallow resolution seismic lines. These show that antecedent Pleistocene limestones beneath the Holocene reefs were deposited around 130,000 B.P. (isotope stage 5e). The thickness of the overlying Holocene, shelf margin, reef-capped carbonates increases along depositional strike from a few meters in the north to more than 25 m in the south. In contrast, piston cores and seismic data from the southern shelf lagoon collectively document the occurrence of antecedent siliciclastic topography. The southward dip of both carbonate and siliciclastic antecedent surfaces is presumably a reflection of increasing southerly subsidence. Increasing antecedent erosional relief in the same direction reflects the pronounced southerly increase in paleo-rainfall that presumably paralleled that of present-day rainfall.

Purdy, E. G., et al. (1975). Continental shelf of Belize:  regional shelf attributes. Belize Shelf:  Carbonate Sediments, Clastic Sediments and Ecology. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Studies in Geology, Volume 2. K. F. Wantland and W. C. Pusey. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 2: 1-40.
	
Pushcharovskiy, Y., et al. (1966). Tectonic Map of Cuba. La Habana, Cuba, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba.
	
Pushcharovskiy, Y., et al. (1987). "Crustal structure and types of Cuba." Transactions of the USSR Academy of Science, Earth Science Section 294: 47-50.
	
Pushcharovskiy, Y. M. (1979). Tektonika i geodinamika Karibskogo regiona (Concerning the tectonics and geodynamics of the Caribbean region). Tektonicheskoye razvitiye zemnoy kory i razlomy (Tectonic Evolution of the Crust and Faults). ??? ???, Nauka: 124-132.
	
Pushcharovsky, Y. (1988). "Mapa geológico de la República de Cuba escala 1:250 000 (Geologic Map of the Republic of Cuba Scale 1:250000)."
	
Pushcharovsky, Y., et al. (1989). "Tectonics of the Republic of Cuba. Explanatory note to the tectonic map of Cuba scale 1:500 000." 77.
	
Pushcharovsky, Y. M., et al. (1989). Geology of Cuba (Explanatory note to the 1:250000 geological map of Cuba). Moscow, Geological Institute, Akad. Nauk SSSR.
	
Pushkar, P., et al. (1972). "The isotope composition of strontium in Central American ignimbrites." Bulletin of Volcanology 35: 265-294.
	
Pyle, T. E., et al. (1973). "Metamorphic rocks from northwestern Caribbean Sea." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 18: 339-344.
	
Pzczowlkowski, A. (1978). "Geological sequences of the Cordillera de Guaniguanico in western Cuba: Their lithostratigraphy, facies development and paleogeography." Acta Geologia Polonica 28: 1-96.
	
Quezada-Muñoz, A. A. (1989). Geologic and geophysical study of the Las Pailas geothermal field, Rincón de la Vieja National Park, Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 67.
	
Quinones, M. F. and C. G. Pena (???). Water Resources Investigations in Puerto Rico and the U. S. Virgin Islands: 1984-1985 Pprograms and Activities of the U. S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Division, Caribbean District, San Juan, Puerto Rico. Reston, VA, U.S. Geological Survey: 43.
	
Quintas Caballero, F. (1998). Genesis and petroleum prospects of the foreland basins in Camaguey (Evolucion y perspectivas gasopetroliferas de las cuencas de antepais en Camagueey). Third Cuban congress on geology and mining (III Congreso cubano de geologia y mineria). Havana, Cuba. 15: 11-16.
	Geological conditions of the northcentral part of the Camaguey province, in Cuba, present positive elements for occurrence of oil and gas reservoirs. Placetas subformational structural association is present in the southeast part of Cubitas ranges and contains dark limestones and asphalt manifestations. Borderland basin is represented for the Embarcadero and Lesca formations. Ophiolite complex overthrusts formations of borderland basin formations. Substrate of Senado basin is very complex, in this, Cercado formation contains flysh serpentinitic-clastic sequences, with olistostromes interlayered. Obduction process ended in the Late Eocene when it overode Cercado, Lesca and Embarcadero sequences. In this article are recognized possible areas containing oil and gas reservoirs in the para-autochton and autochton complex.

Quintas, F. (1988). "Características estratigráficas y estructurales del complejo ofiolítico y eugeosinclinal de la cuenca del río Quibiján, Baracoa (Stratigraphic and structural characteristics of the ophiolitic complex and eugeosyncline of the basin of the River Quibijan, Baracoa)." Revista de Minería y Geología 6(2): 11-22 
	
Quintero, R. (1960). "Mapa geologico de las islas de San Andres, Providencia y Santa Catalina." Ser. Geol. N., Bogata: ?
	
Raasveldt, H. C. (1956). "Fallas de rumbo en el nordeste de Colombia (Directional faults in the northeast of Colombia)." Revista de Petroleros de Colombia 7(34): 19-26.
	
Radovsky, B. and J. Iqubal (1979). "Geology of the North Soldado Field." 4th Latin American Geological congress, Trinidad: 759-769.
	
Raff, A. (1973). Magnetic anomaly pattern of Site 145, Venezuelan Basin. Initial Reports, DSDP, 15. N. T. Edgar, J. B. Saunders and and others. Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office. 15: 1063-1066.
	
Raff, A. D. (1973). Site 145. Leg 15: Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. N. T. Edgar and J. B. Saunders. Washington D. C, US Government Printing Office. 15: 1063-1066.
	
Ragusa, G., et al. (1994). Sequence analyses of the Barranquin and El Cantil formaiton south of the interior range of Eastern Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 20-22.
	
Rajmin, E. P. (1973). Propiedades físicas de las rocas de las regiones metalíferas de Cuba (Physical properties of the rocks of the metaliferous regions of Cuba). La Habana, Fondo Geológico, Ministerio Industria Básica.
	
Ramana, K. V. (1993). "Humid tropical expansive soils of Trinidad: Their geotechnical properties and areal distribution." Engineering Geology 34(1-2): 27-44.
	
Ramanathan, R. and E. Garcia (1991). Cretaceous paleography, foraminiferal biostratigraphy and paleoecology of the Belize Basin, Belize. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Rambarran, H. (1987). Significance of gravity segregation in heavy-oil distribution, Forest ''A''; Reservoir, Parrylands Field, Trinidad, West Indies. Exploration for heavy crude oil and natural bitumen. R. F. Meyer. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 25: 281-291.
	
Ramirez Herrera, M. T. and J. Urrutia Fucugauchi (1999). "Morphotectonic zones along the coast of the Pacific continental margin, southern Mexico." Geomorphology 28(3-4): 237-250.
	
Ramirez, M. I., et al. (1998). "Neotectonic structure and paleostress in south central Hispaniola." Transactions, 3rd Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago/14th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad  & Tobago, July 16-21, 1995: 214.
	
Ramírez-Escribano, O. (1973). Geologic and Geotechnical Study of a Strip of Land between Tilarán and Fortuna, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 87.
	
Ramon, J. C., et al. (1994). Estimacion del regimen termal y generacion de hidrocarburos en el valle superior del Magdalena, Colombia (Estimates of the thermal regime and hydrocarbons generation in the upper Magdalena valley, Colombia). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 450-465.
	
Ramos Arias, M. A., et al. "Extensional late Paleozoic deformation on the western margin of Pangea, Patlanoaya area, Acatlan Complex, southern Mexico." Tectonophysics 448(1-4): 60-76.
	New mapping in the northern part of the Paleozoic Acatlan Complex (Patlanoaya area) records several ductile shear zones and brittle faults with normal kinematics (previously thought to be thrusts). These movement zones separate a variety of units that pass structurally upwards from: (i) blueschist-eclogitic metamorphic rocks (Piaxtla Suite) and mylonitic megacrystic granites (Columpio del Diablo granite identical with Ordovician granites elsewhere in the complex); (ii) a gently E-dipping, listric, normal shear zone with top to the east kinematic indicators that formed under upper greenschist to lower amphibolite conditions; (iii) the Middle-Late Ordovician Las Minas quartzite (upper greenschist facies psammites with minor interbedded pelites intruded by mafic dikes and a leucogranite dike from the Columpio del Diablo granite) unconformably overlain by the Otate meta-arenite (lower greenschist facies psammites and pelites): roughly temporal equivalents are the Middle-Late Ordovician Mal Paso and Ojo de Agua units (interbedded metasandstone and slate, and metapelite and mafic minor intrusions, respectively) - some of these units are intruded by the massive, 461+ or -2 Ma, Palo Liso megacrystic granite: decussate, contact metamorphic muscovite yielded a (super 40) Ar/ (super 39) Ar plateau age of 440+ or -4 Ma; (iv) a steeply-moderately, E-dipping normal fault; (v) latest Devonian-Middle Permian sedimentary rocks (Patlanoaya Group: here elevated from formation status). The upward decrease in metamorphic grade is paralleled by a decrease in the number of penetrative fabrics, which varies from (i) three in the Piaxtla Suite, through (ii) two in the Las Minas unit (E-trending sheath folds deformed by NE-trending, subhorizontal folds with top to the southeast asymmetry, both associated with a solution cleavage), (iii) one in the Otate, Mal Paso, and Ojo de Agua units (steeply SE-dipping, NE-SW plunging, open-close folds), to (iv) none in the Patlanoaya Group. (super 40) Ar/ (super 39) Ar analyses of muscovite from the earliest cleavage in the Las Minas unit yielded a plateau age of 347 + or - 3 Ma and show low temperature ages of approximately 260 Ma. Post-dating all of these structures and the Patlanoaya Group are NE-plunging, subvertical folds and kink bands. An E-W, vertical normal fault juxtaposes the low-grade rocks against the Anacahuite amphibolite that is cut by megacrystic granite sheets, both of which were deformed by two penetrative fabrics. Amphibole from this unit has yielded a (super 40) Ar/ (super 39) Ar plateau age of 299 + or - 6 Ma, which records cooling through approximately 490 degrees C and is probably related to a Permo-Carboniferous reheating event during exhumation. The extensional deformation is inferred to have started in the latest Devonian ( approximately 360 Ma) during deposition of the basal Patlanoaya Group, lasting through the rapid exhumation of the Piaxtla Suite at approximately 350-340 Ma synchronous with cleavage development in the Las Minas unit, deposition of the Patlanoaya Group with active fault-related exhumation suggested by Mississippian and Early Permian conglomerates ( approximately 340 and 300 Ma, respectively), and continuing at least into the Middle Permian ( identical with 260 Ma muscovite ages). The continuity of Mid-Continent Mississippian fauna from the USA to southern Mexico suggests that this extensional deformation occurred on the western margin of Pangea after closure of the Rheic Ocean.

Ramroop, C. (1986). Structure and composition of the "acoustic" basement of the North Coast Complex,  Trinidad. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Ramseyer, K., et al. (1997). "Nature and origin of organic matter in carbonates from speleothems, marine cements and coral skeletons." Organic Geochemistry 26(5/6): 361-378.
	
Ranero, C. R. and V. Sallares (2004). "Geophysical evidence for hydration of the crust and mantle of the Nazca Plate during bending at the north Chile Trench." Geology Boulder 32(7): 549-552.
	Water transported in subducting oceanic plates plays a key role in a number of phenomena, including intraslab seismicity and arc magmatism. However, the locus of plate hydration and water distribution in crust and mantle of plates entering subduction zones is debated. We present evidence for anomalously low seismic velocities and densities of the crust and upper mantle of the Nazca plate at the north Chile trench. Crustal seismic velocities at the trench are lower than velocities of mature fast-spreading crust and even lower than velocities of highly extended slow-spreading crust. In addition, the Nazca plate at the north Chile trench may contain an approximately 20-km-thick upper-mantle layer with approximately 17% serpentine, which implies approximately 2.5 wt% water. These results document pervasive rock alteration by water percolation linked to bending-related extensional faulting.

Ranero, C. R. and R. von Huene (2000). "Subduction erosion along the Middle America convergent margin." Nature (London) 404(6779): 748-755.
	
Ranero, C. R., et al. (2000). "A cross section of the convergent Pacific margin of Nicaragua." Tectonics 19(2): 335-357.
	
Rangin, C., et al. (2008). "Cenozoic gravity tectonics in the northern Gulf of Mexico induced by crustal extension. A new interpretation of multichannel seismic data." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 179: 117-128.
	The Gulf of Mexico margin in Texas is one of the most impressive examples of starved passive margin gravity collapse systems. Growth faults developed upslope and are compensated down slope by toe folding and thrusting. On the basis of new multi-channel seismic data with high penetration (down to 11 s-twtt) we present evidences for deep crustal extension and rifting that have enhanced superficial sliding. This hypothesis is supported by a significant heat flow anomaly and crustal thinning independently deduced from gravity data. This Cenozoic rifting episode is tectonically linked to left lateral motion along the Rio Bravo fault, a reactivated branch of the Texas lineament.

Rangin, C., et al. (2008). "Gravity tectonics and plate motions: The western margin of the Gulf of Mexico Introduction  " Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 179: 107-116.
	This is an introduction to the series of papers presented in this volume that concerns the Cenozoic tectonics of the western margin of the Gulf of Mexico, from Texas in the north to the Veracruz area into the south. These combined offshore-onshore structural studies investigate the links between surperficial gravity slidings and deep crustal flow within the complex geodynamic framework of Mexico, located at the junction between the North America, Carribean and Pacific plates (including the earlier Farallon plate).

Rankin, D. (1984). Geology of the U.S. Virgin Islands, a progress report, U.S. Geological Survey: 83-96.
	
Rankin, D. W. (2002). Geology of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands (http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/p1631/P1631-tag.pdf), U. S. Geological Survey: 42.
	
Rao, R. P. (1982). Exploration in Belize gains momentum. Oil and Gas Journal: 308, 312, 317-319.
	
Rao, R. P. and R. Ramanathan (1988). Belize 1988-89 petroleum activity keyed to prices. Oil and Gas Journal: 81-91.
	
Rasmussen, K. A. and A. C. Neumann (1988). Holocene overprints of Pleistocene paleokarst:  Bight of Abaco, Bahamas. Paleokarst. N. P. James and P. W. Choquette. New York, Springer-Verlag: 132-148.
	
Ratcliffe, N. M. (1997). Bedrock geologic map of the Jamaica and part of the Townshend quadrangles, Windham and Bennington counties, Vermont, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
Ratschbacher, L., et al. (1991). "Second look at suspect terranes in southern Mexico." Geology 19: 1233-1236.
	
Ratté, C. A. (1973). "Mineralogy, host rock alteration, and fracture pattern at Mine Hill and Copper Mine Point, Virgin Gorda, British West Indies." Caribbean Journal of Science 13: 1-2.
	
Raw, F. (1951). Supplement to the geological history and structure of eastern Jamaica. The Geology and Physiography of the Kingston District, Jamaica. F. Raw. London, Institute of Jamaica, Crown: 76-91.
	
Rea, D. K. and B. T. Malfait (1974). "Geolgic evolution of the northern Nazca Plate." Geology 2: 317.
	
Read, J. F. (1985). "Carbonate platform facies models." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 69: 1-21.
	
Reagan, M. K. and J. B. Gill (1989). "Coexisting calcalkaline and high-niobium basalts from Turrialba volcano, Costa Rica: implications for residual titanates in arc magma sources." Journal of Geophysical Research 94: 4619-4633.
	
Reagan, M. K., et al. (1994). "Uranium series an beryllim isotope evidence for an extended history of subduction modification of the mantle below Nicaragua." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 58(9): 4199-4212.
	
Reaxxd, H. H. and J. Watson (1975). Introduction to Geology. Volume 2 Earth History. Part I:  Early Stages of Earth History. London, England, MacMillan.
	
Reblin, M. T. (1973). Regional gravity survey of the Dominican Republic. Salt Lake City, Utah, University of Utah: 129.
	
Rebora, M. (1994). Offshore S. Cuba-Quaternary lobsters and Eocene reefs. Oil and Gas Journal: 76-80.
	
Recchi, D. and R. Miranda (1977). Calizas de las Planes-Guaniquita (Azuero). Panamá City, Panamá, Ministerio de Hidrócarbons.
	
Recchi, D. and R. Miranda (1977). Calizas de las Planes-Guaniquita (Tonosi). Panamá City, Panamá, Ministerio de Hidrócarbons,.
	
Recchi, J. (1975). Paleografia Atlas Nacional de Panama (National Paleogeographic Atlas of Panama), Instituto Geografico Nacional, "Tommy Guardia".
	
Redfield, A. H. (1923). "The petroleum possibilities of Honduras." Economic Geology 18: 474-493.
	
Redmond, B. (1980). The Tertiary of the central Cordillera Septentrional. Transactions, Caribbean Geologic Conference, 9. Santo Domingo: 199-210.
	
Redmond, B. T. (1982). Sedimentary processes and products an amber-bearing turbidite complex in the northern Dominican-Republic. Troy, NY, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute: 495.
	
Reed, A. H. (1966). "Geology of the Bog Walk Quadrangle, Jamaica." Bulletin of the Jamaica Geological Survey 6: 1-54.
	
Reed, D. L. and E. A. Silver (1995). Sediment dispersal and accretionary growth of the north Panama deformed belt. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 213-223.
	
Reed, D. L., et al. (1990). "Relations between mud volcanoes, thrust deformation, slope sedimentation, and gas hydrate, offshore northern Panama." Marine and Petroleum Geology 7: 44-54.
	
Reed, J. M. (1995). "Probable Cretaceous-to-Recent rifting in the Gulf of Mexico basin: 2. An answer to Callovian salt deformation and distribution problems?" Journal of Petroleum Geology 18(1): 49-74.
	
Reeves, T. K. J. (1967). Geology of the Southern Half of the El Progreso Quadrangle, El Progreso, Guatemala. Houston, TX, Rice University: 87.
	
Reguera, J. L. C. (1998). "The melanges of Sierra del Rosario, western Cuba; types and regional importance (Las melanges de Sierra del Rosario, Cuba occidental; tipos e importancia regional)." Mineria y Geologia 15(2): 3-9.
	Two melange types can be distinguished in Sierra del Rosario, western Cuba. The first type (alpha ) were derived from fresh, non consolidated olistostrome deposits, settled in a basin (foredeep), in the front of advancing nappes, during the late Paleocene(?) and the early Eocene. The second type (beta ), was derived from the rupture and mixing of well layered massifs of cretaceous rocks, with more or less significant amounts of shaly interbeds, during the same tectonic event. Lenses of alpha melange can be present in it. A detailed classification is proposed for the different kinds of alpha and beta melanges. The paper also contains a brief discussion on the distribution of these melanges in other areas of Cuba, including its main oil fields.

Rehman, J., et al. (1994). "The influence of sponge borings on aragonite-to-calcite inversion in Late Pleistocene strombus-gigas from Grand Cayman, British-West-Indies." Journal of Sedimentary Research Section A - Sedimentary Petrology and Processes 64(2): 174-179.
	
Reichert, C., et al. (2000). Marine Geophysical Investigations Along the Active Convergent Margin Off Costa Rica - BGR Cruise BGR-99, Cruise Report. Hannover, Germany, Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe.
	
Reid, D. F. (1979). The Near-surface Distribution of Radium in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea:  Temporal and Spatial Variability and Hydrographic Relationships. Department of Geology. College Station, TX, Texas A&M University: 226.
	
Reid, J., et al. (1991). "Paleomagnetic evidence for late Miocene counterclockwise rotation of north coast carbonate sequence, Puerto Rico." Geophysical Research Letters 18: 319-324.
	
Reid, J. A. (1992). Paleomagnetism and rock magnetics of the middle Tertiary carbonate sequence, North Coast, Puerto Rico, with tectonic implications. Syracuse, New York, Syracuse University: 117 with five appendices.
	
Reid, R. P., et al. (1996). "Late quaternary sedimentation in the Lesser Antilles island arc." Geological Society of America Bulletin 108(1): 78-100.
	
Reid, R. P. and I. G. Macintyre (1988). "Foraminiferal-algal nodules from the eastern Caribbean: Growth history and implications on the value of nodules as paleoenvironmental indicators." Palaios 3(4): 424-435.
	
Reinhardt, E. G., et al. (1999). "Assessment of a Sr isotope vital effect (Sr-87/Sr-86) in marine taxa from Lee Stocking island, Bahamas." Geo - Marine Letters 18(3): 241-246.
	
Reistoffer, A. F. J. (1994). Sequence stratigraphy of the lower Tertiary section of the Apure-Llanos Basin, Southwestern Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 26-28.
	
Rendle, R. H., et al. (2000). "Mineralogy and sedimentology of the Pleistocene to Holocene on the leeward margin of Great Bahama Bank
Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Bahamas Transect; covering Leg 166 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, San Juan, Puerto Rico, to Balboa Harbor, Panama, sites 1003-1009, 17 February-10 April 1996." Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 166: 61-76.
	The mineralogy of periplatform carbonates is well documented in the literature. However, little is written about the grain-size properties for carbonate rocks. This fundamental property forms a controlling factor for other derived physical properties such as bulk density, porosity, and permeability. Thus, grain-size distribution and sorting might also steer fluid flow through the sediments, and combined with the mineralogy, might affect the development of the initial diagenetic pattern, which is significant in the interpretation of ancient depositional environments and transport conditions. This study, therefore, documents grain-size variations in conjunction with carbonate mineralogy for periplatform oozes of Sites 1003 (mid-slope) and 1006 (basin) on the leeward side of the Great Bahama Bank. The results reveal some distinct differences between glacial periods (glacials) and interglacial periods (interglacials) through both time and space. The delta (super 18) O and aragonite stratigraphy shows an almost complete sedimentary record for Site 1006, which is supported in the upper section by the U/Th dates assigned to interglacial Stages 1, 5, 9, and 11. However, Site 1003 stratigraphy indicates that large hiatuses exist within the sedimentary record and that there is evidence for diagenetic overprinting. This interpretation is further supported by the U/Th dates provided. Glacials are represented by sediment dominated by high-Mg calcite (HMC) and low-Mg calcite (LMC). The HMC probably originates from erosion of magnesium-calcite micrite cements formed in the upper slope deposits or HMC cements formed during early diagenesis. Detrital dolomite is also present at the distal site (Site 1006). Quartz also occurs preferentially during these periods. Although the grain-size distribution shows dominance by silts and clays (i.e., fine fraction [<63 mu m]) the percentage of the coarse fraction (>63 mu m) increases markedly during glacials. The latter fraction shows an increased dominance by the coarse (500-1000 mu m) to very coarse (>1000 mu m) sand-size fractions. Interglacials, in contrast, are dominated by aragonite, mainly in the form of fine-grained, bank-top -derived aragonite needles. This is supported by the grain-size distribution, which again shows dominance by silts and clays (<63 mu m). Dolomite is present at Site 1003, originating from early diagenesis. The coarse fraction (>63 mu m) is dominated by the very fine (63-125 mu m) to medium (250-500 mu m) sand-sized particles. Therefore, the fine-grained interglacial deposits will have a low diagenetic potential because of restricted fluid flow and low permeability, whereas the glacials will show the reverse pattern where the coarse-grained sediment facilitates early diagenesis. The diagenetic potential of the sediment on the leeward side of the Great Bahama Bank, therefore, varies through both time (between glacial and interglacials) and space (decreasing in potential with increasing distance from the platform). The composition of the coarse grains (63 mu m) exported from the platform during glacial and interglacials forms the key link in understanding the mineralogy and grain-size data, and thus is the main topic of work in progress.

Renken, R. A., Ward, W.C., Gill, I.P., Gomez-Gomez, F., Rodriguez-Martinez, J., and others (2002). "Geology and Hydrogeology of the Caribbean Islands Aquifer System of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands." U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1419: 139.
	
Renne, P., J.M. Mattinson, C.W. Hatten, M.L. Somin, G. Millán, E. Linares. (1989). "Confirmation of Late Proterozoic age of the Socorro complex of North central Cuba from Ar/Ar and U/Pb dating." Resumenes y Programa Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 118.
	
Renne, P. R. (1991). Appendix: 40AR/39AR data and thermochronologic implications for a block from the Jagua Clara melange of the Rio San Juan Complex. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 91-95.
	
Renne, P. R., et al. (1989). "40Ar/39Ar and U-Pb evidence for late Proterozoic(Grenville-age) continental crust in north-central Cuba and regional tectonic implications." Precambrian Research 42: 325-341.
	
Renne, P. R., et al. (1991). "Discordant mid-Cretaceous paleomagnetic pole from the Zaza terrane of central Cuba." Geophysical Research Letters 18: 455-458.
	
Renz, H. H. (1942). "Stratigraphy of northern South America, Trinidad and Barbados." Proceedings of the 8th American Scientist Congress 4: 513-571.
	
Renz, H. H. (1948). "Stratigraphy and fauna of the Agua Salada Group, State of Falcon, Venezuela." Memoirs of the Geological Society of America 32: 1-219.
	
Renz, H. H., et al. (1958). The Eastern Venezuelan Basin. Habitat of Oil. L. G. Weeks. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists: 551-600.
	
Renz, O. (1959). "Estratigrafía del Cretáceo en Venezuela (The Cretaceous stratigraphy of Venezuela)." Boletín de Geología 5: 3-48.
	
Renz, O. (1960). "Geología de la parte sureste de la Peninsula de la Guajira (Republica de Venezuela) [Geology of the southeast part of the Guajira Peninsula (Republic of Venezuela)]." 3rd Venezuelan Geological Congress, Special Publication 3: 317-374.
	
Renz, O. (1981). Venezuela. Aspects of Mid-Cretaceous Regional Geology. R. A. Reyment and P. Bengstone. New York, Academic Press: 197-220.
	
Renzoni, G. (1985). Mapa Fotogeologico de la Plancha 191-Boyaca (1:100,000) (Photo-geologic Map of the Plancha 191-Boyaca (1:100,000)), Colombia Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Mineras.
	
Renzoni, G. (1985). Paleoambientes de la Formacion Tambor en la Quebrada Puiananes (Paleoenvironments of the Tambor Formation in the Puiananes Ravine). Proyecto Cretcico, Contribuciones. F. Etayo-Serna and F. Laverde-M. Bogota, Colombia, Publicaciones Geologicas Especiales del Ingeominas. 16, III: 18.
	
Renzoni, G. (1985). Paleoambientes de la formaciones Arcabuco y Cumbre de la Cordillera de los Cobardes (Paleoenvironment of the Arcabuco and Cumbre formations of the Cordillera de los Cobardes). Proyecto Cretacico, Contribuciones. F. Etayo-Serna and F. Laverde-M. Bogota, Colombia, Publicaciones Geologicas Especiales del Ingeorninas. 16, X: 14.
	
Renzoni, G., et al. (1989). Restauracion de la seccion geologica Caqueza-Puente Quetame: Moderna interpretacion estructural del flanco este de la Cordillera Oriental (Restoration of the Caqueza-Puente Quetame geologic section: Modern structural interpretation of the east flank of the Cordillera Oriental). Bogota, Colombia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
	
Requejo, A. G., et al. (1994). "Geochemical characterization of lithofacies and organic facies in Cretaceous organic-rich rocks from Trinidad, East Venezuela Basin." Organic Geochemistry 22(3-5): 441-459.
	
Resig, J. M. (1981). Biogeography of benthic foraminifera of the northern Nazca plate and adjacent continental margin. ???, Geological Society of America Memoir 154. ??? Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 154: 619-665.
	
Restrepo, J. F. (1987). A Geochemical Investigation of Pleistocene to Recent Calc-Alkaline Igneous in Western Panamá. Dept. of Geology. Tampa, FL, University of South Florida: 103.
	
Restrepo, J. J. and J. F. Toussaint (1988). "Terranes and continental accretion in the Colombian Andes." Episodes 11: 189-193.
	
Restrepo, P. A. (1995). Late Precambrian to Early Mesozoic Tectonic Evolution of the Colombian Andes, Based on New Geochronological Geochemical and Isotopic Data, University of Arizona: 195.
	
Restrepo-Pace, P. A., et al. (1997). "Geochronology and Nd isotopic data of Grenville-age rocks in the Colombian Andes: New constraints for late Proterozoic-early Paleozoic paleocontinental reconstructions of the Americas." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 150(3-4): 427-441.
	
Retallack, G. J. and M. X. Kirby (2007). "Middle Miocene global change and paleogeography of Panama." Palaios 22(6): 667-679.
	    Fossil leaves in the middle Miocene Cucaracha Formation along the Panama Canal are 10-15 cm long, thick, and entire-margined; fossil pollen is also dicot dominated, as expected for wet tropical forests. Fossil woods include palms and ring-porous dicots, with smooth bark as is found in weakly seasonal tropical climates. In contrast, late Hemingfordian to early Barstovian mammals of the Cucaracha Formation are the same as those found in Nebraska, Kansas, and Florida, where climate was drier and cooler and vegetation more open. Cucaracha paleosols reconcile these differences as evidence of a mosaic of swamps to mangal (mangrove forests) preserving plants and dry uplands preserving mammals. A dozen pedotypes represent as many vegetation types, including mangrove, fresh-water and marine-influenced swamp, early successional riparian woodland, colonizing forest, dry tropical forest, and woodland. Many paleosols have calcareous nodules, and some have pedogenic barite nodules. Depth to carbonate and paleosol thickness with carbonate indicate mean annual precipitation of 573-916+ or -147 mm and mean annual range of precipitation of 27-65+ or -22 mm. Chemical analyses of paleosol Bt horizons confirm mean annual precipitation of 296-1142 mm and mean annual temperature of 15-16+ or -4.4 degrees C. Low precipitation and temperature estimates imply a rain shadow from a high (1400-4000 m) volcanic mountain range to the west, with continuous land connection to allow immigration of mammals from North America. Partial enclosure of the Caribbean Sea by a mountainous Panama peninsula, as well as by Antillean arcs, initiated high Caribbean marine temperature and salinity well before Pliocene isthmian closure.

Reuning, L., et al. (2002). Sedimentation cycles and their diagenesis on the slope of a Miocene carbonate ramp (Bahamas, ODP Leg 166). Carbonate margin development (Bahama Transect, ODP Leg 166). J. J. G. Reijmer. Amsterdam, Netherlands, Elsevier. 185: 121-142.
	Numerous small-scale depositional cycles are present in the Miocene sediments of seismic sequence m along the margin of Great Bahama Bank (ODP Leg 166). These cycles consist of decimetre- to metre-scale alternations between light-grey and dark-grey/black wackestones/packstones. The light-grey layers are well cemented and nearly uncompacted. They contain planktonic and benthic foraminifera, and bioclasts. Bioturbation in these layers is moderate. The dark-grey wackestones/packstones are uncemented, strongly compacted and normally strongly bioturbated. The main components are planktonic foraminifera and fine-grained bioclasts. The dark layers are rich in aragonite and organic carbon and contain around 80% carbonate. The light layers show low aragonite and organic carbon contents combined with carbonate values of up to 97.5%. Light delta (super 13) C and slightly negative delta (super 18) O values were observed in the dark uncemented layers while the cemented intervals show heavy delta (super 13) C values and slightly more positive delta (super 18) O values. The carbon isotope signal between the dark and the light layers shows variations of up to 1.45 per mil. Both delta (super 13) C and delta (super 18) O co-vary with carbonate content. The Formation MicroScanner images reflect the changes in carbonate mineralogy. The Natural Gamma-Ray Tool shows that variations in siliciclastic content of the examined succession displays a different frequency than the cyclic alternations in carbonate mineralogy. The internal stacking pattern of the cycles is closely tied to sea level. The dark layers are deposited during rising sea level, while the light layers reflect sediment production and export during highstand and falling sea level. These cycles thus represent a rather continuous sediment shedding pattern that is clearly related to the ramp morphology and differs from the highstand shedding pattern typical for rimmed flat-topped platforms. Most measured parameters suggest that primary sediment composition played an important role in the cementation process. The primary differences in composition were enhanced during shallow burial diagenesis. The initially high content of metastable carbonate phases in the periplatform sediments triggered rapid cementation of the primary aragonite-rich layers leading to the formation of the light beds. Dissolution of metastable high-Mg calcite and aragonite was followed by in situ precipitation of more stable dolomite and calcite. Diagenesis was enhanced by the coarse grain size of the primary aragonite-rich layers. In contrast the more pelagic, dark calcite-rich layers were only slightly affected by diagenesis and could preserve their aragonite content. The uncemented layers subsequently were subject to strong mechanical compaction, whereas the cemented beds stayed nearly uncompacted.

Révillon, S., et al. (1999). "Petrogenesis of picrites from the Caribbean Plateau and the North Atlantic magmatic province." Lithos 49(1-4): 1-21.
	
Révillon, S., et al. (2002). "Heterogeneity of the Caribbean plateau mantle source: Sr, O and He isotopic compositions of olivine and clinopyroxene from Gorgona Island." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 205(1-2): 91-106.
	
Révillon, S., et al. (2000). "A complex history for the Caribbean plateau: Petrology, geochemistry, and geochronology of the Beata Ridge, south Hispaniola." Journal of Geology 108(6): 641-661.
	
Reyes, J. P. (1994). Estratigrafia do secuencias y potenciales trampas estratigraficas en el area del Meta-Llanos orientales de Colombia (Stratigraphy of sequences and potential stratigraphic traps in the Meta-Llanos area of eastern Colombia)). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 122-146.
	
Reynaud, C., et al. (1999). "Oceanic plateau and island arcs of southwestern Ecuador: Their place in the g eodynamic evolution of northwestern South America." Tectonophysics 307(3-4): 235-254.
	
Reynolds, J. H. (1977). Tertiary Volcanic Stratigraphy of Northern Central America. Hanover, New Hampshire, Dartmouth College: ?
	
Reynolds, J. H. (1980). "Late Tertiary volcanic stratigraphy of northern Central America." Bulletin of Volcanology 43: 601-607.
	
Reynolds, J. H. (1987). "Timing and sources of Neogene and Quaternary igneous in south-central Guatemala." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 33: 9-22.
	
Rial, M. J. A. (1976). Seismic Wave Transmission Across the Caribbean Plate:  High Attenuation on Concave Side of Lesser Antilles Island Arc. Department of Geological Sciences. Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan: ?
	
Richards, H. G. (1963). "Stratigraphy of earliest Mesozoic sediments in southeastern Mexico and western Guatemala." Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 47: 1861-1870.
	
Richardson, M. D., et al. (1995). "A depauperate benthic assemblage from the nutrient-poor sediments of the Puerto Rico Trench." Deep - Sea Research Part I - Oceanographic Research Papers 42(3): 351-364.
	
Richardson, M. D., et al. (1997). "Geoacoustic and physical properties of carbonate sediments of the Lower Florida Keys." Geo - Marine Letters 17(4): 316-324.
	
Richerson (1990). Petrogenesis of La Yeguada Volcanic Complex, Western Panamá, Via Both Differentiation and Partial Melting. Dept. of Geology. Tampa, FL, University of South Florida: 133.
	
Rigassi, D. (1961). Some new views on Cuban geology. West Indies Island Arcs. P. H. Mattson. Strtoudsburg, PA, Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross. 33: ?
	
Rigassi-Studer, D. (1961). "Quelques vues nouvelles sur la geologie Cubaine (Some new views concerning the Cuban geology)." Chronique des Mines et de la Recherche y Miniere 29: 3-7.
	
Rigassi-Studer, D. (1963). "Sur la geologie de la Sierra de los Organos (Cuba) (Concerning the geology of the Sierra de los Organos (Cuba))." Arch. Sci. Phys. et Naturelles (Geneve) l6: 339-350.
	
Rigassi-Studer, D. (1977). The geology of the Sierra de los Organos, Cuba. West Indies Island Arcs. P. H. Mattson. Philadelphia, PA, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross: 120-133.
	
Rigassi-Studer, D. (1977). New views of Cuban geology. West Indies Island Arcs. H. Mattson. Philadelphia, PA, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross: 134-150.
	
Rigatti, V., et al. (1998). "A 3D seismic volume of a major buried thrust front, foredeep to emergent thrust sheets, Quiriquire Block; platform for improved exploration and production, Eastern Venezuela Basin." Bulletin - Houston Geological Society 41(1): 16-21.
	
Rigaud, J. G. and F. Pierre-Louis (1980). Potential petrolier d'Haiti. Presentations/Trans. du ler Colloque sur la Geologie d'Haiti, Prot-au-Prince: 13-23.
	
Rigby, J. K. and H. H. Roberts (1976). "Geology, reefs and marine communities of Grand Cayman Island, B.W.I." Brigham Young University, Geology Studies, Special Publications 4: 1-95.
	
Righter, K., et al. (1995). "Pliocene-quaternary volcanism and faulting at the intersection of the Gulf of California and the Mexican Volcanic Belt." Geological Society of America Bulletin 107(5): 612-626.
	
Rinaldi, M., et al. (1990). "Paleoecologic analysis of a storm in the Gran Sabana (Santa Cruz de Mapauri), Venezuela: Preliminary results (Análisis paleoecológico de una turbera en la Gran Sabana (Santa Cruz de Mapaurí), Venezuela: resultados preliminares)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 41: 66-68.
	
Rinaldi, M. and C. Schubert (1991). "Paleoclimatic aspects and possible relation with the human occupation in the Gran Sabana, Guayana Shield, Venezuela:  Preliminary report (Aspectos paleoclimáticos y posible relación con la ocupación humana en la Gran Sabana, Escudo de Guayana, Venezuela: informe preliminar)." Antropológica 75-76: 127-140.
	
Rine, J. M. (1983). Sedimentary Analysis of the Lisama Formation (Paleocene) in the Las Monas area, Santander Province, Colombia, Empresa Colombiana de Petroleos (ECOPETROL, Bogota, Colombia): ?
	
Ritche, A. W. and R. C. Finch (1985). "Widespread Jurassic strata on the Chortis Block of the Caribbean Plate." Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 17: 700-701.
	
Ritchie, A. W. (1975). Geology of the San Juan Sacatepéquez Quadrangle. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 119.
	
Ritchie, A. W. (1976). Jocotán fault -- possible western extension. Informe y trabajos técnicos presentados en la IV Reunión de Geólogos de América Central. no. V: 52-55.
	
Ritchie, A. W. and F. W. McDowell (1979). "K-Ar ages of plutonic and volcanic rocks from the volcanic highlands of Guatemala northwest of Guatemala City." Isochron/West(25): 3-4.
	
River, F. (1985). "Geologic cross section from the Pacific across Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 2: ?
	
Rivier, F. (1985). "Sección geologíca del Pacifico al Atlantico á través de Costa Rica (Pacific-Atlantic geologic section across Costa Rica)." Revista Geologica de America Central 2: 23-32.
	
Rivier, F. and C. Calvo (1988). "Tertiary of the southern Valle Central: Stratigraphic section of the Cerro Caraigres, San José Province, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America 9: ???
	
Roberts, H. H. (1977). Field guidebook to the reefs and geology of Grand Cayman Island, B.W.I. Miami, Atlantic Reef Committee, University of Miami.
	
Roberts, H. H. and S. P. Murray (1983). "Controls on reef development and the terrigenous-carbonate interface on a shallow shelf, Nicaragua (Central America)." Coral Reefs 2: 71-80.
	
Roberts, R. H. (1944). "Manganese deposits in Costa Rica." U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 935: 387-408.
	
Roberts, R. J. (1944). "Manganese deposits in Costa Rica." U.S. Geologic Survey Bulletin 935-H: 387-414.
	
Roberts, R. J. and M. Irving Earl (1957). "Mineral Deposits of Central America." Geological Survey Bulletin 1034: 28-195.
	
Robertson, D. R. and P. W. Glynn (1977). Field guidebook to the reefs of San Blas Islands, Panama. Miami, Atlantic Reef Committee, University of Miami.
	
Robertson, P. (1986). Strike-slip Faulting in the Vicinity of Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies, and Its Tectonic Significance. Department of Geosciences. Houston, TX, University of Houston: unknown p.
	
Robertson, P. and K. Burke (1989). "Evolution of southern Caribbean Plate boundary, vicinity of Trinidad and Tobago." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 73(4): 490-509.
	
Robertson, P., et al. (1986). Structure of the Melajo clay near Arima, Trinidad, and strike-slip motion in the El Pilar fault zone. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ??, ???
	
Robertson, R. E. A. (1995). "An assessment of the risk from future eruptions of the Soufriere volcano of St. Vincent, West Indies." Natural Hazards 11(2): 163-191.
	
Robertson, R. E. A. and T. Jackson (2002). Field Guide to St. Vincent - Field Trip #4. 16th Caribbean Geological Conference, June 16th-21st, 2002, Barbados, West Indies - Field Guides. Barbados, West Indies, Government Printing Department: 117-142.
	
Robin, C., et al. (1995). "Mojanda Volcano (Ecuador): Two contemporaneous volcanoes with distinct eruptive dynamics, development and geochemical characteristics." Comptes Rendus de L Academie Des Sciences Serie II Fascicule A - Sciences de La Terre et Des Planetes 321(12): 1111-1118.
	
Robins, N. S., et al. (1990). Problems of ground-water development in small volcanic islands in the eastern Caribbean. Proceedings of the International symposium on Tropical hydrology and Fourth Caribbean Islands water resources congress. J. H. Krishna, V. Quinones Aponte, F. Gomez Gomez and G. Morris, American Water Resources Association. 90-2: 257 267.
	
Robinson, E. (1958). "The Buff Bay beds and low Layton volcanics." Geonotes 1: 66-71.
	
Robinson, E. (1958). "The younger rocks of St. James and Trelawny." Geonotes 1: 15-17.
	
Robinson, E. (1960). "Observations in the elevated and modern reef formations of the St. Ann coast." Geonotes 3: 18-22.
	
Robinson, E. (1962). Lower Tertiary conglomerates and shales. Synopsis of the Geology of Jamaica. ??? Kingston, Jamaica, Geological Survey Department: 21-24.
	
Robinson, E. (1964). "Orogenesis in Jamaica." Geonotes 6: 48- 51.
	
Robinson, E. (1965). Correlation of Jamaican Tertiary rocks and larger foraminifera. Fourth Caribbean Geologic Conference, Port of Spain. 4.
	
Robinson, E., Ed. (1966). Transactions of the 3rd Caribbean Geological Conference, Kingston, Jamaica, 2-11 April 1962. Jamaica, Geological Survey Dept.
	
Robinson, E., Ed. (1966). Transactions of the 3rd Caribbean Geological Conference, Kingston, Jamaica, April 2-11, 1962. Kingston, Geological Survey Department, Jamaica.
	
Robinson, E. (1967). "Submarine slides in White Limestone Group, Jamaica." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 51: 569-578.
	
Robinson, E. (1969). Geological Field Guide to Neogene Sections in Jamaica, West Indies, GCSSEPM.
	
Robinson, E. (1969). Studies in the Tertiary Stratigraphy of Eastern Jamaica. London, University of London: 289.
	
Robinson, E. (1971). "Observations on the geology of the Jamaican bauxite." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica(Bauxite Special Issue): 3-9.
	
Robinson, E. (1988). "Late Cretaceous and early Tertiary sedimentary rocks of the Central Inlier, Jamaica." Journal of the Geoloical Society of Jamaica 24: 49-67.
	
Robinson, E. (1994). Jamaica. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 111-127.
	
Robinson, E. (1996). "Freemans Hall Beds and Stettin Member, Chapelton Formation, Jamaica: A revision of geological sheets 8, 9 and 12." The Journal of the
                        Geological Society of Jamaica 31: 23-32.
	
Robinson, E. (1996). "Using larger foraminifers in high resolution biostratigraphy: An example from the Eocene of the Gulf of Mexico and northern Caribbean." Palaios 11(3): 220-229.
	
Robinson, E. and F. W. Cambray (1971). Physiography of the sea floor east of Jamaica. Symposium on Investigations and Resources of the Caribbean Sea and Adjacent Regions, Paris, France, UNESCO.
	
Robinson, E. and T. A. Jackson (1976). Field Guide to the Benbow Inlier, Geological Society of Jamaica.
	
Robinson, E. and J. F. Lewis (1971). Field guide to aspects of the geology of Jamaica. IFI Guidebook to the Caribbean Island Arc System. ???, ??? ???: 49.
	
Robinson, E., et al. (1958). The Jamaica earthquake of March 1, 1957. 2nd  Caribbean Geologic Conference ???, ???, ???
	
Robinson, E., et al. (1960). The Jamaica earthquake of March 1, 1957. Transcripts of the Second Caribbean Geologic Conference, Mayaguez. 2: 50- 57.
	
Robinson, E. A. and P. Jung (1972). "Stratigraphy and age of marine rocks, Carriacou, West Indies." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 56: 114-217.
	
Robinson, R. A. and J. Pantoja-Alor (1968). "Tremadocian trilobites from the Nochixtlan region, Oaxaca, Mexico." Journal of Paleontology 42: 767-800.
	
Robol, M. J. (1972). The volcanic geology of Jamaica. VI Conferencia Geological del Caribe, Margarita, Venezuela, Margarita, Venezuela, ???
	
Robson, G. R. (1968). St. Vincent. Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, 28 March-12 April 1965. J. B. Saunders: 454-?
	
Rod, E. (1956). "Strike-slip faults of northern Venezuela." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 52(4): 675-702.
	
Rod, E. and C. Schubert (1993). "New data on the Bocono Fault (Cordillera of Merida, Venezuela) (Nuevos datos sobre la falla de Boconó (Cordillera de Mérida, Venezuela))." Acta Cient. Venezolana 44: 198-203.
	
Rodbell, A. A. (1986). Geology of the Guaimaca quadrangle, Honduras, Central America. Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Instituto Geográfico  Nacional: 27.
	
Rodbell, A. A. (1987). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, Guaimaca sheet. Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Rodrigues, K. (1983). Organic Geochemistry of Cretaceous and Tertiary Sediments in Jamaica in Relation to Their Petroleum Source Rock Potential, University of the West Indies: 502.
	
Rodrigues, K. (1986). "Geochemical prospecting in Trinidad and Tobago: A review." Proceedings of the Workshop on Exploration Geochemistry in Tropical Terrains in the Caribbean Region 213: 63-67.
	
Rodrigues, K. (1986). Thermal hstory modeling in petroleum exploration: Examples from southern Trinidad. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Rodrigues, K. O. T. a. T. O. C., Geol. Serv. Lab., Pointe-a-Pierre, Trinidad-and-Tobago; Agip S.p.A., Milan, Italy (1988). Oil source bed recognition and crude oil correlation, Trinidad, West Indies. Advances in Organic Geochemistry 1987; Part I, Organic Geochemistry in Petroleum Exploration (Proceedings of the 13th international meeting on organic geochemistry). L. Mattavelli and L. Novelli. Milan, Italy, Agip S.p.A. 13: 365-371.
	
Rodrigues, K. O. T. a. T. O. C., Pointe-a-Pierre, Trinidad-and-Tobago; Fla. Int. Univ., Miami, FL, United-States (1990). Significance of geothermal gradients in petroleum exploration in Trinidad. Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Maimi, FL, Miami Geological Society: 444-452.
	
Rodriguez Cesani, H. M. (2002). The Motion of the Northern Lesser Antilles Region With Respect to the Stable Caribbean From GPS Geodesy. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico: 137.
	St. Kitts and Nevis Islands are part of the northern volcanic Caribbees in the Lesser Antilles (LA) region. Little quantitative data exist on arc kinematics and its relationship to the stable interior of the Caribbean plate. Data from GPS geodetic campaign sites from 1998, 2000, and 2001 constrain the motion of the LA at the latitude of St. Kitts and Nevis Island with respect to stable North American (NA) towards N43&deg;E +/&minus; 14.02&deg; with a magnitude of 16.4 +/&minus; 3.11 mm/yr at the 67% confidence level. In a fixed NA reference frame, the velocities derived by the GPS suggest that LA is moving together with the Caribbean plate, but velocities derived in a Caribbean fixed frame show differential motion between the LA islands and the stable Caribbean plate. The cause of residual motion with respect to CA is related to a complex driving mechanism which reflect both tectonic and volcanic deformation. The information obtained in this project reveal that the kinematics and tectonics of this area are not so simple and a more robust data will be necessary to support a better understanding of this part of the Caribbean. 

Rodríguez Hernández, R. and J. G. López Rivera (1987). "New data about the tectonics of Pinar del Rio with respect to oil prospecting." Boletin de Geociences 2(1): 56-71.
	
Rodriguez, J. A. A., F. (1995). Perspectives of Research on Late Quaternary Marine Deposits in Northwestern Venezuela.  Scientific results 1995: Earth Processes in Global Change -Climate of The Past-. Publication occasionnelle CIFEG 1995
32.
	
Rodriguez, K. (1980). A geochemical evaluation of the sediments encountered in the Content 1 well, western Jamaica. Transactions, 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, ??? Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic, ???
	
Rodriguez, L. O. (1999). Tectonic analysis, stratigraphy and depositional history of the Miocene sedimentary section, central Eastern Venezuela Basin. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 212.
	
Rodriguez, M. O. C. (1998). "An overview on the seismicity of Cuba." Journal of Seismology 2(4): 323-335.
	
Rodriguez, R. (???). Marine geologic map of Isla de Mona area, Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Rodriguez, R. (???). Marine geologic map of the north insular shelf of Puerto Rico - Rio de Bayamon to Rio Grande de Loiza, United States Geological Survey.
	
Rodríguez, R. and J. G. López (1987). "Nuevos datos sobre la tectónica de Pinar del Rio a partir de la prospección petrolera (New data on the tectonics of Pinar del Rio starting from the petroleum prospecting)." Serie Geológica 4: 40-57.
	
Rodríguez, R., et al. (1989). "Particularidades petrologo-geoquímicas de los complejos de las rocas intrisivas y volcánicas que se desarrollan en el arco insular paleogénico al este de Santiago de Cuba (Petrologic-geochemical particularities of the complexes of the intrusive and volcanic rocks that developed in the Paleogene insular arc to the east of Santiago of Cuba)." Resúmenes Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 95.
	
Rodríguez, R. M., et al. (2001). "Petrology of the plutonic rocks of ophiolitic affinity present in the Cayo Grande zone (Moa-Baracoa ophiolitic massif), eastern Cuba (Petrología de las rocas plutónicas de afinidad ofiolítica presentes la zona de Cayo Grande (macizo ofiolítico Moa-Baracoa), Cuba oriental)." Minería y Geología 18: 31-44.
	
Rodriguez, R. W., et al. (1998). Marine geologic map of the northeastern insular shelf of Puerto Rico; Luquillo area. Geologic Investigations Series - U. S. Geological Survey.
	
Rodriguez, R. W., et al. (1998). Marine Geologic Map of the Northeastern Insular Shelf of Puerto Rico; Luquillo Area, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
Rodriguez, R. W., et al. (1992). Marine geologic map of the north insular shelf of Puerto Rico: Rio de Bayamon to Rio Grande de Loiza, U.S. Geological Survey 
	
Rodriguez, R. W., et al. (1992). Marine Geologic Map of the North Insular Shelf of Puerto Rico; Rio de Bayamon to Rio Grande de Loiza, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
Rodriguez, T. R. (1983). "Sismo-tectonica del area del Caribe:  En especial de la region de la Isla de la Espanola y necesidad de su zonification (Seismotectonics of the Caribbean region:  Especially the Hispaniola region and the necessity for its zoning)." Boletin de la Sociedad Dominicana de Sismologia e Ingenieria Sismica 3(2): 77-107.
	
Rodríguez-Altamirano, D. (1989). Geologic-structural study of hydrothermal alteration in the area of the Mina de Agua-Rincón, Managua, Nicaragua. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 100.
	
Rodríguez-Estrada, H. V. (1980). Recharge and discharge conditions for water wells near La Valencia, Heredia, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 29.
	Costa-Rica, hydrogeology

Rodríguez-Pacheco, R. L. (1998). "Characteristics of the natural mineral and medical waters from Cuba." Acta Geologica Hispanica 33(1-4): 373-393.
	
Rodriguez-R, C. and R. Rojas-L (1985). Estratigrafia y tectonica de la serie infracretacica en los alrededores de San Feli, Cordillera Central de Colombia (Stratigraphy and tectonics of the infra-Cretaceous series in the surroundings of San Feli, Central Cordillera of Colombia). Proyecto Cretacico, Contribuciones. F. Etayo- Serna and F. Laverde-M. Bogota, Colombia, Publicaciones Geologicas Especiales del Ingeominas. 16,  XXI: 21.
	
Roeder, D. and Chamberlain (1995). Eastern Cordillera of Colombia: Jurassic-Neogene crustal evolution. Petroleum Basins of South America. A. J. Tankard, R. S. Soruco and H. J. Welsink, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 62: 633-645.
	
Roehl, U., et al. (2000). High-resolution, downhole, and nondestructive core measurements from sites 999 and 1001 in the Caribbean Sea; application to the late Paleocene thermal maximum. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. P. Garman. 165: 191-203.
	Pelagic sediments recording an extreme and short-lived global warming event, the Late Paleocene Thermal Maximum (LPTM), were recovered from Hole 999B (Colombian Basin) and Holes 1001A and 1001B (lower Nicaraguan Rise) in the Caribbean Sea during Ocean Drilling Program Leg 165. The LPTM consists of a 0.3-0.97 m calcareous claystone to claystone horizon. High-resolution downhole logging (Formation MicroScanner [FMS]), standard downhole logs (resistivity, velocity, density, natural gamma ray, and geochemical log), and non-destructive chemical and physical property (multisensor core logger [MSCL] and X-ray fluorescence [XRF] core scanner) data were used to identify composite sections from parallel holes and to record sedimentological and environmental changes associated with the LPTM. Downhole logging data indicate an abrupt and distinct difference in physical and chemical properties that extend for tens of meters above and below the LPTM. These observations indicate a rapid environmental change at the LPTM, which persists beyond the LPTM anomaly. Comparisons of gamma-ray attenuation porosity evaluator (GRAPE) densities from MSCL logging on split cores with FMS resistivity values allows core-to-log correlation with a high degree of accuracy. High-resolution magnetic susceptibility measurements of the cores are compared with elemental concentrations (e.g., Fe, Ca) analyzed by high-resolution XRF scanning. The high-resolution data obtained from several detailed core and downhole logging methods are the key to the construction of composite sections, the correlation of both adjacent holes and distant sites, and core-log integration. These continuous-depth series reveal the LPTM as a multiphase event with a nearly instantaneous onset, followed by a much different set of physical and chemical conditions of short duration, succeeded by a longer transition to a new, more permanent set of environmental circumstances. The estimated duration of these "phases" are consistent with paleontological and isotopic studies of the LPTM.

Roemer, L. B. (1973). Geology and Geophysics of the Beata Ridge, Caribbean Sea. College Station, Texas, Texas A&M University: 93.
	
Roemer, L. B., et al. (1973). Geology and Geophysics of the Beata Ridge - Caribbean. College Station, TX, Department of Oceanography, Texas A & M University: 94.
	
Rogers, C. T. and A. Chow-Gabbadon (1986). The Parrylands F.15/DM-13 landslide: a case study. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Rogers, R., et al. (2002). "Epeirogenic uplift above a detached slab in northern Central America." Geology 30: 1031-1034.
	
Rogers, R. D. (2000). Structural and Stratigraphic Constraints on the Cretaceous-Cenozoic Tectonic Evolution of the Chortis Block, Honduras. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, The University of Texas at Austin: 30.
	
Rogers, R. D. (2003). Jurassic to Recent tectonic and stratigraphic history of the Chortis block of Honduras and Nicaragua (northern Central America)". Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, University of Texas at Austin.
	
Rogers, R. D. and E. A. O'Connor (1993). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, Tegucigalpa sheet. Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Rogue Marrero, F. (1987). "Redefinition of the Cayo Coco zone in Camagüey province." Revista Tecnológica 17(1): 18-21.
	
Rohr, G. (1991). "Exploration potential of Trinidad and Tobago." Journal of Petroleum Geology 14(3): 343-354.
	
Rohr, G. M. (1991). "Exploration potential of Trinidad and Tobago." Journal of Petroleum Geology 14(3): 343-354.
	
Rohr, G. M. (1991). Paleogeographic maps, Maturin Basin of E. Venezuela and Trinidad. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Rojas, R. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (1993). "Checklist of Cuban Rudistids Taxa." Proceedings Third International Conference on Rudists: 49.
	
Rojas, R. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (1995). "Cuban paleontologic collections:  Contents and actual state (Colecciones paleontológicas cubanas; contenido y estado actual)." Memoria III Reunión Nacional de Colecciones Paleontológicas, Sociedad Mexicana de Paleontología: 21-23.
	
Rojas, R. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (1996). "Checklist of Cuban rudist taxa." Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas 12(2): 272-273.
	
Rojas, R., et al. (1996). "Age, stratigraphic position and composition of Cuban rudist faunas." Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas 12(2): 272-291.
	
Rojas, R., et al. (1993). "Reevaluation of Cuban rudist faunas." Proceedings Third International Conference on Rudists: 50.
	
Rojas, R., et al. (1995). "Age, stratigraphic position and composition of Cuban rudist faunas." Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geologicas 12(2): 272-291.
	
Rojas, R., et al. (1995). "Stratigraphy, composition and age of Cuban rudist-bearing deposits." Rev. Mexicana de Ciencias Geologicas 12(2): 272-291.
	
Rojas, R., et al. (1992). "Cuban rudist faunas revisited." Resúmenes 13va Conferencia Geológica del Caribe, August 1992: 21.
	
Rojas, W., et al. (1993). "Historical and recent earthquakes in Central America." Revista Geologica de America Central 16: 5-22.
	
Rojas-Agramonte, Y., et al. (2006). Geology, age and tectonic evolution of the Sierra Maestra Mountains, southeastern Cuba. Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 123-150.
	
Rojas-Agramonte, Y., et al. (2005). "Variation of palaeostress patterns along the Oriente transform wrench corridor, Cuba: Significance for Neogene-Quaternary tectonics of the Caribbean realm." Tectonophysics 396(3-4): 161-180.
	In this study, we address the late Miocene to Recent tectonic evolution of the North Caribbean (Oriente) Transform Wrench Corridor in the southern Sierra Maestra mountain range, SE Cuba. The region has been affected by historical earthquakes and shows many features of brittle deformation in late Miocene to Pleistocene reef and other shallow water deposits as well as in pre-Neogene, late Cretaceous to Eocene basement rocks. These late Miocene to Quaternary rocks are faulted, fractured, and contain calcite- and karst-filled extension gashes. Type and orientation of the principal normal palaeostress vary along strike in accordance with observations of large-scale submarine structures at the south-eastern Cuban margin. Initial N-S extension is correlated with a transtensional regime associated with the fault, later reactivated by sinistral and/or dextral shear, mainly along E-W-oriented strike-slip faults. Sinistral shear predominated and recorded similar kinematics as historical earthquakes in the Santiago region. We correlate palaeostress changes with the kinematic evolution along the boundary between the North American and Caribbean plates. Three different tectonic regimes were distinguished for the Oriente transform wrench corridor (OTWC): compression from late Eocene-Oligocene, transtension from late Oligocene to Miocene (?) (D<inf>1</inf>), and transpression from Pliocene to Present (D<inf>2</inf>-D<inf>4</inf>), when this fault became a transform system. Furthermore, present-day structures vary along strike of the Oriente transform wrench corridor (OTWC) on the south-eastern Cuban coast, with dominantly transpressional/compressional and strike-slip structures in the east and transtension in the west. The focal mechanisms of historical earthquakes are in agreement with the dominant ENE-WSW transpressional structures found on land.

Rojas-Consuegra, R. (2000). "The Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary in the Penalver Formation (Western Cuba): taphonomic, paleoecologic, and paleogeographic observations (El limite Cretacico/Terciario en la Formacion Penalver (Cuba Occidental): observaciones tafonomicas, paleoecologicas y paleogeograficas)." Revista Geotemas 1(2): 355-358.
	
Rojas-Consuegra, R., et al. (2005). Significación paleogeográfica de la brecha basal del Límite K/T en Loma Dos Hermanas (Loma Capiro), en Santa Clara, provincia de Villa Clara (Significance and paleogeography of the basal brecca of the K/T boundary in Loma Dos Hermanas (Loma Capiro), in Santa Clara, Villa Clara province). I Convención Cubana de Ciencias de la Tierra. GEOCIENCIAS¹ 2005. Memorias, Trabajos y Resúmenes. La Habana, Cuba, Centro Nacional de Información Geológica. IGP.
	
Rojas-Esquivel, J. F. (1979). Hydrogeochemistry of the Barranca Aquifer, Puntarenas Province, Costa Rica. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 74.
	
Rojas-Quesada, W. (1993). Catalogue of Historical and Recent Seismicity in Central America: Develpment and Analysis. San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: 91.
	
Romanes, J. (1912). "Geological notes on the peninsula of Nicoya, Costa Rica." Geological Magazine 9: 179-212.
	
Romero, G., et al. (1998). "Seismological aspects and fault characteristics of the July 9, 1997, Cariaco earthquake, Eastern Venezuela. ."  IX Congreso Venezolano de Geofísica.(in CD-Rom) 
	
Roobol, J. J. and W. T. Horsfield (1976). "Sea floor lava outcrop in the Jamaica Passage." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 15: 7-10.
	
Roobol, M. J. (1972). The volcanic geology of Jamaica. Transactions of the 6th Caribbean Geol. Conference. Margarita, Venezuela, Margarita, Venezuela, ???
	
Roobol, M. J. and A. L. Smith (1998). "Pyroclastic stratigraphy of the Soufriere Hills volcano, Montserrat - Implications for the present eruption." Geophysical Research Letters 25(18): 3393-3396.
	
Roobol, M. J. and A. L. Smith (2004). Geologic Map of Dominica, West Indies, Geology Dept., University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez.
	
Roper, P. J. (1978). "Stratigraphy of the Chuacús Group on the south side of the Sierra de las Minas range, Guatemala." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 309-313.
	
Roque Marrero, F. and M. Iturralde-Vinent (1987). "Redefinición de la zona de Cayo Coco en la provincia de Camagüey (Redefinition of the zone of Cayo Coco in the province of Camaguey)." Revista Tecnológica  XVII 4: 18-21.
	
Rosales, M. O. (1990). "Evolucion tectonica del margen sur-central del Caribe basado en datos geoquimicos (Tectonic evolution of the south-central Caribbean based on geochemical data)." Geos (Universidad Central de Venezuela, Escuela de Geologia, Minas y Metalurgia) 30: 1-294.
	
Rosas Elguera, J., et al. (2003). "Counterclockwise rotation of the Michoacan block: Implications for the tectonics of western Mexico." International Geology Review 45(9): 814-826.
	
Rosaselguera, J., et al. (1996). "Continental boundaries of the Jalisco block and their influence in the Pliocene-Quaternary kinematics of western Mexico." Geology 24(10): 921-924.
	
Rosas-Elguera, J., et al. (1996). "Continental boundaries of the Jalisco Block and their influence in the Pliocene-Quaternary kinematics of western Mexico." Geology (Boulder) 24(10): 921-924.
	Extensional faulting observed in southwestern Mexico has been related to the incipient rifting of the Jalisco block from the Mexican mainland since the Pliocene. On the basis of new structural and geophysical data, we propose that (1) the continental boundaries of the Jalisco block are ancient structures reactivated since the Pliocene at a low (<1 mm/yr) rate of deformation, and (2) Pliocene-Quaternary extensional faulting at the edges of Jalisco block is a basement-controlled intraplate deformation related to plate boundary forces rather than to active continental rifting. The Jalisco block boundaries first developed in response to the uplift of the Puerto Vallarta batholith in pre-Neogene time and underwent a complex contractile deformation before the Pliocene. During Pliocene-Quaternary times north-northeast extension reactivated the northern boundary, forming the Tepic-Zacoalco rift, whereas east-southeast extension formed the northern Colima rift. South of the Colima volcano, active extension is found only west of the so-called southern Colima rift and partly reactivates old northeast-trending basement faults. The parallelism between the subducted Rivera-Cocos plate boundary zone and the eastern neotectonic boundary of the Jalisco block supports east-southeastward motion of the southern Mexican blocks induced by the differential motion and oblique subduction of the Cocos and Rivera plates. On the other hand, we envisage Pliocene-Quaternary extension along the northern boundary as an upper-plate response to the low convergence rate and the steep subduction angle of the Rivera plate.

Rosen, D. E. (1975). "A vicariance model of Caribbean biogeography." Systematic Zoology 24: 431-464.
	
Rosen, D. E. (1985). "Geological hierarchies and biogeographical conguenses in the Caribbean." Annals of Missouri Botanial Garden 72: 636-659.
	
Rosencrantz, E. (1990). "Structure and tectonics of the Yucatan basin, Caribbean Sea, as determined from seismic reflection studies." Tectonics 9: 1037-1059.
	
Rosencrantz, E. (1993). An Overview of the Cuban Origin With an Assessment of Hydrocarbons Potential (with contributions by Georges Pardo). Austin, University of Texas Institute for Geophysics: 47.
	
Rosencrantz, E. (1993). "Revised opening history of the Cayman Trough, Caribbean Sea." Abstracts with Programs - Geological Society of America 25(6): 71.
	
Rosencrantz, E. (1995). "Opening of the Cayman Trough and the evolution of the northern Caribbean Plate boundary." Geological Society of America, 1995 annual meeting, Abstracts with Programs 27(6): 153.
	
Rosencrantz, E. (1996). Basement structures and tectonics in the Yucatan Basin. Ofiolitas y Arcos Volcanicos de Cuba (Cuban Ophiolites and Volcanic Arcs). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent. Ciudad de la Habana, Cuba, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural: 36-47.
	
Rosencrantz, E. and J. A. Barros (1989). "Structural and chronological discontinuity in late Cretaceous-Eocene tectonic events in Cuba." Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 21(1): 39.
	
Rosencrantz, E. and P. Mann (1991). "SeaMARC II mapping of transform faults in the Cayman trough." Geology 19: 690-693.
	
Rosencrantz, E., et al. (1988). "Age and spreading history of the Cayman Trough as determined from depth, heat flow, and magnetic anomalies." Journal of Geophysical Research 93: 2141-2157.
	
Rosencrantz, E., et al. (1987). Basement depths and heat flow in the Yucatan Basin and Cayman Trough, northwestern Caribbean: Implications for basin ages. Marine Heat Flow. J. Wright  and K. Louden. Boca Raton, Florida, CRC Press: 257-276.
	
Rosencrantz, E. and J. G. Sclater (1986). "Depth and age in the Cayman Trough." Earth and Planetary  Science Letters(79): 133-144.
	
Rosenfeld, J. and J. Pindell (2003). Early Paleogene isolation of the Gulf of Mexico from the world's oceans? Implications for hydrocarbon exploration and eustasy. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, R. T. Buffler and J. F. Blickwede. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 89-103.
	Deeply incised and backfilled paleocanyons in early Paleogene shelf strata along the western and northern Gulf of Mexico margin attest to large relative sea-level fluctuations, but they predate the accepted age for onset of Cenozoic continental glaciation. Using Pleistocene canyons as a crude yardstick, the scale of these paleocanyons suggests relative sea-level changes at least as large as Pleistocene fluctuations. Therefore, we speculate that water level in the Gulf of Mexico was drawn down while the Gulf was isolated from the world's oceans during the late Paleocene/early Eocene interval. We suggest that the cause for isolation was the progressive collision of the Cuban arc with the Yucatan and Bahamas carbonate platforms, which temporarily closed off the southeastern Gulf of Mexico. In Miocene Mediterranean and Holocene Black Sea examples of marine-basin isolation, evaporation greatly exceeded rainfall and runoff, and our examination of the Gulf of Mexico case suggests that water level may have dropped below the level of the world's oceans at least once by several hundred meters, and possibly much more. Implications for geology and hydrocarbon exploration in the Gulf may include: - bypass of enormous quantities of coarse detritus into the deep basin; - seaward collapse of exposed clastic shelf margins; - triggering and/or acceleration of salt evacuation (basinward "squeegee" effect of slumping sediments); - release of gas hydrates from sediments under shallower and warmer water, thereby contributing to the approximately 100,000-year-long worldwide Paleocene/Eocene boundary heating event; - development of secondary porosity in both platform and deep-water carbonate sections by dissolution and phreatic diagenesis, e.g., in the Golden Lane/Poza Rica area of Mexico; - hypersalinity and possible sea-bottom stagnation with source-rock deposition in areas that remained marine; - deposition of fine-grained condensed sections (seal and source rock) during flooding period(s) when connection with the world's oceans was reestablished, creating stratigraphic traps at canyon flanks and turbidite reservoirs in the canyons. Recognition that early Paleogene relative sea-level changes seen in the Gulf may pertain to basin isolation is grounds for treating "eustatic" curves derived for or from the Gulf with suspicion. In addition, catastrophic basinward transfer and collapse of mass near the shelf edges would have caused isostatic unloading (rebound) of shelf margins that was proportional to the mass transfer. In the case of a discreet slumping event, such as the Lavaca "Megaslump" event of south Texas, this effect may have caused uplift of several to few tens of meters of footwall areas within about 100 km from the slump. Larger downslope movements such as those related to the collective Wilcox fault province would have caused far larger isostatic rebounds on the shelf, perhaps in excess of 100 m if sedimentation did not keep pace with faulting. A body of circumstantial evidence continues to grow in support of this hypothesis; its potential implications, both academic and commercial, merit further investigation. Integration of information from Cuba, Mexico, the United States, and the Bahamas will be required to fully test the hypothesis.

Rosenfeld, J. H. (1980). The Santa Cruz ophiolite, Guatemala, Central America. Transactions of the 9th Caribbean Geologic Conference, ???, ???
	
Rosenfeld, J. H. (1981). Geology of the Western Sierra de Santa Cruz, Guatemala, Central America: An Ophiolite Sequence. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York at Binghamton: 313.
	The Sierra de Santa Cruz of eastern central Guatemala is a north-northeast trending massif 90 kilometers long and 15 kilometers wide lying along the north side of the Polochic Fault System, one of the major elements of the present day boundary between the Caribbean and North American crustal plates. It is the erosional remnant of an ophiolite allochthon that was transported northward during the Campanian to Maastrichtian suturing of the Honduras/Nicaragua Rise and Yucatan cratons. The allochthon overlies the Sepur formation; a flysch sequence deposited as a submarine fan on a depressed Albian to Campaign carbonate platform and shelf. The flysch immediately underlying the allochthon was dated as Campanian. The formation of the flysch trough on the southern edge of the Yucatan craton, as well as the gravitative transport of the allochthon and subsequent deformation of both units, are the result of orogenic stresses produced by suturing of the continental blocks along the Motagua Fault Zone some 40 kilometers to the south. Mapping of the western end of the massif revealed that the base of the allochthon consists of a serpentinite matrix melange and a highly deformed argillite. The latter is metamorphosed in the prehnite-pumpellyite facies and is interpreted to be a pelagic sedimentary unit overridden by the ophiolite during obduction. The ophiolite is composed of a basal tectonized and serpentinized harzburgite enclosing a gabbroic pluton at least two kilometers thick with associated ultramafic cumulates and quartz diorites. The pluton is capped by a zone of diabase which intrudes and feeds massive and pillowed basalt flows with intercalated pelagic chert and limestone. The intrabasalt sedimentary rocks have been dated as Valaginian to Lower Cenomanian. The basalts are overlain by a sequence of tuffaceous cherts which coarsen upward to volcaniclastic flysch and epiclastic volcanic breccia containing andesitic and dacitic lava and welded tuff fragments. This entire sequence has been named the Tzumuy formation with a maximum exposed thickness in excess of 400 meters. The lower part of the Tzumuy formation has been tentatively dated as Aptian/Albian and appears to indicate that arc type vulcanism accompanied the waning stages of ophiolite formation. The upper gabbro and lower basalts have been metamorphosed in the greenschist facies, while the upper basalts and their associated sedimentary rocks were altered under zeolite facies conditions. The original igneous textures of the rocks are preserved and the metamorphism is ascribed to sub-seafloor hydrothermal activity at the time the ophiolite was being constructed at a diverging plate margin. Copper bearing sulfides introduced during the hydrothermal event are being mined from a stockwork deposit in the basalt/diabase interval at the Oxec Mine, Cahabon, department of Alta Verapaz. The Santa Cruz ophiolite is correlative with the Juan de Paz ophiolite of the Motagua Fault Zone, and may also correlate with metamorphosed and dismembered ophiolites further to the west in Guatemala (El Tambor formation), and further to the east in the Greater Antilles. These are believed to represent a portion of the oceanic crust formed during mid-Mesozoic rifting between North and South America.

Rosenfeld, J. H. (1990). Sedimentary rocks of the Santa Cruz Ophiolite, Guatemala: A proto-Caribbean history. Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 513-519.
	
Rosenfeld, J. H. (1993). Sedimentary rocks of the Santa Cruz Ophiolite, Guatemala - a proto-Caribbean history. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region:  A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration. J. L. Pindell and R. F. Perkins. ???, Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation: 173-180.
	
Ross, D. A. and G. G. J. Shore (1965). "Reflection profiles across the Middle America Trench." Journal of Geophysical Research 70: 5551-5572.
	
Ross, L. M. and R. L. Ames (1988). "Stratification of oils in Columbus Basin off Trinidad." Oil and Gas Journal 86(39): 72-76.
	
Ross, M. I. (1987). MAGANOM:  A Computer Program for the Modeling and Interpretation of Marine Magnetic Anomalies With an Example From the Cayman Trough, Northwest Caribbean Sea. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas: 117.
	
Ross, M. I. and C. R. Scotese (1988). "A hierarchical tectonic model of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean region." Tectonophysics 155: 139-168.
	
Rossi, T. (1985). The Serrania Del Interior Oriental (Venezula) south of the Cariaco-Maturin transect (La Serrania Del Interior Oriental (Venezuela) sur le transect 
Cariaco-Maturin). Brest, Universite de Bretagne Occidentale.
	
Roth, J. M. (1999). The Caribbean carbonate crash at the middle to late Miocene transition and the establishment of the modern global thermohaline circulation. Houston, TX, Rice University: 135.
	
Roth, J. M., et al. (2000). The Caribbean carbonate crash at the middle to late Miocene transition: Linkage to the establishment of the modern global ocean conveyor. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. P. Garman. College Station, TX, Ocean Drilling Program. 165: 249-273.
	Carbonate content and mass accumulation rate (MAR) were determined for Holes 998A, 999A, and 1000A recovered during the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 165 in the Yucatan Basin (3101 m), the Colombian Basin (2839 m), and the Pedro Channel (927 m), respectively, for an interval spanning most of the middle Miocene and the early part of the late Miocene. Aragonite MAR was analyzed in Hole 1000A to detect dissolution of metastable carbonates at subthermocline depths in addition to sea-level variations. Oxygen and carbon stable isotope composition of benthic foraminifers are used as a proxy for sea-level fluctuations and as a record for the chemistry variations of deep and intermediate water, respectively. The middle to late Miocene transition in the Caribbean was characterized by massive increase of carbonate dissolution. Five well-defined dissolution episodes between 12 and 10 Ma are characterized by dramatic reductions in carbonate content and MAR. This interval is referred to as the Caribbean carbonate crash. The term "carbonate crash" was borrowed from ODP Leg 138 published results (Lyle et al., 1995). The timing and periodicity of four of the five carbonate-dissolution episodes in the Caribbean basins appear to correspond to the late middle Miocene production peaks of the North Component Water (Wright and Miller, 1996), equivalent to the modern North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). These findings suggest that the carbonate crash in the Caribbean and in the eastern equatorial Pacific was caused by a reorganization of the global thermohaline circulation induced by the re-establishment and intensification of the NADW production and concomitant influx of corrosive southern-sourced intermediate waters (analogous to the modern Antarctic Intermediate Water Mass) into the Caribbean. At the time of the late middle Miocene carbonate crash, the Caribbean became--and remains--an important pathway for the return flow of the global thermohaline oceanic circulation. Tectonic activity and foundering along the northern Nicaraguan Rise in the middle Miocene led to the establishment of a connection between the southern and northern Caribbean basins by the opening of two new main seaways, the Pedro Channel and the Walton Basin (Droxler et al., 1998). Once established, this connection triggered the initiation of the Caribbean/Loop Currents. The gradual closing of the Central American Seaway, simultaneous to the opening of seaways along the northern Nicaraguan Rise, disrupted the low latitude connection between the Atlantic and the eastern Pacific and, as a direct consequence, further strengthened the Caribbean Current. Based upon the observation of different coccolith assemblages present on either side of the Central American Seaway at some point during the middle to late Miocene transition, the Pacific-Atlantic connection might have been completely closed at that time. This full closure would explain the observed contemporaneous intermingling of terrestrial fauna between North and South America. The newly developed and strengthened Caribbean Current transported warm, saline waters of the Caribbean to the northern North Atlantic via the Loop Current, the Florida Current, and the Gulf Stream. These conditions were favorable for the contemporaneous re-establishment of NADW. This reorganization of the global oceanic circulation at the middle to late Miocene transition is well recorded in the contrasting carbonate preservation pattern observed in the Caribbean basins, the eastern equatorial Pacific, and the Ceara Rise (equatorial Atlantic).

Rothwell, R. P. (1882). "The gold fields of the southern portion of the Island of Santo Domingo." American Institute of Mining and Engineering Transactions 10; 34: 345-354; 331-337.
	
Roughgarden, J. (1990). Origin of the eastern Caribbean: Data from reptiles and amphibians. Transactions of the 12th Caribbean geological conference. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. St. Croix, United States Virgin Islands. 12: 10-26.
	
Roure, F., et al. (1984). "Geometry and kinematics of the North Monagas thrust belt (Venezuela)." Marine and Petroleum Geology 11: 347-362.
	
Roure, F., et al. (1997). "Within-plate deformations in the Maracaibo and East Zulia basins, western Venezuela." Marine and Petroleum Geology 14(2): 139-163.
	
Rousko, I. (1985). Report on first IGCP regional meeting for Latin America and the Caribbean. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American geological conference. 4: 658-671.
	
Rowe, D. W. (1987). Structural and Petrologic History of Northeastern Tobago, West Indies: A Partial Cross-section Through a Composite Oceanic Arc Complex, University of Wyoming at Laramie: 165.
	
Rowley, D. B. and J. L. Pindell (1989). "End Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic western Pangean reconstruction and its implications for the distribution of Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks around Meso-America." Precambrian Research 42: 411-444.
	
Rowley, K. C. (1978). Volcanic history of St. Vincent. Kingston, Jamaica, University of West Indies: 123.
	
Rowley, K. C. and J. M. Roobol (1978). "Geochemistry and age of Tobago igneous rocks." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 315-318.
	
Royall, M. (1982). The Geology, Geochemistry and Hydrology of the Thermal Springs of Jamaica, University of the West Indies: 165.
	
Rueda-Gaxiola, J. (2003). The origin of the Gulf of Mexico basin and its petroleum subbasins in Mexico, based on red bed and salt palynostratigraphy. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, R. T. Buffler and J. F. Blickwede. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 246-282.
	The most important red-bed and salt sequences in Mexico are Jurassic and are located in eastern Mexico in or around the Gulf of Mexico. Most of these rocks are Middle Jurassic, and they are overlain almost always by evaporitic sequences that mark the beginning of the Middle Jurassic transgressive sequence. In some places, they overlie pre-Jurassic rocks. Mesozoic red-bed sequences have recently been dated with organic and inorganic components of palynological residues. Information from red-bed sequences in the Los San Pedros Allogroup and Huayacocotla Group (Rhaetic-Liassic age in the Huayacocotla-El Alamar Basin), La Joya Formation (Middle Jurassic age in the Sabinas Subbasin), Rosario and Cahuasas Formations (Middle Jurassic age in the Tampico-Misantla Sub-basin), and Todos Santos Formation (Middle Jurassic age in the Veracruz and Tabasco-Chiapas-Campeche Subbasins) allows us to construct a model for the origin and evolution of the Gulf of Mexico. The model includes three different stages: (1) the formation of one (or two?) Rhaetic-Early Liassic wrench or shear basin(s) (Huayacocotla-El Alamar Basin) related to the evolution of the Pacific convergent system; (2) formation of the Tampico-Misantla Sub-basin during the late Liassic as a result of the southwest displacement of the Huayacocotla and Tlaxiaco Blocks along the Tampico-Lazaro Cardenas and Teziutlan-Acapulco Megashears; and (3), the origin during the Middle Jurassic of the Gulf of Mexico Basin and the Sabinas, Veracruz, and Tabasco-Chiapas-Campeche Mexican petroleum subbasins as a result of the development of a triple junction. This triple junction allowed the northwestward displacement of the Texas-Louisiana block and the western region of Mexico from the stable Chiapas-Tabasco-Campeche-Yucatan block along the Lewis Clark-Bahamas and Texas-Boquillas-Sabinas lineaments and the Pico de Orizaba-Laguna Inferior Megashear.

Ruepke, L. H., et al. (2002). "Are the regional variations in Central American arc lavas due to differing basaltic versus peridotitic slab sources of fluids?" Geology 30: 1035-1038.
	Central American arc volcanism shows strong regional trends in lava chemistry that result from differing slab contributions to arc melting. However, the mechanism that transfers slab-derived trace elements into the mantle wedge remains largely unknown. By using a dynamic model for mantle flow and fluid release, we model the fate of three different slab-fluid sources: sediment, ocean crust, and serpentinized mantle. In the open subarc system, sediments lose almost all their highly fluid mobile elements by approximately 50 km depth, so other fluid sources are necessary to explain the slab signal in arc-lava compositions. The well-documented transition from lavas with a strong geochemical slab signature (i.e., high Ba/La ratios) found in Nicaragua to lavas with a weaker slab signature (i.e., low Ba/La ratios) erupted in Costa Rica seems easiest to produce by a higher fraction of serpentine-hosted fluids released from the deeply faulted, highly serpentinized lithosphere subducting beneath Nicaragua than from the less deeply faulted, thicker, amphibolitic oceanic-crust and oceanic-plateau lithosphere subducting beneath Costa Rica.

Ruiz, J., et al. (1988). "Proterozoic and Phanerozoic basement terranes of Mexico from Nd isotopic studies." Geological Society of America Bulletin 100: 274-281.
	
Ruiz Martinez, V. C., et al. (2000). "Palaeomagnetism of Late Miocene to Quaternary volcanics from the eastern segment of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt." Tectonophysics 318(1-4): 217-233.
	
Rull, V. (2002). "High-impact palynology in petroleum geology: Applications from Venezuela (northern South America)." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 86(2): 279-300.
	
Rull, V., et al. (1987). "Late Holocene temperature depression in the Venezuelan Andes: Palynological evidence." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 60: 109-121.
	
Rull, V. and C. Schubert (1989). "Evolution of the hypothesis on the origin of the Caribbean (Evolución de las hipótesis sobre el origen del Caribe)." Interciencia 14(2): 74-85.
	
Rull, V. and C. Schubert (1989). "The Little Ice Age in the tropical Venezuelan Andes." Acta Cient. Venezolana 40: 71-73.
	
Rull, V. and C. Schubert (1993). "Evolution of the hypotheses on the origin of the Caribbean (Evolución de las hipótesis sobre el origen del Caribe)." Bol. Hist. Geociencias en Venezuela 49: 42-53.
	
RULL, V., et al. (1988). "Palynological studies in the Venezuelan Guayana Shield: Preliminary results." Current Research in the Pleistocene 5: 54-56.
	
Rull, V., et al. (1988). "Paleo-ecologic study on the savannah and 'tepuyes' aluvium and turbidites of the Gran Sabana (Bolivar State): Preliminary results (Estudio paleoecológico sobre aluviones y turberas de sabana y tepuyes de la Gran Sabana (Edo Bolívar): resultados preliminares)." Pantepui 4: 25-29.
	
Ruppel, C., et al. (1995). "Heat flux through an old (approximate to 175 Ma) passive margin: Offshore southeastern United States." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 100(B10): 20037-20057.
	
Russell, N. and S. E. Kesler (1991). Geology of the maar-diatreme complex hosting precious metal mineralization at Pueblo Viejo, Dominican-Republic. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 203-215.
	
Russo, R., et al. (1992). "Historical seismicity of the southeastern Caribbean and its tectonic implications." Pure and Applied Geophysics 139: 87-120.
	
Russo, R. and A. Villasenor (1995). "The 1946 Hispaniola earthquakes and the tectonics of the North America-Caribbean plate boundary zone, northeastern Hispaniola." Journal of Geophysical Research 100: 6265-6280.
	
Russo, R. M. (1990). Seismicity, Gravity Anomalies, and the Tectonics of the Southeastern Caribbean, Northwestern University: 185.
	New focal mechanisms and inverse models of gravity anomalies of the southeastern Caribbean indicate that the plate tectonic interaction between Caribbean and South America in northeastern Venezuela and Trinidad is best described by kinematics of oblique collision. Shallow (0-70 km) and intermediate (70-200 km) earthquakes beneath and north of the Paria Peninsula (Venezuela) define a steeply NW-dipping slab. New focal mechanisms of these earthquakes confirm that South American oceanic lithosphere is subducting beneath the Caribbean plate. Shallow (8-40 km) SE-directed thrust earth-quakes and dextral strike-slip earthquakes along the El Pilar fault zone indicate collision between Caribbean terranes and South America, and partitioning of oblique convergence into strike-slip motions west of a point in the Gulf of Paria. These focal mechanisms corroborate Speed's (1985, 1986) prediction of oblique collision and the existence of a tip to the El Pilar west of Trinidad. The shallow thrusts and deeper subduction earthquakes also imply that South American continental lithosphere is supporting both a surface load (overthrust nappes and obducted Paria-Trinidad and Tobago terranes) and a subsurface load (subducting oceanic lithosphere). South American continental crust is tectonically wedging between the downgoing slab and the obducted Caribbean terranes. The combined loads depress the continent into the mantle and cause the unique gravity anomalies of NE Venezuela. Gravity anomalies within the South America-Caribbean plate boundary zone attain the lowest near-sealevel continental values in the world ($-$200 mgal). The extreme gravity anomalies and the coincident mild topographic relief are explained by tectonic wedging of South American crust. Bouguer gravity inversions show that crustal models based on oblique collision and wedging yield anomalies that fit the observed gravity anomalies very well. Models based on proposed strike-slip motion between Caribbean and South America fare less well: inversions reduce the geologic feasibility of the crustal models significantly. In particular, realistic choices of crustal densities require thickening of the South American crust to a degree which is not commensurate with the strike-slip model. Also, the inversions show that the El Pilar fault cannot juxtapose rocks of significantly different densities. These results show that instantaneous global and regional relative plate motions studies which require collision between Caribbean and South America are viable, and that both pure eastward translation and dextral divergence of Caribbean relative to South America are unlikely.

Russo, R. M., et al. (1992). "Historical seismicity of the southeastern Caribbean and tectonic implications." Pure and Applied Geophysics 139(1): 87-120.
	
Russo, R. M., et al. (1996). "Shear-wave splitting in northeast Venezuela, Trinidad, and the eastern Caribbean." Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 95(3-4): 251-275.
	
Russo, R. M. and R. C. Speed (1992). "Oblique collision and tectonic wedging of the South American continent and Caribbean terranes." Geology 20(5): 447-450.
	
Russo, R. M. and R. C. Speed (1992). "Oblique collosion and tectonic wedging of the South American continent and Caribbean terranes." Geology 20: 447-450.
	
Russo, R. M. and R. C. Speed (1994). "Spectral analysis of gravity anomalies and the architecture of tectonic wedging, NE Venezuela and Trinidad." Tectonics 13(3): 613-622.
	
Russo, R. M., et al. (1993). "Seismicity and tectonics of the southeastern Caribbean." Journal of Geophysical Research 98: 14299-14319.
	
Russo, R. M., et al. (1993). "Seismicity and tectonics of the southeastern Caribbean." Journal of Geophysical Research:  Solid Earth and Planets 98(8): 14299-14319.
	
Russo, R. M. and A. Villasenor (1995). "The 1946 Hispaniola earthquakes and the tectonics of the North America Caribbean plate boundary zone, northeastern Hispaniola." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 100(B4): 6265-6280.
	
Russo, R. M. and A. Villasenor (1997). "The 1946 Hispaniola earthquake and the tectonics of the North America Caribbean plate boundary zone, northeastern Hispaniola - Reply." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 102(B1): 793-802.
	
Ruth, M. D. (1989). Cenozoic geology of the western San Juan Valley, Dominican Republic. Washington, D. C., The George Washington University: 252.
	
Rutten, M. G. (1936). "Geology of the northern part of the province of Santa Clara, Cuba." Geographische en Geologische Mededeelingen.  Physiographisch-Geologische Reeks 11: 1-59.
	
Rutten, M. L. R. (1940). "On the age of the serpentinites of Cuba."  43: Proc. Kon. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdan
542-547.
	
Ryabukhin, A., G (1992). "Lithodynamic complexes of the Caribbean region." Moscow University Geology Bulletin 47(1): 20-27.
	
Ryabukhin, A. G. (1983). "Osobennosti sovremennoy struktury Karibskogo regiona (Specific features in the present structure of the Caribbean region)." Byulleten' Moskovskogo Obshchestva Ispytateley Prirody, Otdel Geologicheskiy 58(1): 22-34.
	
Ryabukhin, A. G. (1983). "Present structure of the Mexican-Caribbean region." Byull. MOIP, Ser. Geol.  ???? 57(1): 22-32.
	
Ryabukhin, A. G., et al. (1983). "Evolution of the Mexican-Caribbean region (Experiment in analysis in light of plate tectonics)." Geotectonics 17(6): 498-511.
	
Rylaarsdam, K. W. (1981). Life Histories and Abundance Patterns of Some Common Caribbean Reef Corals. Department of Earth & Planetary Sciences. Baltimore, MD, The Johns Hopkins University: 142.
	
Rymer, H., et al. (1987). "Microgravity monitoring at Poas volcano (1983-86)." Geological Magazine of Central America 6: ???
	
Sachs, K. N., Jr. (1959). "Puerto Rican Upper Oligocene Larger Foraminifera." Bulletin of American Paleontology 39(183): 19.
	
Sachs, K. N., Jr. and W. A. Gordon (1962). "Stratiographic Distribution of Middle Tertiary Larger Foraminifera From Southern Puerto Rico." Bulletin of American Paleontology 44(199): 24.
	
Sáenz-Sánchez, L. F. (1985). Geophysical Study for the Feasibility of the Angostura Hydroelectric Project. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica, Central American School of Geology: ?
	
Saintmarc, P. (1995). "Palaeoceanography of the Gulf of Mexico (site DSDP 94) during the basal Palaeogene. Geodynamic implications (FRENCH)." Comptes Rendus de L Academie Des Sciences Serie II Fascicule A - Sciences de La Terre et Des Planetes 321(9): 797-802.
	
Sak, P. B. (1999). Landscape evolution and structure of the central Pacific coast, Costa Rica. University Park, PA, Pennsylvania State University: 44.
	
Sak, P. B. (2002). Active Tectonics and Landscape Evolution Inboard of Subducting Seafloor Roughness: An Investigation Across the Costa Rican Fore Arc, Central Americaty, 166, The Pennsylvania State University: 166.
	Orthogonal subduction of rough oceanic lithosphere along the northwestern flank of the Cocos Ridge imprints a distinctive style of deformation on the overriding Costa Rican fore arc. Subduction of seamounts and ridges along the Costa Rican segment of the Middle American margin produces both subsidence offshore and differential surface uplift onshore. Near the trench inboard of subducting bathymetric highs, recovered drill cores, seismic reflection profiles, and bathymetric mapping are all consistent with subsidence. However, across the subaerially exposed portions of the fore arc, areas overriding subducting bathymetric highs record rapid uplift. For example, along the southwest coast of the Nicoya Peninsula, a northwest-trending outer-fore-arc high, exposures of latest Cretaceous and Cenozoic turbidite deposits are confined to regions overriding northeast-trending ridges. No uplifted Quaternary deposits are observed between these two isolated depo-centers. Across the central Pacific coast inboard of subducting, linear chains of seamounts, the coastal fore arc is dissected by steeply-dipping, northeast-striking faults. These faults bound blocks characterized by differential rates of surface uplift. Upthrown blocks are confined to portions of the fore arc that override subducting seamounts. Faulted, alluvial fill terraces exposed on two adjacent fault-bounded blocks are used to calculate late Pleistocene surface uplift rates of 0.8 &plusmn; 0.1 mm yr<super>&minus;1</super> for the block overriding the subducted seamount compared to 0.08 &plusmn; 0.1 mm yr<super>&minus;1</super> on the adjacent block that does not override seamounts. The fault separating these two adjacent blocks has a minimum separation rate of 0.7 mm yr<super>&minus;1</super>. The record of simultaneous offshore subsidence and onshore uplift as a result of seamount subduction is consistent with either out-of-sequence faulting or underplating beneath the inner fore arc. Arcward of the trench the fore arc basement is composed mostly of Cretaceous to early Tertiary Caribbean plate basement that has greater strength than the thinner lower-slope apron. Thus, rigid seamounts are capable of removing upper plate material along the lower apron. However, the thicker basement beneath the subaerial portion of the fore arc may act as a rigid backstop and shear subducting seamounts off the Cocos plate. This mechanism of tectonic smoothing of the downgoing plate would result in a thickened crustal sequence and broad uplifted regions inboard of subducting seamounts and ridges. This is consistent with observed narrow zones of subsidence across the lower slope and broader regions of late Quaternary surface uplift rates across the subaerial fore arc.

Salas, G. P. (1959). Los Depositos de Bauxita en Haiti y Jamaica, y Posibilidades de que Exista Bauxita en Mexico (The Bauxite Deposits in Haiti and Jamaica and Possibilities That Bauxite Exists in Mexico). Mexico, Instituto de Geologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico.
	
Salazar, L. G., et al. (1992). "Metropolitan aqueduct in the section damming the El Llano-Río Navarro (Costa Rica): A low risk area." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 14.
	
Salazar-Cyrman, A. J. (1985). Feasibility study for improving the Azul de Turrialba quarry, Cartago, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 132.
	
Salgado-Labouriau, M., et al. (1988). "The establishment of vegetation after Late Pleistocene deglaciation in the Páramo de Miranda, Venezuelan Andes." Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 55: 5-17.
	
Salgado-Labouriau, M. and C. Schubert (1974
abstract)). "Palynologic studies of Holocene storms in Venezuela (Estudios palinológicos de turberas holocénicas en Venezuela)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 25(1): 13.
	
Salgado-Labouriau, M. and C. Schubert (1976). "Palynology of Holocene peat bogs from the central Venezuelan Andes." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 19: 147-156.
	
Salgado-Labouriau, M. and C. Schubert (1977). "Pollen analysis of a peat bog from Laguna Victoria (Venezuelan Andes)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 28: 328-332.
	
Salgado-Labouriau, M. and C. Schubert (1979). "Glacial and palynological studies in the Venezuelan Andes and Late Quaternary instability." IV  Int. Symp. Tropical Ecology 1: 17-29.
	
Salgado-Labouriau, M., et al. (1977). "Paleoecologic analysis of a Late Quaternary terrace from Mucubají, Venezuelan Andes." J. Biogeography 4: 313-325.
	
Sallares, V. and P. Charvis (2003). "Crustal thickness constraints on the geodynamic evolution of the Galapagos Volcanic Province." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 214(3-4): 545-559.
	
Sallares, V., et al. (2003). "Seismic structure of Cocos and Malpelo Volcanic Ridges and implications for hot spot-ridge interaction." Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth 108(12): EPM 5-1 - EPM 5-21.
	The Cocos and Malpelo Volcanic Ridges are blocks of thickened oceanic crust thought to be the result of the interaction between the Galapagos hot spot and the Cocos-Nazca Spreading Center during the last 20 m.y. In this work we investigate the seismic structure of these two aseismic ridges along three wide-angle transects acquired during the Panama basin and Galapagos plume-New Investigations of Intraplate magmatism (PAGANINI)-1999 experiment. A two-dimensional velocity field with the Moho geometry is obtained using joint refraction/reflection travel time tomography, and the uncertainty and robustness of the results are estimated by performing a Monte Carlo-type analysis. Our results show that the maximum crustal thickness along these profiles ranges from < similar-to >16.5 km (southern Cocos) to < similar-to >19 km (northern Cocos and Malpelo). Oceanic layer 2 thickness is quite uniform regardless of total crustal thickness variations; crustal thickening is mainly accommodated by layer 3. These observations are shown to be consistent with gravity data. The variation of layer 3 velocities is similar along all profiles, being lower where crust is thicker. This leads to an overall anticorrelation between crustal thickness and bulk lower crustal velocity. Since this anticorrelation is contrary to crustal thickening resulting from passive upwelling of abnormally hot mantle, it is necessary to consider active upwelling components and/or some compositional heterogeneities in the mantle source. The NW limit of the Malpelo Ridge shows a dramatic crustal thinning and displays high lower crustal velocities and a poorly defined crust-mantle boundary, suggesting that differential motion along the Coiba transform fault probably separated Regina and Malpelo Ridges.

Sallares, V., et al. (Seismic structure of the Carnegie Ridge and the nature of the Galapagos hotspot
Author(s):	Sallares, Valenti (IRD-Geosciences Azur, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France); Charvis, Philippe; Flueh, Ernst R.; Bialas, Joerg; Agudelo, William; Anglade, A.; Berhorst, A.; Bethoux, N.; Broser, A.; Calahorrano, A.; Collot, Jean-Yves; Fekete, N.; Gailler, A.; Gutscher, M. A.; Hello, Y.; Liersch, P.; Michaud, F.; Mueller, M.; Osorio, J. A.; Ravaut, C.; Steffen, K. P.; Thiere, P.; Walther, C.; Yates, B.). "Seismic structure of the Carnegie Ridge and the nature of the Galapagos hotspot
Author(s):	Sallares, Valenti (IRD-Geosciences Azur, Villefranche-sur-Mer, France); Charvis, Philippe; Flueh, Ernst R.; Bialas, Joerg; Agudelo, William; Anglade, A.; Berhorst, A.; Bethoux, N.; Broser, A.; Calahorrano, A.; Collot, Jean-Yves; Fekete, N.; Gailler, A.; Gutscher, M. A.; Hello, Y.; Liersch, P.; Michaud, F.; Mueller, M.; Osorio, J. A.; Ravaut, C.; Steffen, K. P.; Thiere, P.; Walther, C.; Yates, B." Geophysical Journal International 161(3): 763-788.
	The Gal´apagos volcanic province (GVP) includes several aseismic ridges resulting from the interaction between the Gal´apagos hotspot (GHS) and the Cocos–Nazca spreading centre (CNSC). The most prominent are the Cocos, Carnegie and Malpelo ridges. In this work, we investigate the seismic structure of the Carnegie ridge along two profiles acquired during the South American Lithospheric Transects Across Volcanic Ridges (SALIERI) 2001 experiment. Maximum crustal thickness is ∼19 km in the central Carnegie profile, located at ∼85◦Wover a 19–20 Myr old oceanic crust, and only ∼13 km in the eastern Carnegie profile, located at ∼82◦W over a 11–12 Myr old oceanic crust. The crustal velocity models are subsequently compared with those obtained in a previous work along three other profiles over the Cocos and Malpelo ridges, two of which are located at the conjugate positions of the Carnegie ones. Oceanic layer 2 thickness is quite uniform along the five profiles regardless of the total crustal thickness variations, hence crustal thickening is mainly accommodated by layer 3.Lower crustal velocities are systematically lower where the crust is thicker, thus contrary to what would be expected from melting of a hotter than normal mantle. The velocity-derived crustal density models account for the gravity and depth anomalies considering uniform and normal mantle densities (3300 kg m−3), which confirms that velocity models are consistent with gravity and topography data, and indicates that the ridges are isostatically compensated at the base of the crust. Finally, a two-dimensional (2-D) steady-state mantle melting model is developed and used to illustrate that the crust of the ridges does not seem to be the product of anomalous mantle temperatures, even if hydrous melting coupled with vigorous subsolidus upwelling is considered in the model. In contrast, we show that upwelling of a normal temperature but fertile mantle source that may result from recycling of oceanic crust prior to melting, accounts more easily for the estimated seismic structure as well as for isotopic, trace element and major element patterns of the GVP basalts.  

Sallares, V., et al. (2000). "Seismic tomography with local earthquakes in Costa Rica." Tectonophysics 329(1-4): 61-78.
	
Sallares, V., et al. (2001). "Lithospheric structure of the Costa Rican Isthmus: Effects of subduction zone magmatism on an oceanic plateau." Journal of Geophysical Research   Solid Earth 106(B1): 621-643.
	
Sallares, V., et al. (1999). Seismic velocity structure across the middle American landbridge in northern Costa Rica. Lithospheric structure and seismicity at convergent margins (European Geophysical Societies XXII general assembly, symposium SE 28 on Lithospheric structure and seismicity at convergent margins). E. R. Flueh and R. Carbonell. Vienna, Austria. 27: 327-344.
	
Salomon de Salazar, M. and G. P. Allen (1994). Sequential analysis and stratigraphic correlation of the late Oligocene of Northern Monagas. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 23-25.
	
Salvador, A. (1986). "Comment on "Neogene block tectonics of eastern Turkey and northern South America: Continental applications of the finite difference method" by J. F. Dewey and J. L. Pindell." Tectonics 5: 697-701.
	
Salvador, A. (1987). "Late Triassic-Jurassic paleogeography and origin of Gulf of Mexico basin." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 71: 419-451.
	
Salvador, A., Ed. (1990). Geology of North America, Vol. J: The Gulf of Mexico Region. Geology of North America. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Salvador, A. (1991). Origin and development of the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico Basin. A. Salvador. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America. J: 389-444.
	
Salvador, A. (1991). Triassic-Jurassic. The Gulf of Mexico Basin. A. Salvador. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America. J: 131-180.
	
Salvador, A. and A. G. Green (1980). Opening of the Caribbean Tethys. Geology of the Alpine chains born of the Tethys. K. Auboin, France. Bureau de recherches geologiques et miniere. 115: 224-229.
	
Salvador, A. and H. J. Leon (1992). Quiriquire Field - Venezuela, eastern Venezuela (Maturin) Basin. Stratigraphic Traps III. N. H. Foster and E. A. Beaumont. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. III: 313-332.
	
Salvador, A. and R. M. Stainforth (1968). Clues in Venezuela to the geology of Trinidad and vice versa. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad & Tobago. J. B. Saunders. Arima, Caribbean Printers: 31-40.
	
Samaroo, K. S. (1989). Coastal Dynamics and Petrology at Hellshire and Half Moon Bays, Southern Jamaica, University of the West Indies: ?
	
Samotoin, N. D., et al. (1996). "Mechanism of K- and Na-rhyolite alteration at Sergeevskoe (Primorskii Krai, Russia) and Puruio (Cuba) deposits of the porcelain clays." Geology of Ore Deposits 38(3): 247-254.
	
Sams, R. H. and G. Pinkley (2000). "Venezuela exploration, then and now." Bulletin of the South Texas Geological Society 40(7): 9-21.
	
San Román-Gonzáles, R. and F. Alfonso-Lopez (19??). "Importance of the Upper Campanian-Maestrichtian deposits of the orogenic complex (Placa Aló ctona) of the Habana-Matanzas hydrocarbon sub-region for the extraction of oil."??? ???: 93-101.
	
Sanchez Arango, J., et al. (1985). "Sobre la posición estratigráfica en Cuba de la biozona Globorotalia Palmerae Bolli 1957 y su importancia en la edad del sobrecorrimiento en Cuba occidental (On the stratigraphic postion in Cuba of the Globorotalia Palmerae Bolli 1957 biozone and its importance in the age of the supercover in western Cuba)." Revista Tecnológica, Serie Geológica XV 1: 19-31.
	
Sánchez Arango, J. R. and et al. (1989). "La estratigrafía del subsuelo de Cuba basada en pozos profundos (The stratigraphy of the subsurface of Cuba based on deep wells)." Resúmenes y Programa del Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 63.
	
Sanchez, J., et al. (1991). Subsurface stratigraphy of Cuba based on deep wells. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 212-221.
	
Sanchez, M. (2001). Sequence Stratigraphy and Structural Framework of the Southeast Caribbean Margin : Offshore Orinoco Delta, Venezuela. Dept. of Geol. Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 98.
	
Sanchez, R. M. (1949). "Los equinoderms fosiles de Cuba (The fossil echinoderms of Cuba)." Paleontologia Cubana 1: 1-302.
	
Sánchez-Arango, J. R. (1977). "Biostratigraphic study of the Catalina #5 well (Central Cuba)." La Mineria en Cuba 3(4): 15-26.
	
Sanchez-Arango, J. R. and e. al. (1991). "Oil and gas exploration in Cuba." Journal of Petroleum Geology 14(3): 259-274.
	
Sanchez-Barreda, L. (1990). Why wells have failed in southern Belize area. Oil and Gas Journal: 97-103.
	
Sanchez-Barreda, L. A. (1981). Geologic Evolution of the Continental Margin of the Gulf of Tehuantepec in Southwestern Mexico. The University of Texas at Austin, Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX: 191.
	The area evaluated in this study consists of that part of the southwestern continental margin of Mexico situated within the Gulf of Tehuantepec. Through the use of surface geology, paleomagnetic data, gravity surveys, and continuous seismic reflection profiles, the evolution of the Gulf of Tehuantepec has been detailed as a progression from an open ocean basin to a more restrictef basinal setting. Paleomagentic data from the Mexican states of Chiapas and Oaxaca suggest an equatorial location for the Yucatan block during the Permian. The Yucatan block (Chiapas) attained its present position in the Late Jurassic after clockwise rotation and aperiod of relative southern motion with respect to North America. The area of Oaxaca has essentially remained in its present latitudinal position since the Permian. The Gulf of Tehuantepec and its associated costal plain can be divided into three regions based on the character and distribution of the gravity anomalies. The differences in these regions suggest a northerly increase in tectonic activity in the basin and the costal plain. A possible extension of the Polochic fault into the gulf of Tehuantepec is indicated by coincidence of a linear trend of gravity anomalies in the sourthern coastal plain with the westernmost end of the fault. The Gulf of Tehuantepec is a forearc basin, which developed from the subduction of the eastern moving Cocos plate beneath the western moving North American and Caribbean plates (Seely, 1979). Seismic stratigraphic analyses, combined with borehole data, indicate that the basin has existed since the Upper Cretaceous. The seward edge of the basin has experienced continual uplift since the late Paleocene. differential uplift of this structural high has modified the slow subsiding basin of the Gulf of Tehuantepec and produced a landward migration of its depositional axis. This basin was exposed on at least two occasions to subaerial erosion- once during the Oligocene and once during the middle Miocene. The two subaerial unconformities and an additional Paleocene unconformity possibly resulted from world wide lowerings of sea level. During the late Miocene, lateral movements in the northern continental margin of the Gulf of Tehuantepec produced a series of folds and faults that extensively modified this region. Based on seismic and gravity data the regional surface geology, the simple Mesozoic triple junction of the Cocos, Caribbean, and North American plates if proposed to have developed into a more complicated feature such as a system of conjugate strike-slip faults during the middle Cenozoic.

Sánchez-González, F. (1985). Applied Field Techniques in the Geophysical Method of Seismic Reflection: Their Interpretation and Analysis. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 91.
	
Sandoval, M. and e. a. L. F. (1982). Mapa Geologico de Costa Rica (Geologic Map of Costa Rica), Ministerio de Industria, Energia, y Minas.
	
Santamaria, F. and C. Schubert (1974). "Geochemistry and geochronology of the southem Caribbean-northern Venezuela plate boundary." Geological Society of America Bulletin 85: 1085-1098.
	
Santamaria, F. and C. Schubert (1974). "Geochemistry and geochronology of the southern Caribbean-northern Venezuela plate boundary." Geological Society of America Bulletin 85: 1085-1098.
	
Santamaria, F. and C. Schubert (1975). "Geochemistry and geochronology of the contact between the Caribbean and South America plates (northern Venezuela) (Geoquímica y geocronología del contacto entre las placas del Caribe y América del Sur (Venezuela septentrional))." Bol. Inf. A.V.G.M.P. 18(1): 1-38 
	
Santamaria, F. J. (1972). Geochemistry and Geochronology of the Igneous Rocks of the Venezuelan Coast Ranges and Southern Caribbean Islands and Their Relation to Tectonic Evolution. Department of Geology & Geophysics. Houston, TX, Rice University: ?
	
Santana-Bendix, A. (1977). Geology of a part of the Miravalles and Tierras Morenas sheets, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 89.
	
Santos, C., et al. (2008). "Late Eocene marine incursion in north-western South America." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 264(1-2): 140-146.
	During the late Eocene in the Colombian Subandean basins, one of the most important oil-bearing rocks of the country was deposited: the Mirador Formation. Palaeogeographical models have interpreted a typically fluvial environment for the lower Mirador Formation and marginal to marine environments for its upper layers. The potential of marine influence in the upper Mirador beds and the overlying lower Carbonera formation as a correlation tool, and the palaeogeographic distribution of the event have not yet been defined. In order to determine the palaeogeography of this probable incursion, 80 wells and four sections were analysed using palynological techniques. The presence of a marine influence in the sediments was determined by using a Salinity Index (SI) that describes the negative relationship between continental and marine palynomorphs. The marine influence has been recognized in two areas: the first, in the Putumayo basin, and the second, in the Eastern Cordillera and Central Llanos Foothills. In the Putumayo basin the Salinity Index pattern reveals a southern provenance of the marine incursion, flooding the Colombian territory in a South-North trend through the Ecuadorian coast. The marine influence of the Eastern Cordillera and the Central-Eastern Llanos Foothills is more difficult to explain. We propose a possible corridor through the proto-Lower Magdalena Valley that connected the Caribbean Sea and the Central Llanos Foothills. Palaeogeographic models for the late Eocene of north-western South America should consider this marine incursion and its geographical distribution.

Santos, E. d. l., et al. (1988). Map of Non-Metallic and Combustable Mineral Deposits and Manifestations. ???, ???
	
Santos, H. (1999). Stratigraphy and depositional history of the upper Cretaceous strata in the Cabo Rojo-San German structural block, southwestern Puerto Rico. Boulder, CO, University of Colorado at Boulder: 185.
	
Santos, H. and J. Joyce (1997). Remote Sensing in the Earth Sciences  - Field Guide. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Dept. of Geology, University of Puerto Rico: 54.
	
Sapper, C. (1896). Sobre la geografía física y la geología de la Península de Yucatán (On the physical geography and the geology of the Yucatan Peninsula).
	
Sapper, K. (1905). Uber Gebirgsbau und Boden des Südlichen Mittelamerika. Petermann's Geographische Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft. K. Sapper and W. Staub: 151.
	
Sapper, K. (1937). Mittelamerika: Handbuch der Regionalen Geologie (Middle America:  Handbook of Regional Geology). Heidelberg.
	
Sapper, K. T. (1899). Ueber Gebirgsbau und Boden des nördlichen Mittelamerika. Gotha, Petermanns Mitt.
	
Sapper, K. T. (1913). Die mittelamerikanischen Vulkane. Gotha, Petermanns Mitt.
	
Sapper, K. T. (1925). Los volcanes de la America Central (The volcanoes of Central America), Halle.
	
Sarmiento, A. A., et al. (1947). Conisier Geologica del Archipelago de San Andres y Providencia. Bogota, Colombia, Instituto de Geologico Natural.
	
Satake, K. (1994). "Mechanism of the 1992 Nicaragua tsunami earthquake." Geophysical Research Letters 21(23): 2519-2522.
	
Satake, K. (1995). "Linear and nonlinear computations of the 1992 Nicaragua earthquake tsunami." PAGEOPH 144: 455-470.
	
Saunders, C. (1973). Carbonate Sedimentary on the Inner Shelf, Isla Magueyues, Puerto Rico. Marine Sciences. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico: ?
	
Saunders, J. B. (1968). Barbados. Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, 28 March-12 April 1965. J. B. Saunders: 443-?
	
Saunders, J. B. (1968). No. 1 Manzanilla Coast. Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, 28 March-12 April 1965. J. B. Saunders: 427-?
	
Saunders, J. B., Ed. (1968). Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, 28 March-12 April 1965.
	
Saunders, J. B., Ed. (1968). Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, March 28 - April 12, 1965. Unknown, Unknown.
	
Saunders, J. B. (1972). Recent palaeontological results from the northern range, Trinidad. Transactions of the Fifth Caribbean Geological Conference.
	
Saunders, J. B. (1973). Cruise synthesis. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. N. T. Edgar, J. B. Saunders and et al. Washington D. C., United States Government Printing Office. 15: 1077-1111.
	
Saunders, J. B. (1974). Trinidad. Mesozoic-Cenozoic orogenic belts; data for orogenic studies. A. M. Spencer. Edinburgh Geological Society, London, Scottish Academic Press for the Geological Society, London: 671-682.
	
Saunders, J. B. (1986). Ongoing studies on the Mesozoic rocks of Trinidad, particularly those of the Northern Range. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 308.
	
Saunders, J. B., et al. (1985). Late Eocene deep water clastics. Grenada, W. I.: Transactions, Latin Amencan Geological Congress, 4th. Trinidad and Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago Printing and Packaging, Ltd.: 909-918.
	
Saunders, J. B., et al. (1985). "Late Eocene deep-water clastics in Grenada, West Indies." Eclogae Geologische Helvetica 78: 469-485.
	
Saunders, J. B. and H. M. Bolli (1985). "Trinidad's contribution to world biostratigraphy." Transactions of the 4th Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain,1979 2: 781-795.
	
Saunders, J. B. and M. C. Cater (1968). No. 3 Paleontological Collecting Trip. Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, 28 March-12 April 1965. J. B. Saunders: 433-?
	
Saunders, J. B. and W. G. Cordey (1968). The biostratigraphy of the oceanic formation in the Bath Cliff Section, Barbados. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean Printers, Arima, Trinidad and Tobago.
	
Saunders, J. B., et al. (1973). Cruise synthesis. Leg 15: Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. N. T. Edgar and J. B. Saunders. Washington D. C., US Government Printing Office. 15: 1077-1111.
	
Saunders, J. B., et al. (1986). "Neogene paleontology in the northern Dominican Pepublic: 1. Field surveys, lithology, environment, and age." Bulletin of American Paleontology 89(323): 79.
	
Saunders, J. B., et al. (1986). "Neogene paleontology in the Northern Dominican Republic: 1. Field Surveys, Lithology, Environment, and Age." Bulletin of American Paleontology 89(323): 79.
	
Saunders, J. B., et al. (1980). The Neogene of the south flank of the Cibao Valley, Dominican Republic: A stratigraphic study. Transactions, Caribbean Geologica Conference, 9. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: 151-160.
	
Saunders, J. B., et al. (1982). The Neogene of the south flank of the Cibao Valley, Domininican Republic:  A stratigraphic study. The Ninth Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. 1: 151-160.
	
Saunders, J. B. and J. E. Kennedy (1968). Sedimentology of a section in the upper Morne L'Enfer Formation, Guapo Bay, Trinidad. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean Printers, Arima, Trinidad and Tobago.
	
Saunders, J. B. and E. Muller-Merz (1985). "The age of Rockly Bay Formation, Tobago." 4th Latin American Geologic Congress, Trindiad and Tobago: 339-344.
	
Sauret, B., et al. (1993). "Colombie:  neotectonique et paleosismicite (Colombia:  Neotectonics and paleoseismicity)." Geochronique 46: 21-22.
	
Savage, H. M., et al. (2005). "Rediscovery of Choroterpes atramentum in Costa Rica, type species of Tikuna new genus (Ephemeroptera : Leptophlebiidae : Atalophlebiinae), and its role in the "Great American Interchange"." Zootaxa(932): 1-14.
	A new genus, Tikuna, is described based on recent collections of adults and nymphs of Choroterpes atramentum Traver from western Costa Rica. All recent collections are from streams on or near the Nicoya Complex, the oldest geological formation in Lower Central America. Tikuna belongs to a lineage of South American Atalophlebiinae ( Leptophlebiidae: Ephemeroptera) whose origin is hypothesized to have been in the late Cretaceous - early Tertiary. Some implications of the distribution of Tikuna for theories on the origin of Costa Rica's biota are discussed.

Savage, R. J. G., et al. (1994). "Fossil Sirenia of the west Atlantic and Caribbean region 5. The most primitive known sirenian, Prorastomus sirenoides Owen, 1855." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 14(3): 427-449.
	
Sawkins, J. G. (1869). Reports on the geology of Jamaica; or part II of the West Indian survey. London, Longmans, Green and Co.
	
Sawyer, D. S., et al. (1991). Crust and mantleof the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico Basin. A. Salvador. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America. J: 53-72.
	
Sawyer, D. S. and D. L. Harry (1991). "Dynamic modeling of divergent margin formation:  Application to the U.S. Atlantic margin." Marine Geology 102: 29-42.
	
Scanlon, K. and P. Briere (2000). Puerto Rico, Marine sediments, terrestrial and seafloor imagery and tectonic interpretations, USGS.
	
Scanlon, K. M., et al. (1988). GLORIA sidescan-sonar survey of the EEZ of Puerto Rico and the U. S. Virgin Islands. Transactions of the 11th Caribbean Geological Conference, Barbados: 31:31-32:39.
	
Schaff, P., et al. (1995). "Paleogene continental margin truncation in southwestern Mexico: Geochronological evidence." Tectonics 14: 1339-1350.
	
Scharlach, R. A. (1990). Depositional History of Oligocene-Miocene Carbonate Rocks, Subsurface of Northeastern Puerto Rico. Department of Geology and Geophysics. New Orleans, LA, University of New Orleans: ?
	
Schaub, H. P. (1948). "Geological observations on Curaçao, N. W. I." American Association of Petroleum Geologists 32: 1275-1291.
	
Scheidegger, A. and C. Schubert (1989). "Neotectonic provinces and joint orientations of northern South America." J. South American Earth Sciences 2: 331-341.
	
Schell, B. A. and A. C. Tarr (1978). "Plate tectonics of the northeastern Caribbean." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 319-324.
	
Schellekens, J., et al. (1989). Geological studies in western Puerto Rico: A new look at an old problem. Transactions, 10th Caribbean Geological Conference, Cartagena, Colombia, 1983: 222-228.
	
Schellekens, J. H. (1993). Geochemical Evolution of the Volcanic Rocks in Puerto Rico. Syracuse, NY, Syracuse University: 319.
	
Schellekens, J. H. (1998). "Composition, metamorphic grade, and origin of metabasites in the Bermeja Complex, Puerto Rico." International Geology Review 40(8): 722-747.
	
Schellekens, J. H., et al. (1991). Tectonics and Mineral Deposits of the Caribbean  - Field Guide. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Dept. of Geology, University of Puerto Rico: 37.
	
Schellekens, J. H., et al. (1998). Geochemical evolution and tectonic history of Puerto Rico. Tectonics and geochemistry of the northeastern Caribbean, Geological Society of America. 322: 35-66.
	
Schellekens, J. H., et al. (???). Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous development of island arc crust in southwestern Puerto Rico. 12th Caribbean Geological Conference. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. St. Croix, U.S.V.I., Miami Geological Society: 268-281.
	
Schellekens, J. H., et al. (1994). Field Guide: 13th Annual Symposium on Caribbean Geology, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico,.
	
Schellmann, G. and U. Radtke (2004). "A revised morpho- and chronostratigraphy of the Late and Middle Pleistocene coral reef terraces on Southern Barbados (West Indies)." Earth-Science-Reviews 64(3-4): 157-187.
	The Barbados coral reef terraces are one of the few type localities worldwide that provide insights into interglacial sea level change during the Late and Middle Pleistocene. Several sea level estimates have been established since the late 1960s and each has contributed to the "Barbados Model" of sea level change. This paper presents new morpho- and chonostratigraphic data from the Barbados coral reef terraces developed over the last 12 years. The work is based on significant advances in Electron Spin Resonance (ESR)-dating of fossil coral, air photo interpretation, and a greatly improved geomorphic map of preserved fossil beach formations and reef terraces above present sea level. The need for a revision of past published morpho- and chronostratigraphies is best demonstrated on the southern part of the island. The morpho- and chronostratigraphic sequence in this region is both more complex and diverse than has been assumed so far. The revised morphostratigraphy presented here includes a differentiation of coral reef terraces, wave-cut platforms and other erosive features, such as notches and cliffs. Our study of these geomorphic features, combined with new numeric dating results (ESR, U/Th), enable a revised estimate of the spatial and temporal variation in tectonic uplift rate within south Barbados. These new rates are an essential requirement for more precise glacio-eustatic sea level reconstructions during the Late and Middle Pleistocene from this region.

Schenk, C. J., et al. (2005). "Assessment of undiscovered oil and gas resources of the North Cuba Basin, Cuba, 2004." Fact Sheet - U. S. Geological Survey: 2.
	
Schenk, C. R., et al. (1999). Maps Showing Geology, Oil and Gas Fields and Geologic Provinces of the South America Region, U.S. Geological Survey: 443.
	
Scherbakova, B. E., et al. (1978). "Crustal structure in western Cuba." International Geological Review 20: 1125-1130.
	
Scherbakova, B. E., et al. (1978). "Relief of the Mohorovicic discontinuity surface under western Cuba." International Geological Review???: 7-9.
	
Scherer, J. (1912). "Great earthquakes in the island of Haiti." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 2: 161-180.
	
Schink, D. R., et al. (1995). "I-129 in Gulf of Mexico waters." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 135(1-4): 131-138.
	
Schlager, W. (1999). "Scaling of sedimentation rates and drowning of reefs and carbonate platforms." Geology 27(2): 183-186.
	
Schlager, W., et al. (1988). Boreholes at Great Isaac and site 626 and the history of the Florida Straits. J. A. Austin, Jr., W. Schlager and et al. College Station, TX, Ocean Drilling Program. 101: 425-437.
	
Schlager, W., et al. (1984). Geologic history of the southeastern Gulf of Mexico. R. T. Buffler, W. Schlager and et al. Washington, D.C, U.S. Government Printing Office. 77: 715-738.
	
Schlager, W. and A. Chermak (1979). Sediment  facies of platform-basin transition, Tongue of the Ocean, Bahamas. Geology of Continental Slopes. L. J. Doyle and O. H. Pilkey, SEPM Special Publication. 27: 193-208.
	
Schlager, W. and N. P. James (1978). "Low-magnesium calcite limestones, forming at the deep-sea floor, tongue of the ocean, Bahamas." Sedimentology 25: 675-702.
	
Schlegel, R., et al. (???). Architecture and facies associations of Plio-Pleistocene trench-slope deposits, Burica Peninsula, Central America. An Atlas of Deep-Water Systems. K. T. Ackering, F. Ricci Lucchi, R. Smith, R. N. Hicott and N. Kenyon, Chapman & Hall.
	
Schlunz, B., et al. (2000). "Late Quaternary organic carbon accumulation south of Barbados: influence of the Orinoco and Amazon rivers?" Deep   Sea Research Part I   Oceanographic Research Papers 47(6): 1101-1124.
	
Schmedeman, O. C. (1948). "Caribbean aluminum ores." Engineering Mining Journal 149: 78-82.
	
Schmid, C., et al. (2002). "Fate of the Cenozoic Farallon slab from a comparison of kinematic thermal modeling with tomographic images." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 204(1-2): 17-32.
	
Schmidt-Effing, R. (1976). "Daten zur Entstehungsgeschichte von Golf, Karibik un Atlantik im Mesozoikum." Münster. Forsch. Geol. Paläont. H. 38/39: 201-217.
	
Schmidt-Effing, R. (1979). "Alter und Genese des Nicoya-Komplexes, einer Ozeanischen Paleokruste (Oberjura bis Eozanen) in südlichen Zentralamerika." Geologisches Rundschau 68: 457-494.
	
Schmidt-Effing, R. (1979). Geodynamic history of oceanic crust in southern Central America. Fourth Latin American Geological Congress, Geologischen Rundschau. Band 68: 457-492.
	
Schmidt-Effing, R., et al. (1980). The ophiolites of southern Central America with special reference to the Nicoya Peninsula (Costa Rica). Transactions of the Caribbean Geologic Conference, 9th. 2: 423-429.
	
Schmitz, M., et al. (2002). "The crustal structure of the Guayana Shield, Venezuela, from seismic refraction and gravity data." Tectonophysics 345(1-4): 103-118.
	We present results from a seismic refraction experiment on the northern margin of the Guayana Shield performed during June 1998, along nine profiles of up to 320 km length, using the daily blasts of the Cerro Bolivar mines as energy source, as well as from gravimetric measurements. Clear Moho arrivals can be observed on the main E-W profile on the shield, whereas the profiles entering the Oriental Basin to the north are more noisy. The crustal thickness of the shield is unusually high with up to 46 km on the Archean segment in the west and 43 km on the Proterozoic segment in the east. A 20 km thick upper crust with P-wave velocities between 6.0 and 6.3 km/s can be separated from a lower crust with velocities ranging from 6.5 to 7.2 km/s. A lower crustal low velocity zone with a velocity reduction to 6.3 km/s is observed between 25 and 25 km depth. The average crustal velocity is 6.5 km/s. The changes in the Bouguer Anomaly, positive (30 mGal) in the west and negative (-20 mGal) in the east, cannot be explained by the observed seismic crustal features alone. Lateral variations in the crust or in the upper mantle must be responsible for these observations.

Schmitz, M., et al. (2005). "The major features of the crustal structure in north-eastern Venezuela from deep wide-angle seismic observations and gravity modelling." Tectonophysics 399(1-4): 109-124.
	Venezuela is located on the plate boundary zone between the South American continent and the Caribbean plate. A relative movement of 2 cm/year is accommodated by a system of strike-slip faults running from the Andes to the Gulf of Paria. The Interior Range, a moderate-height mountain range, separates the Oriental Basin from the Caribbean. To the south, predominantly Precambrian rocks are outcropping in the Guayana Shield south of the Orinoco River. Results of deep wide-angle seismic measurements for the region were obtained during field campaigns in 1998 (ECOGUAY) for the Guayana Shield and in 2001 (ECCO) for the Oriental Basin. The total crustal thickness decreases from 45 km beneath the Guayana Shield, to 39 km at the Orinoco River, and 36 km close to El Tigre, in the center of the Oriental Basin. The average crustal velocity decreases in the same sense from 6.5 to 5.95 km/s. Detailed information was obtained on the velocity distribution within the Oriental Basin. Velocities are as low as 2.2 km/s for the uppermost 2 km, 4.5 km/s down to 4 km in depth, and a maximum depth of 13 km was derived for material with seismic velocities up to 5.9 km/s, interpreted as the base of the sedimentary basin. A gravimetric model confirms the structures derived from the seismic data. Discrete increases in sedimentary thickness along the basin may be associated to extension processes during the passive margin phase in the Cretaceous, or during earlier extension phases. 

Schneider, J., et al. (2004). "Origin and evolution of the Escambray Massif (central Cuba); an example of HP/LT rocks exhumed during intraoceanic subduction." Journal of Metamorphic Geology 22(3): 227-247.
	
Schneidermann, N., et al. (1972). Shallow water carbonates from the Puerto Rico Trench region. Transactions of the Sixth Caribbean Geological conference, Margarita Island, Venezuela 6th-14th July. C. Petzall: 423-425.
	
Schneidermann, N., et al. (1976). "Sedimentation on the Puerto Rico insular shelf." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 46(1): 167-173.
	
Schouten, H. and K. D. Klitgord (1994). "Mechanistic solutions to the opening of the Gulf of Mexico." Geology Boulder 22(6): 507-510.
	Two mechanistic models--which are unlike the traditional plate-tectonic landfill models used for most proposed Pangea reconstructions of the Yucatan block--relate the Mesozoic opening of the Gulf of Mexico directly to the movement of the North and South American plates: (1) a previous piggyback model in which Yucatan moves with South America out of the western gulf and (2) a new edge-driven model in which the motion of the Yucatan block is caused by forces applied to its margins by the movement of the North and South American plates. In the second model, Yucatan moves out of the northern Gulf of Mexico as a gear or roller bearing. On the basis of magnetic edge anomalies around the gulf, this edge-driven model predicts that from the Bathonian to Tithonian ( approximately 170 to approximately 150 Ma), Yucatan was rotated approximately 60 degrees counterclockwise as a rigid block between North and South America with rift propagation and extension occurring simultaneously in the Gulf of Mexico and Yucatan Basin.

Schramm, W. E. (1981). Humid Tropical Alluvial Fans, NE Honduras. Department of Geology & Geophysics. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University: 184.
	
Schubert, C. (1967). Geology of the Barinitas-Santo Domingo region, southeastern Venezuelan Andes. Houston, Rice University: 186.
	
Schubert, C. (1968). "Geology of the region of Barinitas-Santo Domingo, dominga, southeastern Venezuelan Andes (Geología de la región de Barinitas-Santo Domingo, Andes venezolanos surorientales)." Bol.. Geol. 10(19): 181-261.
	
Schubert, C. (1969). "Geologic structure of a part of the Barinas mountain front, Venezuelan Andes." Geological Society of America Bulletin 80: 443-458.
	
Schubert, C. (1969). "Possible origin of the Bocono fault zone in the Venezuelan Andes: Interpretation (Posible origen de la zona de falla de Boconó en los Andes venezolanos: interpretación)." Acta Cient. Venezolan 20, supl. 1.
	
Schubert, C. (1969). "The satellites oriented near the Earth and their applications in Venezuela )Los satélites orientados hacia la Tierra y sus aplicaciones en Venezuela)." Soc. Venezolana Geol. 42: 5-10.
	
Schubert, C. (1970). Glacial geology of the higher Santo Domingo River, Venezuelan Andes (Geología glacial del alto río Santo Domingo, Andes venezolanos). Bol. Inf. A.V.G.M.P.
	
Schubert, C. (1970). "Glaciation of the Sierra de Santo Domingo, Venezuelan Andes." Quaternia 13: 225-246.
	
Schubert, C. (1970). "Venezuela and "the new global tectonics" (Venezuela y "la nueva tectónica global")." Acta Cient. Venezolana 21: 13-16.
	
Schubert, C. (1971). "Geologic Excursion Guide, Region of Barinitas-Santo Domingo (Guía de excursión geológica, región de Barinitas-Santo Domingo)." Bol. Geol., Publ. Esp 5(1): 273-290.
	
Schubert, C. (1971). "Geomorphologic and glacial observations in the area of Pico bolivar, Sierra Nevada de Merida, Venezuela (Observaciones geomorfológicas y glaciales en el área de Pico Bolívar, Sierra Nevada de Mérida, Venezuela)." Bol. Inf. A.V.G.M.P. 14: 193-216.
	
Schubert, C. (1971). "Metamorphic rocks of the Araya Peninsula." Geologische Rundschau 60(4): 1571-1600.
	
Schubert, C. (1971). "Metamorphic rocks of the Araya Peninsula, eastern Venezuela." Geol. Rundschau 60: 1571-1600.
	
Schubert, C. (1972). "Geology of the Araya Peninsula, Estado Sucre (Geología de la península de Araya, Estado Sucre)." IV Cong. Geol. Venezolano, Bol. Geol., Publ. Esp  5(3): 1823-1886.
	
Schubert, C. (1972). "Geomorphology and glacier retreat in the Pico Bolívar area, Sierra Nevada de Mérida, Venezuela." tschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie 8: 189-202.
	
Schubert, C. (1972). "Guide of excursion PC-3 "Geological Field Trip to the Island of La Orchila"." Conf. Geol. Caribe, Caracas 1: 48-53.
	
Schubert, C. (1972). "Late glacial chronology and neotectonic evidence on the northeastern Venezuelan Andes (Cronología glacial tardía y evidencias neotectónicas en los Andes venezolanos nororientales)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 23, Supl. 3: 89-94.
	
Schubert, C. (1972). "Late Glacial Chronology in Northeastern South America." V Geol. Cong.,  Montreal 12: 103-109.
	
Schubert, C. (1972). "Striated ground, type of 'pautado' ground in the periglacial zone of the Venezuelan Andes (Suelo striado, tipo de suelo pautado en la zona periglacial de los Andes venezolanos)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 23: 108-114.
	
Schubert, C. (1973). "Definiation of the Merida Glaciation, Venezuelan Andes (Definición de la Glaciación Mérida, Andes venezolanos)." II Cong. Latinoamericano Geol., Caracas 1: 29-30.
	
Schubert, C. (1973). "Striated ground in the Venezuelan Andes." J. Glaciology 12: 461-468.
	
Schubert, C. (1973). "The Venezuelan Andes durling the last glacial epoch (Los Andes venezolanos durante la última época glacial)." Rev. Líneas 195: 6-13.
	
Schubert, C. (1974). "Late Pleistocene Mérida Glaciation, Venezuelan Andes." Boreas 3: 147-152.
	
Schubert, C. (1974). "Striated ground on an arid tropical island." VII Rev. Géom. Dyn 23: La Orchila, north-central Venezuelan offshore
27-31.
	
Schubert, C. (1974). "Striated ground on an arid tropical island:  La Orchila, Dependencias Federales, Venezuela (Suelo estriado en una isla tropical árida:  La Orchila, Dependencias Federales, Venezuela)." Bol. Inf. A.V.G.M.P. 17(7-8-9): 103-108.
	
Schubert, C. (1974). "Venezuela, geologic faults and earthquakes (Venezuela, fallas geológicas y terremotos)." VII Rev. Líneas 207: 34-39.
	
Schubert, C. (1975). "Evidence of  an old glaciation in the Sierra de perija, Edo. Zulia (Evidencia de una glaciación antigua en la Sierra de Perijá, Edo. Zulia)." Bol. Soc. Venezolana Espeleol 6: 71-75.
	
Schubert, C. (1975). "Geologic colonialism and geologic collaboration (Colonialismo geológico o colaboración geológica)." VII Rev. Soc. Venezolana  Geol 66: 1-3.
	
Schubert, C. (1975). "Glaciation and periglacial morphology in the northwestern Venezuelan Andes." Eiszeitalter und Gegenwart 26: 196-211.
	
Schubert, C. (1975). "Is Aves Island disappearing? (¿Desaparecerá la Isla de Aves?)." VII Rev. Líneas 224: 23-27.
	
Schubert, C. (1976). "Evidence of former glaciation in the Sierra de Perijá, western Venezuela." Erdkunde 30: 222-224.
	
Schubert, C. (1976). First report of the Caribbean Quaternary Study Group to the Coordination Center for Geological Research in the Caribbean -International Geodynamics Project. Geodynamics Project, U.S. Progress Report 1976. Washington, National Acad. Sciences: 54-56.
	
Schubert, C. (1976). "Fluvial terraces of the middle valley of Rio Motatan (Merida and Trujillo States): First absolute evidence of their age (Terrazas fluviales del valle medio del Rio Motatán (Estados Mérida y Trujillo): primer evidencia absoluta de su edad)." Bol. Inf. A.V.G.M.P. 19: 87-90.
	
Schubert, C. (1976). "Geologic definition of the Merida glaciation, Venezuelan Andes (Definición geológica de la Glaciación Mérida, Andes venezolanos)." Bol. Geol., Publ. Esp. 7(2): 1181-1185.
	
Schubert, C. (1976). "Glaciation and perglacial morphology of the northwestern Venezuelan Andes (Glaciación y morfología periglacial de los Andes venezolanos noroccidentales)." Bol. Soc. Venezolana Cien. Nat. 32(132-133): 149-178.
	
Schubert, C. (1976). "La Blanquilla Formation, La Blanquilla Island (Federals): Preliminary report on Quaternary terraces (Formación La Blanquilla, isla La Blanquilla (Federales):  preliminar sobre terrazas cuaternarias)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 27: 251-257.
	
Schubert, C. (1976). "The mesas of Timotes and their age (Las mesas de Timotes y su edad)." Soc. Venezolana de Geol 69: 20-27 
	
Schubert, C. (1976). "Neotectonic investigations in Venezuela: Objectives and results (Investigaciones neotectónicas en Venezuela: objetivos y resultados)." Interciencia 1: 159-169.
	
Schubert, C. (1977). "The El Pilar fault zone: Revision and project (La zona de falla de El Pilar: revisión y proyecto)." Bol. I.M.M.E. 15(57-58): 11-23.
	
Schubert, C. (1977). "Geologic investigations on the Andes of Venezuela (Investigaciones geológicas en los Andes de Venezuela)." Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv, N. F. 3: 295-309.
	
Schubert, C. (1977). "Glacial and periglacial morphology of the Andes of Venezuela:  progress report (Morfología glacial y periglacial de los Andes de Venezuela: informe de progreso)." V Cong.Geol. Venezolano 1: 149-166.
	
Schubert, C. (1977). "Pleistocene marine terraces of La Blanquilla island, Venezuela and their diagenesis." III Int. Coral Reef Symp., Miami, Proc. Rosentiel Sch. Mar. Atm. Sci 2: 149-154.
	
Schubert, C. (1978). "Evolution of Valencia Lake (Evolución del Lago de Valencia)." Rev. Líneas 254: 8-13.
	
Schubert, C. (1978). Glacial sediments in the Venezuelan Andes. INQUA Symp. on Genesis and Lithology of Morainic Deposits in Alpine Environments, Zurich.
	
Schubert, C. (1978). "Quaternary marine terraces of La Blanquilla island, northeastern Venezuelan offshore." Symp. CICAR II 419-428.
	
Schubert, C. (1979). "Brief review of the geology of northeastern Venezuela." IV Cong. Latinoamericano Geol., Trinidad & Tobago 2: 919-925.
	
Schubert, C. (1979). "El Pilar Fault Zone, Northeastern Venezuela: Brief Review." Tectonophysics 52: 447-455.
	
Schubert, C. (1979). Glacial sediments in the Venezuelan Andes. Moraines and Varves: Origin, Genesis, Classification. C. Schluchter. Rotterdam.  , Balkema: ?
	
Schubert, C. (1979). "Paleoliminology of Valencia Lake: Recompilation and project (Paleolimnología del Lago de Valencia:  recopilación y proyecto)." Bol. Soc. Venezolana Cienc. Nat. 32(136): 123-155.
	
Schubert, C. (1979). The paramo zone:  glacial and periglacial morphology of the Andes of Venezuela (La zona del páramo: morfología glacial y periglacial de los Andes de Venezuela. El medio ambiente páramo. M. Salgado-Labouriau. Caracas, Centro Estudios Avanzados, I.V.I.C.
	
Schubert, C. (1979). "The present is the key to the past:   Illustration of the geologic principle of uniformity (El presente es la clave del pasado:  ilustración del principio geológico de la uniformidad)." Rev. Líneas 15-20.
	
Schubert, C. (1980). The Bocono Fault.  Excursion Guide (La falla de Boconó. Guía de Excursión). XXX Conv. Anual AsoVAC., Mérida: 15.
	
Schubert, C. (1980). "Contribution to the paleolimnology of Lake Valencia, Venzuela: seismic stratigraphy." Catena 7: 275-292.
	
Schubert, C. (1980). Geologic aspects of the Venezuelan Andes:  History, short synthesis of the Quaternary and bibliography (Aspectos geológicos de los Andes venezolanos:   historia, breve síntesis, el Cuaternario y bibliografía). Mérida, Ed. U.L.A.
	
Schubert, C. (1980). "Geologic bibliography of the Andes of  Merida (Bibliografía geológica de los Andes de Mérida)." Bol. Soc. Venezolana  Cien. Nat. 34(137): 281-320.
	
Schubert, C. (1980). "Late Cenozoic pull-apart basins, Bocono fault zone, Venezuelan Andes." Journal of Structural Geology 2: 463-468.
	
Schubert, C. (1980). "Late Cenozoic pull-apart basins, Boconó fault zone, Venezuelan Andes." Journal of Structural Geology 2: 463-468.
	
Schubert, C. (1980). "Neotectonic morphology of sliding fault and preliminary report on the Bocono Fault, meridonal andes (Morfología neotectónica de una falla rumbo-deslizante e informe preliminar sobre la Falla de Boconó, Andes merideños)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 31: 98-111.
	
Schubert, C. (1980). "Venezuelan contribution to the world-wide study of glaciers (Contribución de Venezuela al inventario mundial de glaciares)." Bol. Soc. Venezolana Cien. Nat. 34(137): 267-279.
	
Schubert, C. (1981). "Are the Venezuelan fault systems part of the southern Caribbean plate boundary?" Geologische Rundscha 70: 542-551.
	
Schubert, C. (1981). "The Bocono Fault:  Study of an active geologic fault (La falla de Boconó:  estudio desde el aire de una falla geológica activa)." Rev. Tópicos - Maraven 497: 12-15.
	
Schubert, C. (1981). "Postglacial evolution of a morraine valley, meridonal Andes (Evolución postglacial de un valle morrénico, Andes merideños)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 32: 151-158.
	
Schubert, C. (1982). "Glacial geology of  the Paramo El Batallon, Tachira State, Venezuela (Geología glacial del Páramo El Batallón, Estado Táchira, Venezuela)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 33: 67-71.
	
Schubert, C. (1982). "Neotectonics of Bocono Fault, western Venezuela." Tectonophysics 85: 205-220.
	
Schubert, C. (1982). "Neotectonics of Boconó fault, western Venezuela." Tectonophysics 85: 205-220.
	
Schubert, C. (1982). "Origin of Cariaco Basin, southern Caribbean Sea,." Marine Geology 47: 345-360.
	
Schubert, C. (1982). "The structural geology of Venezuela as a consequence of global tectonics (La estructura geológica de Venezuela como consecuencia de la tectónica global)." Hispanorama, Mitt. Deut. Spanischlehrerverb 32: 102-103.
	
Schubert, C. (1982). "Traction basins in the meridonal Andes and in the Caribe mountains, Venezuela (Cuencas de tracción en los Andes merideños y en las montañas del Caribe, Venezuela)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 33: 389-395.
	
Schubert, C. (1982). Traction basins in the meridonal Andes and in the Caribe mountains, Venezuela (Cuencas de tracción en los Andes merideños y en las montañas del Caribe, Venezuela). Simp. Expl. Petrol. en las Cuencas Subandinas de Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador y Perú, Bogo.: 17.
	
Schubert, C. (1983). "New paleoclimatic discoveries in the Caribbean (Nuevos hallazgos paleoclimáticos en el Caribe)." Interciencia 8(1): 32-33.
	
Schubert, C. (1983). "Tectonics and sedimentation:  example from the Mérida Andes (Venezuela." Acta Geológica Hispánica 18: 207-215.
	
Schubert, C. (1983). "Yaracuy Basin:  A neotectonic structure in the west-central region of Venezuela (La cuenca de Yaracuy:   una estructura neotectónica en la región centro-occidental de Venezuela)." Geología Norandina 8: 194-202.
	
Schubert, C. (1984). The Earthquakes in Venezuela and their origin (Los terremotos  en Venezuela y su origen), Cuadernos Lagoven.
	
Schubert, C. (1984). Geologic origin of the Gran Saban and Quaternary paleoclimatologia of the basin (Orígenes geológicos de la Gran Sabana y Paleoclimatología cuaternaria de la cuenca). La protección del río Caroní C. Galán. Caracas, CVG-EDELCA. 4-45.
	
Schubert, C. (1984). "Investigations on the Quaternary of the Dominican Republic (Investigaciones sobre el Cuaternario de la República Dominicana)." Rev. Geogr.( Inst. Panameño Geog. e Hist.) 99: 69-92.
	
Schubert, C. (1984). "The Pleistocene and recent extent of the glaciers of the Sierra Nevada de Mérida, Venezuela." Erdwissenschaftliche Forschung 18: 269-278.
	
Schubert, C. (1985). "Brief review of the geology of northeastern Venezuela." IV Latin American Geol. Cong. 2: 919-925.
	
Schubert, C. (1985). "Comments on "Subduction of the Caribbean Plate and Basement Uplifts in the Overriding South American Plate" by J. Kellogg & W. Bonini."  Tectonics
4(7): 781-783.
	
Schubert, C. (1985). "Hanging aluvium in the Cordillera de la Costa:  Arid during the Late Quaternary (Aluviones colgantes en la Cordillera de la Costa: de aridez durante el Cuaternario Tardío)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 36: 201-202.
	
Schubert, C. (1985). "Late Cenozoic basins of Venezuela (Cuencas cenozóicas tardías de Venezuela)." VI Cong. Geol. Venezolano, Caracas 4: 2663-2679.
	
Schubert, C. (1985). "Neotectonic aspects of the southern Caribbean plate boundary." Transactions of the 1st Geologic Conference of the Geologica Society of Trinidad and Tobago: 265-269.
	
Schubert, C. (1985). "Origins of the Gran Sabana (Guayana Shield), Venezuela (Orígenes de la Gran Sabana (Escudo de Guayana), Venezuela)." Nachrichten Deutsch-Venezolanischen Ges. 3 164-168.
	
Schubert, C. (1986). "Aluvial terraces in the Guayana Shield: Preliminary report (Terrazas aluviales en el Escudo de Guayana: informe preliminar)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 37: 226-228.
	
Schubert, C. (1986). "Geologic and glaciologic contributions of Alfredo Jahn (Contribuciones geológicas y glaciológicas de Alfredo Jahn)." Bol. Hist. Geocien. en Venezuela 22: 14-15.   .
	
Schubert, C. (1986). Late Pleistocene glacial aridity in northern South America and the Caribbean. Quaternary of South America and Antartic Peninsula. J. Rabassa. Rotterdam, Belkema.
	
Schubert, C. (1986). "Neotectonic aspects of the fault zone of La Victoria and origin of the Santa Lucia-Ocumare del Tuy Basin, Venezuela (Aspectos neotectónicos de la zona de falla de La Victoria y origen de la cuenca de Santa Lucía-Ocumare del Tuy, Venezuela)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 37: 278-286.
	
Schubert, C. (1986). Neotectonic aspects of the southern Caribbean plate boundary. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 265-269.
	
Schubert, C. (1986). Neotectonics aspects of the southern Caribbean plate boundary. I Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad &  Tobago.
	
Schubert, C. (1986). "Origin of the Yaracuy Basin, Boconó-Morón Fault System, Venezuela." Neotectonics 1: 39-50.
	
Schubert, C. (1986). "Paleoenvironmental studies in the Guayana region, southeast Venezuela." Current  Research. in the Pleistocene 3: 88-90.
	
Schubert, C. (1986). "Stratigraphy of the Jurassic La Quinta Formation, Mérida Andes, Venezuela: Type section." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 137: 391-411.
	
Schubert, C. (1987). "Deposits of a gigantic wave approximately 1300 years ago, Puerto Colombia, Aragua State (Venezuela (Depósitos de una ola gigante hace aproximadamente 1300 años, Puerto Colombia, Edo. Aragua (Venezuela))." Acta Cient. Venezolana 38(4): 509-510.
	
Schubert, C. (1987). "The extension of Pleistocene glaciers in the Sierra Nevada of Merida (La extensión de los glaciares pleistocenos en la Sierra Nevada de Mérida)." Bol. Soc. Venezolana Cien. Nat. 41(144): 299-308.
	
Schubert, C. (1987). "Geologic and glaciologic contributions of Alfredo Jahn (Contribuciones geológicas y glaciológicas de Alfredo Jahn)." Bol. Acad. Nac. Hist 70(277): 147-149.
	
Schubert, C. (1987). "New data on the geology of Aves Island (Venezuela), east-central Caribbean Sea (Nuevos datos sobre la geología de la Isla de Aves (Venezuela), Mar Caribe centro-oriental)." X Caribbean Geol. Conf., Cartagena 347-352.
	
Schubert, C. (1987). "Second geologic bibliography of the Andes of Merida (Segunda bibliografía geológica de los Andes de Mérida)." Bol. Soc. Venezolana  Cien. Nat. 41(144): 309-319.
	
Schubert, C. (1988). "Climatic changes during the Last Glacial Maximum in northern South America and the Caribbean: A review." Interciencia 13: 128-137.
	
Schubert, C. (1988). "Late Quaternary paleoclimatic evidence in the Caribbean and northern South America." XI Caribbean Geol. Conf., Barbados 10: 1-4.
	
Schubert, C. (1988). "Neotectonics of La Victoria Fault zone, north-central Venezuela." Annales Tectonicae 2: 58-66.
	
Schubert, C. (1989). "Paleoclimate of the late Pleistocene in the Caribbean and adjacent regions:  An attempt at compilation (Paleoclima del Pleistoceno Tardío en el Caribe y regiones adyacentes:  un intento de compilación)." Cien. de la Tierra y del Espacio, Cuba 15-16: 40-58.
	
Schubert, C. (1989). "Quaternary glaciations in the north of South America (Glaciaciones cuaternarias en el norte de América del Sur)." VII Cong. Geol. Venezolano, Barquisimeto 3: 1304-1317.
	
Schubert, C. (1989). Venezuela. World Glacier Inventory. Status 198. W. Haeberli, H. Bosch, K. Scherler, G. Ostrem and C. Wallen. Teuten, Suiza, IAHS (ICSI)-UNEP-UNESCO.
	
Schubert, C. (1990). Geologic Bibliography of the Andes (Bibliografía geológica de los Andes). Mérida, Inst. Geog. y Conser. Rec. Nat., U.L.A.
	
Schubert, C. (1991). "Faults and Andean deformation (Fallas y deformaciones andinas)." Interciencia 16(1): 34-35.
	
Schubert, C. (1992). "The absence of geologic exploration: One of the bases of underdevelopment (La ausencia de exploración geológica:  una de las bases del subdesarrollo)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 43(4): 205-207.
	
Schubert, C. (1992). "The glaciers of the Sierra Nevada de Mérida (Venezuela): A  photographic comparison of recent deglaciation." Erdkunde 46: 58-64.
	
Schubert, C. (1993). "Blocks of displaced rocks, Aprada-Tepui (Guayana Shield, Venezuela): A geomorphologic enigma (Bloques de rocas desplazados, Aprada-Tepui (Escudo de Guayana, Venezuela):  un enigma geomorfológico)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 44(1): 41-46.
	
Schubert, C. (1993). "Contributions of Wilhem Sievers and Alfredo jahn to Venezuelan glaciology (Contribuciones de Wilhem Sievers y Alfredo Jahn a la glaciología venezolana)." Bol. Hist. Geocien. en Venezuela 48: 63-66.
	
Schubert, C. (1994). "Some neotectonic activities in Venezuela (1992-1993)." Bull. INQUA N. C. 17: 23-25.
	
Schubert, C. and 89 (1984). Basin formation along the Boconó-Morón-El Pilar Fault System, Venezuela. Journal of Geophysical Research.
	
Schubert, C. and H. Briceno (1987). "Origin of the 'tepuyana' topography: Hypothesis (Origen de la topografía tepuyana:  hipótesis)." Pantepui 2: 11-14.
	
Schubert, C., et al. (1986). "Paleoenvironmental aspects of the Caroni-Paragua basin (Southeastern Venezuela)." Interciencia 11(6): 278-289.
	
Schubert, C. and C. Clapperton (1990). "Quaternary glaciations in the northern Andes (Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador)." Quaternary Sc. Rev. 9: 123-135.
	
Schubert, C. and J. Cowart (1980). "Marine terraces along the southwestern coast of the Dominican Republic: Preliminary chronology (Terrazas marinas a lo largo de la costa suroriental de la República Dominicana: cronología preliminar)." IX Caribbean Geol. Conf., Santo Domingo 2: 681-688.
	
Schubert, C. and J. B. Cowart (1980). Terrazas marinas del pleistoceno a lo largo de la costa suroriental de la Republica Domincan: Cronologia preliminar (Marine terraces of the Pleistocene at the border of the southeast coast of the Dominican Republic: Preliminary chronology). Transactins, Caribbean Geologic Conference, 9. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, 2.
	
Schubert, C. and J. B. Cowart (1980). Terrazas marinas del pleistoceno a lo largo de la costa suroriental de la Republica Dominicana: Chronología preliminar (Marine terraces of the Pleistocene along the southeast coast of the Dominican-Republic:  Preliminary chronology). Transactions of the 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo: 681-688.
	
Schubert, C. and J. Crowell (1980). Neotectonic maps of the San Andreas fault between Valyermo and Wrightwood, California, Final Technical Rpt. sponsored by USGS Nº 14-08-0001-17676.
	
Schubert, C., et al. (1992). "The Boconó Fault, Western Venezuela." Annales Tectonicae special issue to  Vol. 6: 238-260.
	
Schubert, C., et al. (1992). "Excursion Guide of the "II Symposium of Active Faults and Quaternary Deformation in the Andea Cordillera" (Guía de la excursión del "II Simposio de Fallas Activas y Deformaciones Cuaternarias en La Cordillera de los Andes".)."
	
Schubert, C., et al. (1989). "Paleoenvironmental investigations on the Chimanta Massif, Venezuela (Investigaciones paleoambientales en el Macizo de Chimantá, Venezuela)." VII Cong. Geol. Venezolano, Barquisimeto 3: 1319-1342.
	
Schubert, C. and P. Fritz (1985). "Radiocarbon ages of peat, Guayana Highlands (Venezuela)." Naturwissanachaften 72: 427-429.
	
Schubert, C., et al. (1992). Paleoenvironmental investigations: Prelimanry results (Investigaciones paleoambientales: resultados preliminares). Caracas, O. Todtmann.
	
Schubert, C., et al. (1994). "Late Quaternary Paleoenvironmental Studies in the Gran Sabana (Venezuelan Guayana Shield)." Quaternary International 21: 81-90.
	
Schubert, C. and H. Henneberg (1975). "Geologic and geodetic investigations on the movement along the Bocono Fault, Venezuelan Andes:  Preliminary Report (Investigaciones geológicas y geodésicas sobre el movimiento a lo largo de la Falla de Boconó, Andes venezolanos: informe preliminar)." Bol. Inf. A.V.G.M.P. 18: 221-232.
	
Schubert, C. and H. Henneberg (1975). "Geological and geodetic investigations on the movement along the Boconó Fault, Venezuelan Andes." Tectonophysics 29: 199-207.
	
Schubert, C. and O. Huber (1989). The Gran Sabana. Panaramic of a region (La Gran Sabana. Panorámica de una región). Caracas, Cuadernos Lagoven.
	
Schubert, C. and F. Krause (1981). Faulting along the north-central coast of Venezuela: Moron fault zone (Fallamiento a lo largo de la costa norte-central de Venezuela: zona de falla de Morón). III Cong. Venezolano de Sismol. e Ing. Sism., Caracas.
	
Schubert, C. and F. Krause (1984). "Moron fault zone, North-Central Venezuela bordeland: Identification, definition and neotectonic character." Marine Geophysical Research 6: 257-273.
	
Schubert, C. and M. LAREDO (1979). "Late Pleistocene and Holocene faulting in Lake Valencia basin, north-central Venezuela." Geology 7: 289-292.
	
Schubert, C. and M. LAREDO (1984). "Geology of Aves Island (Venezuela): subsidence of Aves Ridge, Caribbean Sea." Marine Geology 59: 305-318.
	
Schubert, C. and M. Laredo (1984). "Subsidence of Aves Ridge, Caribbean Sea." Interciencia 9(1): 42-43.
	
Schubert, C. and M. Laredo (1990). "Geologic aspects of the prominence of Aves and Aves Island (Caribbean Sea, Venezuela) (Aspectos geológicos de la prominencia de Aves y de la Isla de Aves (Mar Caribe, Venezuela))." Bol. S.V.G. 40: 2-16.
	
Schubert, C. and E. Medina (1982). "Evidence of Quaternary Glaciation in the Dominican Republic: Some implications for Caribbean Paleoclimatology." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 39: 281-294.
	
Schubert, C. and B. Moticska (1972). " Geological reconnaissance of Venezuelan islands in the Caribbean sea between Los Roques and Los Testigos." Caribbean Geol. Conf. 1: 81-82.
	
Schubert, C. and B. MOTICSKA (1973). "Geologic reconnaissance of the Venezuelan islands in the Caribbean Sea between Los Roques and Los Testigos (Dependencias Federales): Eastern islands and conclusions (Reconocimiento geológico de las islas venezolanas en el Mar Caribe entre Los Roques y Los Testigos ( Dependencias Federales): II- Islas orientales y conclusiones)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 24(1): 19-31.
	
Schubert, C. and B. MOTICSKA (1973). "Geologic reconnaissance of the Venezuelan islands in the Caribbean Sea between Los Roques and Los Testigos (Dependencias Federales): I - Western islands (Reconocimiento geológico de las islas venezolanas en el Mar Caribe entre Los Roques y Los Testigos (Dependencias Federales): I- Islas occidentales)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 23(6): 210-223.
	
Schubert, C. and P. Moticska (1973). "Reconocimiento geologico de las islas Venezolanas en el mar Caribe entre Los Roques y Los Testigos (Geologic recognition of the Venezuelen islands in the Caribbean Sea betwee Los Roques and Los Testigos)." Acta Cientificos Venezolanas 24: 19-31.
	
Schubert, C. and M. Rinaldi (1987). "New data on the chronology of the Late State of Merida Glaciation, Venezuelan Andes (Nuevos datos sobre la cronología del Estadio Tardío de la Glaciación Mérida, Andes venezolanos)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 38: 135-136.
	
Schubert, C. and M. Salgado-Labouriau (1987). "Alluvial and palynological studies in the Venezuelan Guayana Shiel." Current Research in the Pleistocene 4: 162-164.
	
Schubert, C. and A. Scheidegger (1986). "Recent joints and their significance in the Coastal Range of Venezuela and in Curaçao." Journal of  Coastal Research 2: 167-172.
	
Schubert, C., et al. (1983). "Recent 'diaclasas' and their tectonic significance in the Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela and Curaçao (Diaclasas recientes y su significado tectónico en la Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela y Curaçao)." Simp. Int. "Neotectónica, Sismicidad y Riesgo Geológico en Venezuela y El Caribe"
Acta  Cient. Venezolana 34(1): 516.
	
Schubert, C. and R. Sifontes (1970). "Bocono Fault, Venezuelan Andes: Evidence of post glacial movement."  170: 66-69.
	
Schubert, C. and R. SIFONTES (1972). "Boconó Fault, Venezuelan Andes." Science 175: 558-561.
	
Schubert, C. and R. Sifontes (1983). "The Late Pliocene rhyolite of Carupano, Sucre State, Venezuela: Extreme southern end of the volcanic arc of the Lesser Antilles? (La riolita pliocena tardía de Carúpano, Edo. Sucre, Venezuela: ¿Extremo sur del arco volcánico de las Antillas menores?)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 34(3-4): 262-266.
	
Schubert, C., et al. (1979). "La Quinta Formation (Jurassic), Venezuelan Andes:  Geology of the type section (Formación La Quinta (Jurásico), Andes venezolanos: Geología de la sección tipo)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 30: 42-55.
	
Schubert, C., et al. (1979). "Formación La Quinta (Jurasico) Andes Merideños: Geología de la sección tipo (The (Jurassic) Meridonal Andes La Quinta Formation:  Geology of the type section)." Acta Cientificas Venezolano: E. Padrón 30: 42-55.
	
Schubert, C., et al. (1983). The Bocono Fault between Santo Domingo and San Cristobal.  Excursion Guide (La falla de Boconó entre Santo Domingo y San Cristóbal. Guía de Excursión).
	
Schubert, C. and B. Szabo (1978). "Uranium-series ages of Pleistocene marine deposits on the islands of Curaçao and La Blanquilla, Caribbean Sea." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 325-332.
	
Schubert, C. and B. J. Szabo (1978). "Uranium-series ages of Pleistocene marine deposits on the islands of Curaçao and La Blanquilla, Caribbean Sea." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 325-332.
	
Schubert, C. and S. Valastro (1973). "Paramo of La Culata, Estado Merida:  Late Pleistocene glaciation (Páramo de La Culata, Estado Mérida:  glaciación del Pleistoceno tardío)." Bol. Inf. A.V.G.M.P. 16: 108-142.
	
Schubert, C. and S. Valastro (1974). "Late Pleistocene glaciation of Páramo de La Culata, north-central Venezuelan Andes." Geologische Rundschau 63: 516-538.
	
Schubert, C. and S. Valastro (1974
abstract)). "Marine and erosional terraces on La Orchila island, north-central Venezuelan offshore." VII Caribbean Geol. Conf., Guadeloupe 1: 60-61.
	
Schubert, C. and S. Valastro (1976). "Quaternary geology of La Orchila Island, central Venezuelan offshore, Caribbean Sea." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 87: 1131-1142.
	
Schubert, C. and S. Valastro (1976). "Quaternary geology of La Orchila Island, Dependencias Federales (Geología cuaternaria de la Isla La Orchila, Dependencias Federales)." Bol. Inf. A.V.G.M.P. 19(1): 17-41.
	
Schubert, C. and S. Valastro (1980). "Quaternary Esnujaque Formation, Venezuelan Andes & preliminary alluvial chronology in a tropical mountain range." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 131: 927-947.
	
Schubert, C. and S. Valastro (1984). "Ages of  fault depression, Mucubaji region, Merida State, Venezuela (Edades de depresiones de falla, región de Mucubají, estado Mérida, Venezuela)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 35: 446-447.
	
Schubert, C. and S. Valastro (1987). "Morraine complex of Mucupate, Merida State (Complejo morrénico de Mucumpate, Estado Mérida)." Cuad. Geol. M.E.M. 2(1-2): 112-116.
	
Schubert, C., et al. (1977). "Evidence of recent uplift of the north-central coast (Cordillera de la Costa), Venezuela (Evidencias de levantamiento reciente de la costa norte-central ( Cordillera de la Costa), Venezuela)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 28: 363-372.
	
Schubert, C., et al. (1977). "Evidencias de levantamiento reciente de la costa norte-central (Cordillera de la Costa), Venezuela (Evidences of the recent uplift of the north-central coast (Cordillera de la Costa), Venezuela)." Acta Cientifica Venezolana 28: 363-372.
	
Schubert, C. and J. Vaz (1987). "Termoluminiscent age of the Aluvial Complex of Timotes, Venezuelan Andes (Edad termoluminiscente del Complejo Aluvial de Timotes, Andes venezolanos)." Acta Cient. Venezolana 38: 285-286.
	
Schubert, C. and L. Vivas (1986). Quaternary geologic aspects and neotectonics of the Andes of Merida, Venezuela (Aspectos geológicos cuaternarios y neotectónicos de los Andes de Mérida, Venezuela). Mérida, PICG, Project 201.
	
Schubert, C. and L. Vivas (1993). The Quaternary of the Merida Cordillera, Venezuelan Andes (El Cuaternario de la Cordillera de Mérida., Andes venezolanos), U.L.A.- Fund. Polar.
	
Schubert, C. and E. WAGNER (1971). "The journeys of Richard Ludwig in paraguana and the front islands on the north coast of venezuela by W. Sievers (Los viajes de Richard Ludwig en Paraguaná y las islas frente a la costa norte de Venezuela por W. Sievers)." Bol. Inf. A.V.G.M.P. 14(3): 67-82.
	
Schubert, C. and E. Wagner (1983). "Radiocarbon dating: Some problems related with Venezuelan archeologic and geologic examples (Datación radiocarbónica: algunos problemas relacionados con ejemplos arqueológicos y geológicos venezolanos)." Bol. Progr. Arqueol. de Rescate, Corpozulia 3: 31-50.
	
Schubert, C. and E. Wagnet (1974). "The front islands at the north coast of Venezuela by W. Sievers (Las islas frente a la costa norte de Venezuela por W. Sievers)." Bol. Inf. A.V.G.M.P. 17(4): 88-115.
	
Schubert, C. E. (1977). Seafloor Structure and Tectonics East of Northern Lesser Antilles Islands, University of Miami: 237.
	
Schubert, G. and D. Sandwell (1989). "Crustal volumes of the continents and oceanic and continental submarine plateaus." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 92: 234-246.
	
Schuchert, C. (1935). Historical Geology of the Antillean-Caribbean Region, or the Lands Bordering the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. New York, John Wiley.
	
Schultz, F. J. (1979). An Evaluation of Techniques of Cluster Analysis Applied to the Stratigraphy of a Caribbean Deep-sea Core. ?: unknown p.
	
Schultz, P. H. and S. DHondt (1996). "Cretaceous-Tertiary (Chicxulub) impact angle and its consequences." Geology 24(11): 963-967.
	
Schulz, R. and R. Weyl (1959). "Sismo y estructura de la corteza terrestre en la parte norte de Centro America (Seismic and structure of the terrestrial crust of the north part of Central America)." Boletin Sismologica Servicio Geologico Nacional (San Salvador, El Salvador) 5: 36-40.
	
Schulz, R. and R. Weyl (1960). "Erdbeben und Krustenaufbau im nördlichen Mittelamerika." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte?: 193-201.
	
Schumacher, D. and M. A. Abrams, Eds. (1996). Hydrocarbon migration and its near-surface expression. AAPG Memoir. Tulsa, AAPG.
	
Schuster, G. T. (1977). Seismic Studies of Crustal Structure in Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Department of Geosciences. Houston, TX, University of Houston: 79.
	
Schwab, W. C., et al. (1991). "A giant submarine slope failure on the northern insular slope of Puerto Rico." Marine Geology 96: 237-246.
	
Schwan, W. (1980). "Geodynamic peaks in alpinotype orogenies and changes in ocean floor spreading during Late Jurassic-Late Tertiary time." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 64(3): 359-373.
	
Schwartz, D. P. (1976). Geology of the Zacapa Quadrangle and Vicinity. Department of Geological Sciences. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York at Binghamton: 191.
	
Schwartz, D. P. (1985). "The Caribbean-North America plate boundary in Central America:  New data on Quaternary tectonics." Earthquake Notes, Eastern Section, Seismological Society of America 56(1): 28.
	
Schwartz, D. P., et al. (1979). "Quaternary faulting along the Caribbean--North American plate boundary in Central America." Tectonophysics 52: 431-445.
	
Schweitzer, C. E., et al. (2006). "Oligocene and Miocene decapods (Thalassinidea and Brachyura) from the Caribbean." Annals of Carnegie Museum 75(2): 111-136.
	Oligocene and Miocene fossil decapods from Puerto Rico and Cuba have been poorly known; new collections from these regions as well as from the Dominican Republic have now yielded several new reports. One new genus, Psygmophthalmus, and several new species (Neocallichirus aetodes, Neocallichirus? quisquellanus, Calappa pavimenta, Necronectes collinsi, Portunus yaucoensis, and Psygmophthalmus lares) are named herein. New combinations include Euphylax domingensis (Rathbun 1919), Megokkos feldmanni (Nyborg et al. 2003), and Neocallichirus vaughni (Rathbun 1918). Specimens of a callianassoid and brachyuran indeterminate at the family, genus, and species level are also described and illustrated, and emended descriptions are provided for Euphylax domingensis and Megokkos feldmanni. Scylla costata Rathbun, 1919, and three indeterminate species of Portunus are also reported. Ceronnectes De Angeli and Beschin, 1998, is a member of the Cancridae, not the Portunidae as originally reported. Most of the Caribbean taxa reported herein belong to tropical or subtropical extant genera that inhabit both carbonate and siliciclastic, soft, shallow marine substrates, supported by the occurrence of most of the fossils in clastic units. The Cenozoic genera reported herein exhibited either a Tethyan or North Pacific distribution, typical of Eocene and Oligocene decapods of the region. The open Caribbean Seaway facilitated dispersal of fauna throughout the region between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.  

Sclater, J. G. and S. Nagihara (1991). "Heat flow in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico [discussion]." Journal of Geophysical Research:  Solid Earth and Planets 96(13): 21807-21810.
	
Scott, J. P. (1985). The continental margin around Trinidad and Tobago: Its exploration possibilities. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, July 7-15, 1979. 4: 1031-1047.
	
Scott, J. P. (1993). The Mode of Occurrence of Hydrocarbon in the Trinidad and Tobago 'Continental' (Insular) Shelf, University of the West Indies: 192.
	
Scott, P. W. and T. A. Jackson (1994). Industrial rocks and minerals in the Caribbean: Geology, exploitation, and attitudes. Industrial Minerals in Developing Countries. S. J. Mathers and A. J. G. Notholt. 18: 153-163.
	
Scott, P. W. and T. A. Jackson (1999). "Industrial Minerals in the Caribbean." Oklahoma Geological Survey, Circular 102: 319-328.
	
Scott, P. W., et al. (1999). "The economic potential of the ultramafic rocks of Jamaica and Tobago: Two contrasting geological settings in the Caribbean." Mineralium Deposita 34(7): 718-723.
	
Scott, P. W., et al. (2000). "Ore mineral associations and industrial minerals in the ultramafic rocks of Jamaica and Tobago." Caribbean Journal of Earth Science(34): 7-18.
	
Scott, R. W. (1984). Mesozoic biota and depositional systems of the Gulf of Mexico-Caribbean region. Jurassic-Cretaceous Biochronology and Paleogeography of North America (The Proceedings of a Symposium Held in Honour of Ralph W. Imlay and George W. Jeletzky at the 3rd North American Paleontological Convention in Montreal, Quebec, August 6th, 1982). G. E. G. Westerman. Toronto, Canada, Geological Association of Canada. 27: 49-64.
	
Scott, R. W. and R. C. Finch (1999). Cretaceous carbonate biostratigraphy and environments in Honduras. Caribbean Basins. P. Mann. Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Elsevier Science B.V. 4: 151-165.
	
Scott, W. (1987). "Age and provenance of the Richmond Formation of the Rio Grande Valley, eastern Jamaica." Journal of the Geological Society, Jamaica Special Issue no. 10: 52-68.
	
Screaton, E., et al. (2000). "Permeability of a decollement zone; results from a two-well experiment in the Barbados accretionary complex." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 105(9): 21403-21410.
	
Screaton, E. and S. Ge (2000). "Anomalously high porosities in the proto-decollement zone of the Barbados accretionary complex; do they indicate overpressures?" Geophysical Research Letters 27(13): 1993-1996.
	
Screaton, E. and S. M. Ge (1997). "An assessment of along-strike fluid and heat transport within the Barbados Ridge accretionary complex: Results of preliminary modeling." Geophysical Research Letters 24(23): 3085-3088.
	
Screaton, E. J., et al. (1997). "Barbados Ridge hydrogeologic tests: Implications for fluid migration along an active decollement." Geology 25(3): 239-242.
	
Sealy, E. and A. Ramlackhansingh (1979). "The geology of Trinidad Tesoro's Palo Seco Field, including South Erin and Central Los Bajos." 4th Latin American Geological Congress, Trinidad: 796-802.
	
Sealy, E. C. and A. Ramlackhansingh (1985). The geology of Trinidad-Tesoro's Palo Seco Field including South Erin and central Los Bajos. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, July 7-15, 1979. 4: 796-802.
	
Sears, J. D. (1919). "Deposits of manganese ore near Boqueron river, Panama." U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 710: 85-91.
	
Sébrier, M., and Bellier, O. (1993). How is accommodated the parallel to the trench slip component in oblique convergent subduction:  The Andean case
South-America, tectonic. Second ISAG, Oxford (UK). 139-142.
	
Sedlock, R. L., et al., Eds. (1993). Tectonostratigraphic terranes and tectonic evolution of Mexico. Special Paper. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Sedor, M. D. (2005). Interpretations of long term tectonic deformation in and around the Guerrero Seismic Gap, Mexico. Long Beach, CA, California State Univ.: 133.
	The geomorphology, geology, and Quaternary stratigraphy of the seismically locked &lsquo;Guerrera Gap&rsquo; may reflect the long-term tectonic history of a unique portion of the Mexican subduction zone. Results indicate that uplift has been occurring at La Saladita for sometime, and a series of 3 marine terraces of paleo-shorelines are present. In contrast, the lagoon El Plan shows evidence of long-term interseismic subsidence, possibly stretching back into the Holocene. The drainage basin of El Plan is tilted to the southeast. The lagoon Mitla shows evidence of high interseismic subsidence rates, with the most extensive drainage basin in the Guerrero Gap, with a tilt perpendicular to the coastline. Coyuca Lagoon has many characteristics of long term interseismic subsidence, perhaps the best indicators being a series of man made shell mounds and sand bars that are now submerged within the lagoon. Coyuca Lagoon has a tilt to the west away from Acapulco. The lagoon Tres Palos, in the Acapulco Gap, shows a high tilt and drainage to the southeast. It has heavy alluvial sedimentation, which can be clearly seen in its sediment core stratigraphy. It too shows interseismic subsidence over long time scales.

Seegobin, S. (1991). Deposition pattern analysis:  An alternative approach to sand and gravel prospecting in Trinidad and Tobago. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 131-138.
	
Seely, D. (1979). The evolution of structural highs bordering major forearc basins. Geological and Geophysical Investigation of Continental Margins. J. Watkins, L. Montadert and P. W. Dickerson. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 29: 245- 260.
	
Seely, D. R. (1977). The significance of landward vergence of oblique structural trends on trench inner slopes. Island arcs, deep sea trenches, and back-arc basins. M. Talwani and W. C. Pitman, III. Washington, D. C., American Geophysical Union. 1: 187-198.
	
Segura Soto, R. (1970). "El complejo vulcanógeno-sedimentario y la intrusión ultrabásica en el yacimiento petrolífero Guanabo (The volcanogenic-sedimentary complex and ultrabasic intrusion in the petroliferous Guanabo deposit)." Revista Tecnológica  VIII 3: 16-28.
	
Segura Soto, R. and et al. (1988). "La edad de la extincion de la actividad del arco volcanico insular cretacico en la cuenca central de Cuba (The age of the extinction of the activity of the Cretaceous insular volcanic arc in the central basin of Cuba)." Revista Tecnológica 18: 25-29.
	
Segura Soto, R. E. M. (1984). "Complejos litológicos y relaciones estratigráficas en el pozo Granma 1 (Lithology complexes and stratigraphic relations in the Granma 1 well)." Serie Geológica del CIG 4: 3-16.
	
Segura-Soto, R. and others (1985). "Complejos litológicos del extremo occidental de Cuba y sus implicaciones estratigráficas de acuerdo con las perforaciones profundas (Lithological complexes on the northwestern end of Cuba and their stratigraphic implications as per data obtained in deep bore holes)." Revista Tecnológica 15(1): 32-35.
	
Seiders, V. M., et al. (1972). Geology of Isla Desecheo, Puerto Rico, with notes on the Great Southern Puerto Rico Fault Zone and Quaternary stillstands of the sea, U.S. Geological Survey: 22.
	
Seiglie, G. A. and P. J. Bermudez (1969). "Informe preliminar sobre los foraminiferos del terciario del sur de Puerto Rico, pt. I (Preliminary report on the foraminifera of the Tertiary of the south of Puerto Rico, pt. 1)." Caribbean Journal of Science 9(1-2): 67-80.
	
Seiglie, G. A. and M. T. Moussa (1984). Late Oligocene-Pliocene transgressive-regressive cycles of sedimentary in northern Puerto Rico. Interregional unconformities and hydrocarbon accumulation. J. Schlee. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 36.
	
Seiler, D. (1994). Three dimensional visualization of borehole images. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 557.
	
Seismic Explorations International (South America) (1971). Field Operations Report on a Marine Seismic Survey of the Gulf of Chiriqui Project for Panama Exploration, Inc.: ?
	
Seitz, R., et al. (2001). "Formative jades and expanded jade sources in Guatemala." Antiquity 75(290): 687-688.
	
Sellier de Civrieux, J. M. (1977). "Las Discorbidae del Mar Caribe, Frente a Venezuela, Cumana, Venezuela." Universidad de Oriente Cuadernos Oceanograficos 6: 44.
	
Semenov, Y. (1968). "Los yacimientos cromíferos de Cuba (The chromiferous deposits of Cuba)." Revista Tecnológica  VI 3-4.
	
Sen, A., et al. (1999). "Combining a computer simulation and eustatic events to date seismic sequence boundaries: A case study of the Neogene of the Bahamas." Sedimentary Geology 125(1-2): 47-59.
	This paper demonstrates that the principles of seismic sequence stratigraphy and the techniques of computer simulation can be combined to date the sedimentary section. As an example it uses the Neogene section of the western shelf of the Straits of Andros in the Bahamas. To this end, type I, second-order seismic sequence boundaries were identified on a seismic cross-section from the region. These were used as brackets to correlate enclosed third-order events with an eustatic sea-level curve. The interpreted section was then reproduced using a computer simulation program. The simulation successfully reproduced the onlapping geometries of the shelf margin identified on the seismic section. The early Neogene fill of the Straits of Andros is assumed to have had an uncomplicated and uniform tectonic setting. This simplified the inputs to the simulation, which focused on capturing the sedimentary response to the eustatic changes. Inputs included a constant rate of subsidence of 0.009 m/ka, a uniform linearly increasing rate of carbonate accumulation from 28.5 Ma to 11.5 Ma, and the sea-level cycle chart of Haq et al. (1987), updated for the Neogene with the absolute ages provided by Berggren et al. (1995). The subsequent graphical output shows a good match to the interpreted seismic. This suggests that the amplitude and ages of the sea-level changes as shown in the eustatic chart can be used to date the sequence boundaries for the Neogene of the Straits of Andros. It also establishes that for areas of known subsidence, simulation techniques can be used to date seismic sections where biostratigraphic data are poor.

Sen, G., et al. (1988). "Geochemistry of basalts from the Dumisseau Formation, southern Haiti:  Implications for the origin of the Caribbean Sea crust." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 87(4): 423-437.
	
Sen, G. B. K. (1988). "Water mass relation of the benthic foraminifer Cibicides wuellerstorfi in the eastern Caribbean Sea." Bulletin de l'Institut de Geologie du Bassin d'Aquitaine 44: 23-32.
	
Sen, G. B. K., et al. (1989 PD: 2 tables). "Foraminiferes benthiques dominants dans les environnements hydrologiques profonds du Bassin de Grenade, Mer Caraibe (Dominant benthonic foraminifera in the deep hydrologic environment of Grenade Basin, Caribbean Sea)." Bulletin de l'Institut de Geologie du Bassin d'Aquitaine 46: 109-117.
	
Sen Gupta, B. K., et al. (1986). "Late Miocene shore in northern Costa Rica:  Benthic foraminiferal record." Geology 14: 218-220.
	
Sen Gupta, B. K. and C. T. Schaefer (1973). "Holocene benthonic foraminifera in leeward bays of St. Lucia, West Indies." Micropaleontology 19: 341-365.
	
Seyfried, H., et al. (1987). "Sequence stratigraphy of deep and shallow water deposits from an evolving island arc:  The upper Cretaceous and Tertiary of southern Central America." Tagung Deuschsprachiger Sedimentologen 2: 203-214.
	
Seyfried, H. and P. Sprechmann (1985). "Acerca de la formacion del puente - istmo Centroamericano Meridional, con enfasis en la desarrollo acaecido desde el Campaniense al Eoceno (Concerning the formation of the Middle Central-America bridge-isthmus, with emphasis on the events since the Campanian to the Eocene)." Revista Geologica de America Central(2): 63-88.
	
Seyfried, H. and P. Sprechmann (1985). "On the formation of the southern Central American land bridge with emphasis on its development from Campanian to Eocene." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 2: ?
	
Seyfried, H. and P. Sprechmann (1986). "Uber die Fruhgeschichte (Campan bis Eozan) der sudlichen mittelamerikanischen Landbruke." Neues Jahrbuch fur Geologie und Palaontologie, Monatschefte: 38-55.
	
Seyfried, H., et al. (1985). "Sedimentology and paleoecology of an estuary along the Pacific coast of the primordial Central American landbridge (Middle Miocene), Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 3: ?
	
Seyler, M. and P. H. Mattson (1989). "Petrology and thermal evolution of the Tinaquillo peridotite (Venezuela)." Journal of Geophysical Research 94(B6): 7629-7660.
	
Seyler, M., et al. (1998). "Magmatic underplating, metamorphic evolution and ductile shearing in a Mesozoic lower crust-upper mantle unit (Tinaquillo, Venezuela) of the Caribbean Belt." Journal of Geology 106(1): 35-58.
	
Shagam, R. (1960). "Geology of central Aragua, Venezuela." Geological Society of America Bulletin 71: 2249-2302.
	
Shagam, R. (1972). Andean research project, Venezuela:  Principal data and tectonic implications. ? ? Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 132: 449-463.
	
Shagam, R. (1975). The northern termination of the Andes. The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. A. E. M. Nairn and F. G. Stehli. New York, Plenum. 3: 325-420.
	
Shagam, R. (1985). Evolución geologíca tectónica del bloque de Maracaibo-Santa Marta (Tectonic-geologic evolution of the Maracaibo-Santa Marta block). 4th Venezuelan Geological Congress, Caracas, Venezuela: 6521-6549.
	
Shagam, R., et al. (1984). Tectonic implications of Cretaceous Pliocene fission-track ages from rocks of the Circum Maracaibo Basin Region of western Venezuela and eastern Colombia. ? ? Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 385-412.
	
Shapiro, N. M., et al. (1998). "Seismic channel waves in the accretionary prism of the Middle America Trench." Geophysical Research Letters 25(1): 101-104.
	
Shaposhnikova, C. (1969). Propiedades físicas de las rocas de Cuba (Physical properties of the rocks of Cuba), Instituto Nacional de Recursos Hidraulicos,  Dirección Tecnica, Dpto. Ing. Geol. 7: 57-80.
	
Shaposhnikova, K. I. (1974). "Tectonics of Central Cuba." Geotectonics 1: 14-20.
	
Sharbak, D. E. (1994). Flexural and full wave logging using the low-frequency dipole sonic. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 558-577.
	
Shaub, F. J. (1983). Origin of the Catoche Tongue. Seismic Expression of Structural Styles- A Picture and Work Atlas. A. W. Bally. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologiss. 15: 2.2.3-129.
	
Sheehan, C. A., et al. (1990). "Costa Rica geologic basins lure wildcatters." Oil and Gas Journal 88(18): 73, 75-79.
	
Sheehan, P. M. (1975). "Evaluation of brachiopod faunas from Solis Limestone (Ordovician, Silurian, and Lower Devonian), Chihuahua, Mexico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 59(6): 101-1014.
	
Shein, V. e. a. (1985). "Nota explicativa al mapa tectónico escala 1:500 000 (Explicative Note to the Tectonic Map Scale 1:500000)." Revista Tecnológica, Serie Geológica 1: 37-40.
	
Shein, V. S. and et al. (1975). Tectónica de Cuba y su plataforma litoral en relación con la evaluación de las perspectivas gasopetrolíferas (Tectonics of Cuba and Its Litoral Platform in Relation to the Evaluation of the Gasopetroliferous Perspectives). La Habana, Fondo Geológico, Ministerio Industria Básica.
	
Shein, V. S., et al. (1978). "Tectonics of Cuba and its surrounding shelf." International Geological Review 21: 540-552.
	
Shein, V. S., et al. (1985). "Tectonic map of Cuba." Revista Tecnológica 15(1): 37-39.
	
Shein, V. S., et al. (1985). "Model of the deep geologic structure of Cuba." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 1: 78-88.
	
Sheldon, R. P., et al. (1985). Undiscovered phosphate resources in the Caribbean region and their potential value for agricultural development. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey: 26.
	
Shelton, B. J. (1952). Geology and Petroleum Prospects of Darien, Southeastern Panama. Department of Geosciences. Corvallis, OR, Oregon State College: 62.
	
Shepard, F. P. (1973). "Sea floor off Magdalena Delta and Santa Marta area, Colombia." Geological Society of America Bulletin 84: 1955-1972.
	
Shepherd, G. (1979). Shallow Crustal Structure and Marine Geology of a Convergence Zone, Northwest Peru and Southwest Ecuador. Universtiy of Hawaii: 201.
	
Shepherd, G. and R. Moberly (1981). Coastal structure of the continental margin, northwestern Peru and southwest Ecuador. Memoir. L. D. Kulm. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 154: 351-391.
	
Shepherd, J. B. (1989). Earthquake and volcanic hazard assessment and monitoring in the Commonwealth Caribbean:  Current status and needs for the future. Meeting of Experts on Hazard Mapping in the Caribbean: Proceedings. D. Barker. Mona, Jamaica, University of West Indies Publication Association: 50-61.
	
Shepherd, J. B., et al. (1985). Recent seismicity of the Trinidad/Tobago Paria Peninsula region. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, July 7-15, 1979. 4: 926-928.
	
Shepley, S. I. (1982). Taxonomy and Biostratigraphy of Paleogene Age Sediments From Cores in the Northwest Atlantic and Caribbean Using Diatoms. Department of Geology. Newark, DE, University of Delaware: 164.
	
Sheridan, R. E., et al. (1981). "Stratigraphy and structure of southern Blake Plateau northern Florida Straits, and northern Bahama platform from multichannel seismic reflection data." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 65: 2571-2593.
	
Sheridan, R. E., et al. (1988). Geology and geophysics of the Bahamas. The Atlantic Continental Margin: U.S. R. E. Sheridan and J. A. Grow. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. I-2: 329-364.
	
Shevchenko, I. and et al. (1979). "Informe final sobre los trabajos de levantamiento-búsqueda a escala 1:100 000 realizados en las zonas de la parte Sur del anticlinorio Camagüey (Marti-Bartle) (Final Report on the Works of uplifts-searches at Scale 1:100000 Realized in the Zones of the South Part of the Camaguey Anticlinorium (Marti-Bartle))."
	
Shijov, S. and et al. (1969). "Generalización de los levantamientos gravimétricos de la República de Cuba. Interpretación geológica de las anomalias gravimétricas y magnéticas (Generalization of the gravimetric uplifts of the Republic of Cuba: Geologic interpretation of the gravitimetric and magnetic anomalies)."
	
Shipboard Scientific Party (1982). Site 502:  Colombia Basin, western Caribbean Sea. Initial Reports of the  Deep Sea Drilling Project. W. L. Prell, J. V. Gardner and et al. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. 68: 15-162.
	
Shipboard Scientific Party (1985). Site 565. R. von Huene, J. Aubouin and et al. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. LXXXIV: 21-78.
	
Shipboard Scientific Party (1985). Site 566. R. von Huene, J. Aubouin and et al. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. LXXXIV: 79-110.
	
Shipboard Scientific Party (1985). Site 567. R. von Huene, J. Aubouin and et al. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. LXXXIV: 111-166.
	
Shipboard Scientific Party (1985). Site 568. R. von Huene, J. Aubouin and et al. Washington, D. C., U.S. Government Printing Office. LXXXIV: 167-232.
	
Shipboard Scientific Party (1985). Site 569. R. von Huene, J. Aubouin and et al. Washington, D. C., U.S. Government Printing Office. LXXXIV: 233-282.
	
Shipley, T., et al. (1990). "Underthrust sediments, fluid migration paths and mud volcanoes associated with the accretionary wedge off Costa Rica, Middle America trench." Journal of Geophysical Research 95.
	
Shipley, T. H. (1982). Tectonic processes along the Middle America Trench inner slope. Trench-Forearc Geology: Sedimentary and Tectonics on Modern and Ancient Active Plate Margins. J. K. Leggett. Great Britain, Geological Society of London. 10: 95-106.
	
Shipley, T. H. and R. T. Buffler (1986). Continental Margin of Costa Rica:  Seismic Images of Convergent Margin Tectonic Structures. R. von Huene, American Association of Petroleum Geologists.
	
Shipley, T. H., et al. (1992). "Three-dimensional seismic imaging of the Costa Rica accretionary prism: Structural diversity in a small volume of the lower slope." Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth and Planets 97(4): 4439-4459.
	
Shipley, T. H. and G. F. Moore (1986). "Sediment accretion, subduction, and dewatering at the base of the trench slope of Costa Rica:  A seismic reflection view of the decolement." Journal of Geophysical Research 91(B2): 2019-2028.
	
Shipley, T. H., et al. (1994). "Seismically inferred dilatancy distribution, northern Barbados Ridge decollement:  Implications for fluid migration and fault strength." Geology 22: 411-414.
	
Shirley, K. (1993). "Caribbean Isles crave black gold." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Explorer 14(4): 40-41, 44-45.
	
Shirley, K. (1998). "Sea floor features exposed; view of ridges, faults provoke questions, ideas." AAPG Explorer 19(10): 21-23.
	
Shiroma, J. T. (1986). Biostratigraphic Analysis of Paleogene Sediments, Southern Dominican-Republic. Department of Geological and Geophysical Sciences. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University: 27.
	
Shopov, V. (1982). "Stratigraphy and subdivision of the Placetas and Camajuani zones in the former Las Villas Province (central Cuba)." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(4): 39-46.
	
Shor, G. G. J. and R. L. Fisher (1961). "Middle America Trench: Seismic refraction studies." Geological Society of America Bulletin 72(5): 721-730.
	
Shreve, R. and M. Cloos (1986). "Dynamics of sediment subduction, melange formations and prism accretion." Journal of Geophysical Research 91(B10): 10229-10245.
	
Shurbet, D. H. and S. E. Cebull (1975). "The age of the crust beneath the Gulf of Mexico." Tectonophysics 28: 25-30.
	
Shurbet, G. L. and M. Ewing (1956). "Gravity reconnaissance survey of Puerto Rico." Geological Society of America Bulletin 67: 511-534.
	
Shurbet, G. L. and J. L. Worzel (1957). "Gravity measurements in Oriente Province, Cuba." Geological Society of America Bulletin 68: 119-124.
	
Shurbet, G. L., et al. (1956). "Gravity Measurements in the Virgin Islands." Geological Society of America Bulletin 67: 1529-1536.
	
Sides, E. J. (1984). Effect of Barren Dykes on ore potential at Cero Colorado Porphyry Copper Deposit, Panama. Transactions of the Institution of Mineralogy and Metallology (Sect. B: Applied Earth Sciences). 93: ?
	
Sidorin, I. A. (1999). Dynamically consistent interpretation of the seismic structure at the base of the mantle. California Institute of Technology: 153.
	
Sigurdsson, H. and S. Carey (1991). Caribbean Volcanoes: A Field Guide (Martinique, Dominica and St. Vincent).
	
Sigurdsson, H., et al. (2000). History of circum-Caribbean explosive volcanism: 40Ar/39Ar dating of tephra layers. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Caribbean Ocean history and the  Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary event; covering Leg 165 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Miami, Florida, to San Juan Puerto Rico, sites 998-1002, 19 December 1995-17 February 1996,. R. M. Leckie, H. Sigurdsson, G. D. Acton et al. College Station, TX, Texas A & M University, Ocean Drilling Program. 165: 299-314.
	
Sigurdsson, H., et al. (2000). History of circum-Caribbean explosive volcanism; (super 40) Ar/ (super 39) Ar dating of tephra layers. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Caribbean Ocean history and the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary event; covering Leg 165 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Miami, Florida, to San Juan Puerto Rico, sites 998-1002, 19 December 1995-17 February 1996. P. Garman. College Station, TX, Texas A&M University. 165: 299-314.
	Drilling in the Caribbean Sea during Ocean Drilling Program Leg 165 has recovered a large number of silicic tephra layers and led to the discovery of three major episodes of explosive volcanism that occurred during the last 55 m.y. on the margins of this evolving ocean basin. The earliest episode is marked by Paleocene to early Eocene explosive volcanism on the Cayman Rise, associated with activity of the Cayman arc, an island arc that was the westward extension of the Sierra Maestra volcanic arc in southern Cuba. Caribbean sediments also document a major mid-to late Eocene explosive volcanic episode that is attributed to ignimbrite-forming eruptions on the Chortis Block in Central America to the west. This event is contemporaneous with the first phase of activity of the Sierra Madre volcanic episode in Mexico, the largest ignimbrite province on Earth. In the Caribbean sediments, a Miocene episode of explosive volcanism is comparable to the Eocene event, and also attributed to sources in the Central American arc to the west. Radiometric (super 40) Ar/ (super 39) Ar dates have been obtained for biotites and sanidines from 27 tephra layers, providing absolute ages for the volcanic episodes and further constraining the geochronology of Caribbean sediments. Volcanic activity of the Cayman arc is attributed to the northward subduction of the leading edge of the oceanic plate that carried the Caribbean oceanic plateau. Although the factors generating the large episodes of Central American explosive volcanism are unclear, we propose that they are related to contemporary major readjustments of plate tectonic configuration in the Pacific.

Sigurdsson, H., et al. (1980). "Volcanic sedimentation in the Lesser Antilles arc." Journal of Geology 88: 523-540.
	
Sigurdsson, H. S., R. S. J. and T. C. Huang (1986). Cenozoic tecotnics of the southeastern Caribbean and Trinidad. Transactions of the 1st Geologic Conference of the Geologic Society of Trinidad and Tobago. K. Rodrigeus: 270-280.
	
Silva, Z. C. G. (1969). "Estudio sobre jadeitas y albititas de Guatemala (Study on jadeites and albitites of Guatemala)." Boletin Geológico, Instituto Geográfico Nacional 5: 22.
	
Silva-Romo, G. (2008). "Guayape-Papalutla fault system: A continuous Cretaceous structure from southern Mexico to the Chortis Block? Tectonic implications." Geology Boulder 36(1): 75-78.
	Recent papers have opened the debate over whether the Chortis block was located off the coast of southern Mexico or in a more outboard position, and this led me to explore whether correlations with older structures could be established to determine the evolution of the southwest corner of the North America plate. In this paper I hypothesize that the Papalutla fault of Mexico and the Guayape fault system of Honduras, both considered to be terrane boundaries, were roughly continuous in the Cretaceous, extending from southern Mexico to the Chortis block. They influenced Early Cretaceous clastic sedimentation of the Zicapa Formation on the Guerrero-Morelos Platform (southern Mexico) and the Tepemechin Formation of the Central Chortis terrane (Honduras). The units accumulated in fault-bounded basins associated with left-lateral slip. The basins developed in the Central Chortis terrane and Guerrero-Morelos Platform. Both geological entities appear to represent a continuous Cretaceous geologic province characterized by a transgression that occurred earlier in Honduras than in southern Mexico. This nonrotational hypothesis for the location of the Chortis block adjacent to southern Mexico during the Cretaceous is consistent with northeastward displacement of the Caribbean plate during Cretaceous time and implies 1500 km of Chortis block displacement during the Cenozoic.

Silver, E., et al. (2000). "Fluid flow paths in the Middle America Trench and Costa Rica margin." Geology (Boulder) 28(8): 679-682.
	
Silver, E., et al. (2004). "An 8-10 Ma tectonic event on the Cocos Plate offshore Costa Rica; results of Cocos Ridge collision?" Geophysical Research Letters 31(18): L18601.
	Upper oceanic crust within the Cocos Plate offshore northwestern Costa Rica is dominated by sill intrusions of various ages, recognized regionally as smooth, high amplitude seismic reflections at the base of the sedimentary sequence and locally by dolerites and microgabbros recovered by drilling. Earlier interpretation of seafloor magnetic anomalies documented a set of spreading ridge jumps at 19.5 and 14.5 Ma, continuing to the present. In addition to these events, we present evidence for a widespread tectonic event in the period 8–10 Ma displayed in reflection seismic data recorded during the Ticoflux 1 and 2 experiments and dated by seismic correlation to ODP Site 1039. The 8–10 Ma events may have been triggered by collision of the Cocos Ridge at this time and facilitated by widespread sill intrusion associated with the Galapagos Hot Spot. 

Silver, E., et al. (1990). "Implications of the north and south Panama thrust belts for the origin of the Panama orocline." Tectonics 9: 261-281.
	
Silver, E. A. (1996). "Introduction to the special section on fluid flow in the Costa Rica accretionary prism." Geophysical Research Letters 23(8): 881.
	
Silver, E. A., et al. (1975). "Geophysical study of the Venezuelen Borderland." Geological Society of America Bulletin 86: 213-266.
	
Silver, E. A., et al. (1985). "Comments on the growth of accretionary wedges." Geology 13: 6-9.
	
Silver, E. A., et al. (1995). Variation in structure, style, and driving mechanism of adjoining segments of the North Panama deformed belt. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean Plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 225-233.
	
Silver, E. A., et al. (1995). Variations in structure, style, and driving mechanism of adjoining segments of the North Panama deformed belt. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean Plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 295: 225-233.
	
Silver, L. T., et al. (1963). "Lower Cretaceous pre-batholithic rocks of northern Baja California, Mexico." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 47(12): 2054-2059.
	
Simmons, F. (1957). "Manganese deposits of Panama: Mineral deposits of Central America." U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1034: 106-135.
	
Simmons, G. R. (1992). The regional distribution of salt in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico:  Styles of emplacement and implications for early tectonic history. Department of Geology. College Station, TX, Texas A&M University: 180.
	
Simon, A. and M. Larsen (1989). Shear strength and slope stability at sites in the Caribbean National Forest and Coamo area, Puerto Rico. Water Resources in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands: A Review. San Juan, Puerto Rico, U. S. Geological Survey. 8: 3.
	
Simon, G., et al. (1999 ). "Epithermal mineralization in an old volcanic arc: Jacinto deposit, Camaguey district, Cuba." Economic Geology 94 487-506 
	
Simon, G., et al. (1999). "Epithermal gold mineralization in an old volcanic arc: The Jacinto Deposit, Camaguey District, Cuba." Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists 94(4): 487-506.
	The Jacinto vein system in the Camaguey district of central Cuba is a low-sulfidation, adularia-sericite epithermal gold deposit. It is hosted by volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks of Cretaceous age along the margin of the Camaguey batholith. Jacinto is unusually old and much more closely associated with a large batholith than would be expected for an epithermal vein deposit in an island arc. This study was undertaken to determine how Jacinto could have been preserved for so long. The Jacinto system includes at least five veins that range in length up to 1 km, have maximum widths of 60 m, and extend to depths of at least 150 m. The veins consist almost entirely of quartz, with minor amounts of adularia, calcite (commonly bladed), pyrite, and gold, which form at least 20 growth zones that can be divided into five main stages and can be correlated from one vein to another. Gold ore shoots are restricted vertically and are more continuous horizontally. Their present configuration suggests that the entire system has been tilted about 5 degrees to the northeast. Wall-rock alteration is limited and consists of minor K feldspar and sericite. Fluid inclusions in vein quartz homogenize at temperatures of 200 degrees to 320 degrees C and freeze at temperatures characteristic of salinities of about 0 to 1 wt percent NaCl equiv. The presence of bladed calcite and silica pseudomorphs after bladed calcite suggests that the hydrothermal fluids boiled. Stable isotope analyses of quartz, calcite, and inclusion fluids indicate that the veins were deposited by waters with delta (super 18) O and delta D values that range from values just above those of magmatic water to those typical of Cretaceous meteoric water. (super 40) Ar- (super 39) Ar analyses of adularia in the Jacinto veins indicate an age of about 72 Ma for mineralization, and geologic relationships suggest that the vein system is related to La Sierra rhyolite flows and domes of that approximate age. La Sierra rhyolite was extruded onto an erosion surface that exposed the Camaguey batholith and related volcanic rocks, indicating that erosion rates were relatively rapid immediately prior to formation of the deposit. Shortly after the deposit formed, however, it was tilted and then buried beneath Late Cretaceous to Eocene sediments of the Maraguan basin, which are being eroded to expose the system today. This fortuitous sequence of volcanism, batholith emplacement, rapid erosion to deep batholith levels, extrusion of rhyolite, and local sedimentation appears to be the result of collision between the Cuban arc and the Bahamas platform. Similar collisions between arcs and continental masses could have formed other epithermal deposits.

Simón Méndez, A. (1987). "The western extreme of the northern Cuban arc." Boletin de Geociences 2(1): 3-27.
	
Simons, F. S. (1958). Manganese deposits of Panama. Mineral Deposits of Central America. R. J. Roberts and E. M. Irving, U.S. Geologic Survey. 1034: 106-135.
	
Simons, F. S. and J. A. Straczek (1958). "Geology of the manganese deposits of Cuba." U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1057: 1-289.
	
Simonson, B. M. (1976). Igneous petrology of the Minas de Oro quadrangle, Central Honduras. Informe y trabajos técnicos presentados en la IV Reunión de Geólogos de América Central. V: 78-83.
	
Simonson, B. M. (1977). Geology of the El Porvenir Quadrangle, Honduras, Central America. Tegucigalpa, Honduras, Instituto Geográfico Nacional: 84.
	
Simonson, B. M. (1981). Mapa Geológico de Honduras, El Porvenir sheet (Geologic Map of Honduras, El Porvenir sheet), Instituto Geográfico Nacional.
	
Simpson, G. G. (1978). "Early mammals in South America: Fact, controversy, and mystery." Proceedings of the American Philanthropic Society 122: 318-328.
	
Simpson, P. R., et al. (1991). "Orientation studies in Jamaica for multi-purpose geochemical mapping of Caribbean Region." Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Transactions, Section B: Applied Earth Sciences 100: B98 B110.
	
Sims, D., et al. (1999). "Role of a ductile decollement in the development of pull-apart basins: Eperimental results and natural examples." Journal of Structural Geology 21(5): 533-554.
	
Singer, A. F. and F. Audemard (1997). Contribution of FUNVISIS to the development of the geology of active faults and the paleoseismology for hazard and seismic danger studies (Aportes de FUNVISIS al desarrollo de la geología de fallas activas y de la paleosismología para los estudios de amenaza y riesgo sísmico), Publ. Esp. Academia de las Ciencias Naturales, Matemáticas y Físicas  (Edición Conmemorativa del terremoto de Caracas del 29 de julio de 1967). .
	
Singer, D. A., et al. (1990). "Evaluation of mineral resources of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 11: ?
	
Singewald, Q. D. (1950). "Mineral resources of Colombia (other than petroleum)." U.S. Geologic Survey Bulletin 964-B: 53-204.
	
Singh, B. (1997). "Climate-related global changes in the southern Caribbean: Trinidad and Tobago." Global and Planetary Change 15(3-4): 93-111.
	
Singh, S. K. and M. Pardo (1993). "Geometry of the Benioff zone and state of stress in the overriding plate in central Mexico." Seismological Research Letters 64(1): 15.
	
Sinton, C. W. (1996). A tale of two large igneous provinces; geochronological and geochemical studies of the North Atlantic volcanic province and the Caribbean oceanic plateau. Oregon State University. Corvallis, OR: 179.
	
Sinton, C. W., et al. (1998). "An oceanic flood basalt province within the Caribbean Plate." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 155(3-4): 221-235.
	
Sinton, C. W., et al. (1997). "Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica: A single suite of Caribbean oceanic plateau magmas." Journal of Geophysical Research 102: 15507-15520.
	
Sinton, C. W., et al. (2000). Geochronology and petrology of the igneous basement at the lower Nicaraguan Rise, Site 1001. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Caribbean Ocean history and the  Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary event; covering Leg 165 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, Miami, Florida, to San Juan Puerto Rico, sites 998-1002, 19 December 1995-17 February 1996,. R. M. Leckie, H. Sigurdsson, G. D. Acton et al. College Station, TX, Texas A & M University, Ocean Drilling Program. 165: 233-236.
	
Sinton, J., et al. (2003). "Morphology and segmentation of the western Galapagos Spreading Center, 90.5 degrees-98 degrees W: Plume-ridge interaction at an intermediate spreading ridge - art. no. 8515." Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 4: 8515.
	
Sisson, V. B. and H. G. Avé Lallemant (1992). "Uplift history of blueschists and eclogites in the Cordillera de la Costa belt, Venezuela, Part 1: Petrological constraints." Transactions of the 13th Caribbean Conference (Pinar del Rio, Cuba): 63.
	
Sisson, V. B., et al. (2005). Overview of radiometric ages in three allochthonous belts of northern Venezuela; old ones, new ones, and their impact on regional geology. Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 91-117.
	
Sisson, V. B., et al. (2005). Exhumation history of two high-pressure belts, northern Venezuela, based on fluid inclusions in quartz and calcite veins. Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 151-171.
	
Sisson, V. B., et al. (1997). "High-pressure (~2000 MPa) metamorphism of pelitic and mafic assemblages from the Cordillera de la Costa belt, Venezuela." Journal of Petrology 38: 65-83.
	
Skelton, P. (1996). "IGCP project 364: Correlation of Caribbean ophiolites and volcanic arcs - Field meeting - Puerto Rico, 11-16 March 1996." Episodes 19(1-2): 27-28.
	
Skerlec, G. M. and R. B. Hargraves (1980). "Tectonic signigicance of paleomagnetic data from northern Venezuela." Journal of Geophysical Research 85: 5303-5315.
	
Skvor, V. (1969). "The Caribbean area: A case of destruction and regeneration of continent." Geological Society of America Bulletin 80(6): 961-968.
	
Skwaletski, E. (1973). "Características ingeniero-geológicas de las serpentinitas de Cuba (Geologic-engineering characteristics of the serpentinites of Cuba)." Rev. Voluntad Hidráulica 25: 27-38.
	
Slowdowski, T. R. (1956). Geology of the Yauco area, Puerto Rico. Department of Geological and Geophysical Sciences. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University: 130.
	
Slowey, N. C. and T. J. Crowley (1995). "Interdecadal variability of Northern Hemisphere circulation recorded by Gulf of Mexico corals." Geophysical Research Letters 22(17): 2345-2348.
	
Smiley, C. J. (2002). Lower Cretaceouos plants from the Dominican Republic. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 119-129.
	
Smit, J., et al. (1994). "Deposition of channel deposits near the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in northeastern Mexico:  Catastrophic or ''normal'' sedimentary deposits?; and Is there evidence for Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary-age deep-water deposits in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico?: Comment [with Suppl. Data 9441]." Geology 22(10): 953-954.
	
Smith (1964). "Ecology of Benthonic Species in Recent Foraminifera Off Central America." U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 429-B: 1-27.
	
Smith, A. L. and M. J. Roobol (1990). Mt. Pelee, Martinique: A study of an active island-arc volcano. Bouder, CO, Geological Society of America. 175: 105.
	
Smith, A. L., et al. (1998). Batholiths as markers of tectonic change in the northeastern Caribbean. Tectonics and geochemistry of the northeastern Caribbean. E. G. Lidiak and D. K. Larue. Boulder CO, Geological Society of America. 322: 99-122.
	Plutonic rocks from the northeastern Caribbean can be subdivided into two distinct groups on the basis of their relationship with associated volcanic rocks. The first group comprises small stocks, which have geochemical affinities with surrounding volcanic rocks of similar age. Examples on Puerto Rico, all of Cretaceous age, include possibly the oldest bodies in the San Lorenzo batholith, the Maguayo Porphyry, and the Morovis/Ciales stock. These are thought to be the intrusive equivalents of the pre-Robles, the Maguayo, and the Robles-Rio Orocovis volcano-stratigraphic associations, respectively. The Fountain stock on St. Croix, also of Cretaceous age, is intruded into sedimentary rocks similar to the Yauco Formation of Puerto Rico, and shows geo-chemical affinities to small intrusions in this formation, suggesting a displacement of the St. Croix terrane. Tertiary intrusives, including those associated with the Anon-Mal Paso Formations, and stocks such as Tanama, Rio Vivi, Cuyon, Barranquitas, and Rio Blanco of Puerto Rico, as well as the intrusives on St. Martin, also fall within this category. The second group consists of large (>200 km (super 2) ), granodiorite-quartz monzonite-diorite-gabbro bodies, which do not appear to be associated with volcanic activity, and were intruded in several stages spanning millions of years. This group includes the San Lorenzo batholith (79 to 59 Ma), the Utuado pluton (72 to 58 Ma), and the Virgin Islands batholith (45 to 24 Ma). The Cretaceous stocks and their related volcanic associations are thought to have been formed above a south-verging subduction zone, whereas the Tertiary stocks are related to a northerly or easterly verging zone. In contrast, the large batholiths, which were emplaced in a period of little or no volcanism, were generated by different conditions of formation as a consequence of a dramatic change in the tectonic setting. This chapter is a contribution to International Geological Correlation Program project 364.

Smith, A. L., et al. (1999). Batholiths as markers of tectonic change in the northeastern Caribbean. Tectonics and geochemistry of the northeastern Caribbean. E. G. Lidiak and D. K. Larue, Geological Society of America. 322: 99-122.
	Plutonic rocks from the northeastern Caribbean can be subdivided into two distinct groups on the basis of their relationship with associated volcanic rocks. The first group comprises small stocks, which have geochemical affinities with surrounding volcanic rocks of similar age. Examples on Puerto Rico, all of Cretaceous age, include possibly the oldest bodies in the San Lorenzo batholith, the Maguayo Porphyry, and the Morovis/Ciales stock. These are thought to be the intrusive equivalents of the pre-Robles, the Maguayo, and the Robles-Rio Orocovis volcano-stratigraphic associations, respectively. The Fountain stock on St. Croix, also of Cretaceous age, is intruded into sedimentary rocks similar to the Yauco Formation of Puerto Rico, and shows geo-chemical affinities to small intrusions in this formation, suggesting a displacement of the St. Croix terrane. Tertiary intrusives, including those associated with the Anon-Mal Paso Formations, and stocks such as Tanama, Rio Vivi, Cuyon, Barranquitas, and Rio Blanco of Puerto Rico, as well as the intrusives on St. Martin, also fall within this category. The second group consists of large (>200 km (super 2) ), granodiorite-quartz monzonite-diorite-gabbro bodies, which do not appear to be associated with volcanic activity, and were intruded in several stages spanning millions of years. This group includes the San Lorenzo batholith (79 to 59 Ma), the Utuado pluton (72 to 58 Ma), and the Virgin Islands batholith (45 to 24 Ma). The Cretaceous stocks and their related volcanic associations are thought to have been formed above a south-verging subduction zone, whereas the Tertiary stocks are related to a northerly or easterly verging zone. In contrast, the large batholiths, which were emplaced in a period of little or no volcanism, were generated by different conditions of formation as a consequence of a dramatic change in the tectonic setting. This chapter is a contribution to International Geological Correlation Program project 364.

Smith, C. A. (1996). Metamorphism, Deformation, and Geochronology of Cretaceous Blueschists, Villa de Cura Belt, Venezuela. Houston, TX, Rice University: 193.
	
Smith, C. A., et al. (1999). "Two contrasting pressure-temperature-time paths in the Villa de Cura blueschist belt, Venezuela: Possible evidence for Late Cretaceous initiation of subduction in the Caribbean." Geological Society of America Bulletin 111(6): 831-848.
	
Smith, D. A. and H. J. Small (1999). "The CARIB97 high-resolution geoid height model for the Caribbean Sea." Journal of Geodesy 73(1): 1-9.
	
Smith, D. A. Y. (1987). Silt/clay erosion:  A bluff erosion problem in Trinidad, W.I. Coastal Zone '87:  Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management. O. T. Magoon, H. Converse, D. Miner et al. New York, N.Y., American Society of Civil Engineers. 5: 5737-5753.
	
Smith, D. L. (1982). "Review of the tectonic history of the Florida basement." Tectonophysics 88: 1-22.
	
Smith, D. L. (1993). Role of continental closure in the distribution of Florida basement features. Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic Development of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region:  A Context for Hydrocarbon Exploration. J. L. Pindell and R. F. Perkins. Austin, Tex, Gulf Coast Section Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Foundation: 1-8.
	
Smith, H. H. (1985). Development of a Methodology For Integration of Water From Several Limited Sources in the Caribbean Islands. Department of Earth Sciences. Fort Collins, CO, Colorado State University: 177.
	
Smith, H. J., et al. (1997). "The B isotopic composition of arc lavas from Martinique, Lesser Antilles." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 146(1-2): 303-314.
	
Smith, J. T. (1991). Cenozoic giant pectinids from California and the Tertiary Caribbean Province:  Lyropecten, ''Macrochlamis,'' Vertipecten, and Nodipecten species, U.S. Geological Survey.
	
Smith, M. S. and J. B. Shepherd (1995). "Potential Cauchy-Poisson waves generated by submarine eruptions of Kick'em Jenny Volcano." Natural Hazards 11(1): 75-94.
	
Smith, P. L. (1993). Cenozoic Tectonics of Backarc and Forearc Regions in the Eastern Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary. Northwestern University, Department of Geological Sciences. Evanston, IL: 328.
	
Smith, R. H. (1985). "Alluvial fan systems in a wet-tropical environment, Costa Rica." National Geographic Research 1(4): 450-469.
	
Smith, T. E. (1967). "The geology of the coast between Foster's Cove and Robin's Bay, St. Mary, Jamaica." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 9: 55-56.
	
Smith, T. E., et al. (1984). "The geochemistry and petrogenesis of the volcanic rocks of Carriacou, Grenadine Islands, West Indies." Bulletin Volcanologique 3(47): 467-482.
	
Smith, T. E. and T. A. Jackson (1974). "Tertiary spilites and quartz keratophyres of the Wagwater Belt, Jamaica, W.I." Bulletin Volcanologique 2(38): 870-890.
	
Smith, T. E. and T. A. Jackson (1975). "Copper occurrences in the volcanic rocks of Jamaica." OPLACS 6: 61-67.
	
Smith, T. E., et al. (1984). Lithium distribution in the Tertiary volcanic rocks of the Wagwater Belt, Jamaica, W.I. 10th Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.
	
Smith, T. E., et al. (1996). "Trace element and isotope geochemistry of the volcanic rocks of Bequia, Grenadine Islands, Lesser Antilles arc: A study of subduction enrichment and intra-crustal contamination." Journal of Petrology 37(1): 117-143.
	
Snoke, A. W. (1990). An evaluation of the petrogenesis of the accreted Mesozoic island arc of the southern Caribbean. Transactions of the Second geological conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago. K. A. Gillezeau. 2: 222-232.
	
Snoke, A. W. and P. J. Noble (2001). "An ammonite-radiolarian assemblage, Tobago Volcanic Group, West Indies-Implications for the evolution of the Great Arc of the Caribbean." Geological Society of America Bulletin 113: 256-264.
	
Snoke, A. W., et al. (1990). A partial cross-section across a Mesozoic oceanic island arc: Tobago, West Indies: Field guide for 2nd Geological Conference of The Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago: 1-9.
	
Snoke, A. W., et al. (1991). Tobago, West Indies:  A cross-section across a fragment of the accreted Mesozoic oceanic-arc, of the southern Caribbean. Transactions of the Second geological conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago. K. A. Gillezeau. 2: 236-243.
	
Snoke, A. W., et al. (1995). Tobago, West Indies: a cross-section across a fragment of the accreted, Mesozoic oceanic-arc of the southern Caribbean,. Field Trip Guide: 3rd Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago and 14th Caribbean Geological Conference: 1-23.
	
Snoke, A. W., et al. (2001). Geologic map of Tobago, West Indies with explanatory notes, Geological Society of America: 1 sheet and 24-page pamphlet.
	
Snoke, A. W., et al. (2001). Petrologic and structural history of Tobago, West Indies: A fragment of the accreted Mesozoic oceanic-arc of the southern Caribbean, Geological Society of America.
	
Snoke, A. W., et al. (1990). Stratigraphic and structural relationships on Tobago and some tectonic implications. Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 389-403.
	
Snoke, W. (1991). An evaluatlon of the petrogenesis of the accreted Mesozoic island arc of the southem Caribbean. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 222-230.
	
Snow, W., et al., Eds. (1982). Transactions of the 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic , 16-20 August1980.
	
Snow, W., et al., Eds. (1982). Transactions of the 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, August 16-20, 1980. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, Unknown.
	
Snyder, D. B. and R. W. Hobbs (1999). "Ringed structural zones with deep roots formed by the Chicxulub impact." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 104(B5): 10743-10755.
	
Snyder, D. B., et al. (1996). "A dual doubly vergent orogen in the Banda Arc continent arc collision zone as observed on deep seismic reflection profiles." Tectonics 15(1): 34-53.
	
Sohl, N. (1976). Notes on Middle Cretaceous microfossils from the Greater Antilles. Mid-Cretaceous Events, Annales du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Nice (Nice, France). ? ?, ? 4: 31.31-31.36.
	
Sohl, N. F. (1964). Giant Upper Cretaceous Oysters From the Gulf Coast and Caribbean. Department of Geology. Northampton, MA, Smith College: ?
	
Sohl, N. F. (1967). "On the Trechmann-Chubb controversy regarding the age of the 'Carbonaceous Shale' of Jamaica." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 9: 1-10.
	
Sohl, N. F., et al. (1991). Upper Cretaceous. The Gulf of Mexico Basin. A. Salvador. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America. J: 205-244.
	
Solari, L. A., et al. (2007). "Tectonic significance of Cretaceous-Tertiary magmatic and structural evolution of the northern margin of the Xolapa Complex, Tierra Colorada area, southern Mexico." Geological Society of America Bulletin 119(9-10): 1265-1279.
	The Tierra Colorada area sits along the northern limit of the Xolapa Complex, where it is juxtaposed against the Mixteco (Paleozoic) and Guerrero (Mesozoic) terranes of southern Mexico, just north of Acapulco. This paper presents combined structural and geochronological data from Tierra Colorada area that show evidence of four deformational events and several episodes of arc magmatism during Mesozoic and Cenozoic time. The oldest magmatism is represented by ca. 165 Ma granitoids and was followed by intrusion of the foliated El Pozuelo granite (129+ or -0.5 Ma; concordant U-Pb zircon analysis). This intrusion postdates D (sub 1) metamorphism and migmatization in the Xolapa Complex. The next magmatic episode is represented by the peraluminous, foliated El Salitre granite (55.3+ or -3.3 Ma; mineral-whole-rock Rb-Sr isochron) and the protomylonitic Las Pinas I-type granite (54.2+ or -5.8 Ma; lower intercept U-Pb zircon). Las Pinas granite is characterized by D (sub 2) ductile fabric with normal, top-to-the north-northwest sense of shear, deformed at 45-50 Ma (Rb-Sr and K-Ar ages). The ca. 34 Ma undeformed granites correspond to the last intrusive pulse in the area, postdating both D (sub 3) south-southwest-verging thrusting of the Cretaceous Morelos Formation over sheared granites and Lower Cretaceous volcanic rocks, and open folding during D (sub 4) . These four pulses of subduction-related magmatism in the Tierra Colorada area indicate a regular northeastward subduction at the Mesoamerican trench since Jurassic time, and alternate with contractile and/or extensional tectonic events. The gap in magmatic activity ca. 90-100 Ma roughly coincides with deposition of platformal limestones of the Morelos Formation during the middle Cretaceous. The stable conditions during deposition of the Morelos Formation may have resulted from a combination of back-arc extension and development of a passive margin during the Early-middle Cretaceous, which postdated the accretion of an exotic block, either the Guerrero terrane or the Chortis block. Following the Laramide orogeny in southern Mexico (roughly during the Late Cretaceous) the Paleocene-Miocene tectonic evolution in the Tierra Colorada area involved an alternation of magmatic pulses with extensional and contractile events. This was the result of a combination of several factors, including the geometry of the subducted slab, convergence rate, stress transmission between the subducting and overlying plates, and the rate of subduction erosion.

SolerArechalde, A. M. and J. UrrutiaFucugauchi (2000). "Paleomagnetism of the Acambay graben, central Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt." Tectonophysics 318(1-4): 235-248.
	
Solomiac, H. (1974). La geologie et la metallogenie de L'ile de Saint-Martin (zone Francais) (The geology and metallogeny of the island of Saint Martin (French zone)). Guidebook to excursion in the French Antilles (Caribbean Geologic Conference, 7th). Pointe-a-Pitre, FWI: 95-108.
	
Soloviev, O. N. and et al. (1963). "Geología y minerales útiles de Cuba: Resultados de la sistematización de los materiales geofísicos en la República de Cuba (Geology and useful minerals of Cuba: Results of the systemization of the geophysical materials in the Republic of Cuba)."
	
Soloviev, O. N., et al. (1964). "Comentarios sobre el mapa gravimétrico de la Isla de Cuba (Comments about the gravity map of Cuba)." Revista Tecnológica 2(2): 8-19.
	
Solsona, J. B. and C. M. Judoley (1964). "Esquema tectonico e historia de la evolucion geologia de la Isla de Cuba (Tectonic scheme and history of the geologic evolution of the island of Cuba)." Revista Tecnologia 2(1): 4-13.
	
Somin, M. (1977). "The deep nappes and "inverted" metamorphic zonality: Geology of the metamorphic complexes." Revista Científico-temática VI 79-84.
	
Somin, M., et al. (1975). "Graucophanic and apoeclogitic rocks in Central Cuba." Dokladi Acad. Nauk SSSR 221(2): 454-457.
	
Somin, M. and G. Millan (1977). "Sobre la edad de las rocas metamorficas Cubanas (On the age of the Cuban metamorphic rocks)." Informe Cientifico-Técnico, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 80: 11.
	
Somin, M. and G. Millán (1969). "Principal questions of the geology of the metamorphic complexes of Cuba." Bull MOIP, Geologia 4: ?
	
Somin, M. and G. Millán (1972). "The metamorphic complexes of Pinos, Escambray and Oriente in Cuba and its ages." Izvestia Akad Nauk SSSR, Geology 5: 48-57.
	
Somin, M. and G. Millán (1976). "El complejo anfibolítico de Cuba sur-central y problemas de la posición tectónica de la serie eugeosinclinal de la isla (The amphibolitc complex of south-central Cuba and problems of the tectonic position of the eugeosynclinal series of the island)." Bulletin MOIP, Geología 5: 73-93.
	
Somin, M. L. (1984). "Some aspects of the tectonic environment of glaucophane metamorphic." Geotectonics???: 14-20.
	
Somin, M. L. and G. Millan (1969). "Principales cuestiones de la geologia de los complejos metamorficos de Cuba (Principal questions of the geology of the metamorphic complexes of Cuba)." Bull. M.O.I.P. otd Geol. 4: ?
	
Somin, M. L. and G. Millan (1970). Informe preliminar sobre los resultados de las investigaciones de campo de los complejos metamorficos de Cuba en el invierno de 1969-1970 (Preliminary report on the results of the field investigations of the metamorphic complexes of Cuba in the spring of 1969-1970). Habana, Cuba, Archiv. Instituto de Geologia y Paleontologia.
	
Somin, M. L. and G. Millan (1972). "Discovery of Mesozoic microfauna within the metamorphic sequences of the Isle of Pines." Actas, Instituto de Geológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 2: 16-17.
	
Somin, M. L. and G. Millan (1972). "Generalidades sobre la geologia de los complejos metamorficos de Cuba (Generalities on the geology of the metamorphic complexes of Cuba)." Boletin Actas (Instituto de Geology de Academia Ciencia, Habanna) 2: 5.
	
Somin, M. L. and G. Millan (1974). Informe sobre los trabajos de campo del periodo 1973-1974 (Report on the field work from the period 1973-1974). Habana, Archived at Instituto de Geologia y Paleontologia.
	
Somin, M. L. and G. Millan (1974). "Las anfibolitas en la parte sur de Cuba Central (The amphibolites in the south part of Central Cuba)." Boletin Aclas (Instituto de Geologia y Paleontologia, Academia Ciencia, Habana) 4: ?
	
Somin, M. L. and G. Millan (1974). "Particularidades del metamorfismo en el complejo de Escambray, Cuba (Particularities of the metamorphic in the complex of Escambray, Cuba)." Boletin Aclas (Instituto de Geologia y Paleontologia, Academia Ciencia, Habana) 4: ?
	
Somin, M. L. and G. Millan (1974). "Some structural features of the Mesozoic metamorphic complexes of Cuba." Geotectonics 5: 19-30.
	
Somin, M. L. and G. Millan (1977). "On the age of the Cuban metamorphic rocks." Informe Científico-Técnico, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 80: 11.
	
Somin, M. L. and G. Millan (1981). Geology of Metamorphic Complexes of Cuba. Moscow, Nauka.
	
Somin, M. L. and G. Millan (?). "El complejo anfibolitico de Cuba (The amphibolite complex of Cuba)." Boletin M.O.I.P. odt. geol. 5: ?
	
Somoza, R. (2007). "Eocene paleomagnetic pole for South America: Northward continental motion in the Cenozoic, opening of Drake Passage and Caribbean convergence." Journal of Geophysical Research 112(B03104).
	A paleomagnetic study of Eocene volcanic rocks in Patagonia yields high unblocking temperature and high-coercivity magnetizations. Combining these results with those of a previous study on Patagonian Eocene basalts yields a high-precision, high-quality pole located at latitude 81°S, longitude 337.4°E, A95 = 5.7°. Critically, this paleopole is indistinguishable from that of the Late Cretaceous (circa 85–65 Ma) pole position of South America, indicating that the plate was essentially motionless with respect to the spin axis for a period of ∼45 m.y. The pole position places South America at higher (∼5°) than present-day latitudes during the Eocene, indicating that northward continental motion toward present-day latitudes must have been accomplished sometime since the late Eocene. Paleomagnetic and tectonic correlation admits the hypothesis that Cenozoic northward drift was associated with Oligocene-Miocene extension in the southern continental edge, leading to the opening of the Drake Passage, and it agrees with the timing of foredeep formation and development of fold-thrust belts in the northern continental edge. This positive correlation between the paleomagnetically predicted drift of a major continent with extension at its trailing edge and convergence at its leading edge during times for which seafloor tectonic fabric and the geological record are particularly well preserved illustrates the utility of paleomagnetism in constraining paleogeographic and tectonic reconstructions for pre-Cretaceous times.

Sorensen, S. S., et al. (2005). Geochemical evidence for possible trench provenance and fluid-rock histories, Cordillera de la Costa eclogite belt, Venezuela. Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 173-192.
	
Soto, D. (2007). Structural and Basinal Architecture and Active Strike-slip Faulting of the Eastern Offshore Area of Trinidad. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 96.
	Previous GPS-based geodetic studies and fault trenching in Trinidad have shown that the 50-km-long, linear, onland segment of the Central Range fault zone (CRFZ) accommodates at least 60% of the total rate of right-lateral displacement (~20 mm/yr) between the Caribbean and South American plates. 2D and 3D seismic reflection data from a 60-km-long and 30-km-wide swath of the eastern shelf of Trinidad (block 2AB) were used to map the eastern offshore extension of this potentially seismogenic and hazardous fault system and to document its deformation and control on Middle Miocene and younger clastic stratigraphy. Two unconformity surfaces and seafloor were mapped using the seismic data to generate isochron maps and to illustrate the close control of the CRFZ and associated secondary faults on small, clastic basins formed within and adjacent to anastomosing strands of the CRFZ right-lateral shear zone. The mapped surfaces include: 1) the middle Miocene angular unconformity, a prominent surface separating underlying thrust-deformed rocks from a much less deformed overlying section; 2) a Late Neogene angular unconformity that is developed locally within block 2AB; and 3) the seafloor of the eastern Trinidad shelf. Clastic sedimentary fill patterns identified on this isochron maps indicate a combined effect of strike-slip and reverse faulting (i.e., tectonic transpression) on the structure of the CRFZ, which is highly oblique to the interplate slip vector known from GPS studies. A family of east-weststriking faults with normal and possibly transtensional motions appears to have contributed to the creation of accommodation space within localized clastic depocenters south of the CRFZ. 

3D seismic data reveals that the 60 km-long, offshore continuation of the CRFZ forms a prominent seafloor lineament and dextrally offsets a shallowly buried (83 m below sea level), late Quaternary fluvial channel by 322-506 m. Based on eustatic sealevel curve, I infer that the channel began to be incised at the beginning of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) ~30 ka and was subsequently offset in a right-lateral sense by the CRFZ. Using the offset amounts and our inferred age for the filled channel, I estimate a long-term slip along the fault of 17-19 mm/yr for the CRFZ. Because no documented earthquake has occurred on the Central Range since 1800, as much as 3.7 m of elastic strain may have accumulated on the CRFZ that could be released by a future magnitude >M7.5 earthquake. 

Soto, G. and G. Alvarado (1989). "Conference report: Costa Rican igneous workshop, Washington, D. C." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 10: ?
	
Soto, M. D., et al. (2007). "Late Holocene strike-slip offset of a subsurface channel interpreted from three-dimensional seismic data, eastern offshore Trinidad." Geology Boulder 35(9): 859-862.
	A right-lateral strike-slip fault offset of a shallowly buried fluvial paleochannel is interpreted from three-dimensional (3-D) seismic data in the eastern offshore area of Trinidad. The fault represents the eastern offshore continuation of the main South America-Caribbean plate boundary zone in Trinidad, the Central Range fault zone. Previous global positioning system-based geodetic studies and trenching have shown that the 50-km-long on-land segment of the Central Range fault zone accommodates a significant part of the present-day interplate motion. The 3-D seismic data shown here reveal that the 60-km-long offshore continuation of the Central Range fault zone forms a prominent seafloor lineament and dextrally offsets a shallowly buried (83 m below sea level), late Quaternary fluvial channel by 322-506 m. Based on the eustatic sea-level curve, we infer that the channel began to be incised during the beginning of the Last Glacial Maximum ca. 30 ka and was subsequently offset by the Central Range fault zone. Using the offset amounts and our inferred age for the filled channel, we can estimate a long-term slip along the fault of 17-19 mm/yr for the Central Range fault zone. Because no documented earthquake has occurred on the Central Range since A.D. 1800, as much as 3.7 m of elastic strain may have accumulated on the Central Range fault zone that could be released by a future magnitude >M7.5 earthquake.

Soulas, J. P. (1986). "Neotectonica y tectonica activa en Venezuela y regiones vecinas (Neotectonics and active tectonics in Venezuela and regional vicinities)." VI Cong. Geol. Venezuela 10: 6639-6656.
	
Soulas, J. P., et al. (1991). "Tectonica activa and riesgo sismico en los Andes ecuatorianos y el extremo sur de Colombia (Active tectonics and seismic risk in the Ecuadoran Andes and extreme south of Colombia)." Bol. Geol. Ecuat. 1(1: 3-9.
	
Soulas, J. P., et al. (1986). "Neotectonics of the Bocono, Valera, Tuname and Mene Grande faults. Exursion No. 4 (Neotectónica de las fallas de Boconó, Valera, Tuñame y Mene Grande. Excursión Nº4)." VI Cong. Geol. Venezolano, Caracas 10: 6961-6999.
	
Southernwood, R. (1986). Late Cretaceous Limestone Clast Conglomerates of Honduras. Programs in Geosciences. Richardson, TX, University of Texas at Dallas: 300.
	
Southworth, C. S. (1984). Structural and hydrogeologic applications of remote sensing data, eastern Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Sinkholes their Geology, Engineering, and Environmental Impact. B. F. Beck. Rotterdam,Netherlands, A.A. Balkema: 59-64.
	
Spadea, P., et al. (1986). "Ophiolite complex from La Tetilla, southwestern Colombia, South America." Journal of Geology 95: 377-395.
	
Spadea, P. and A. Espinosa (1996). "Petrology and chemistry of late Cretaceous volcanic rocks from the southernmost segment of the Western Cordillera of Colombia (south America)." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 9: 79-90.
	
Speed, R. (1983). "Structure of the accretionary complex of Barbados, I: Chalky Mount." Geological Society of America Bulletin 94: 92-116.
	
Speed, R. and D. Larue (1982). "Barbados:  Architecture and implications for accretion." Journal of Geophysical Research 87: 3633-3643.
	
Speed, R. and D. Larue (1991). "Extension and transtension in the plate boundary zone of the northeastern Caribbean." Geophysical Research Letters 13: 573-576.
	
Speed, R., et al. (1991). "Evolution of southern Caribbean plate boundary, vicinity of Trinidad and Tobago:  Discussion." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 75(11): 1789-1794.
	
Speed, R., et al. (1991). "Evolution of southern Caribbean Plate boundary, vicinity of Trinidad and Tobago [discussion and reply]." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 75(11): 1789-1796.
	
Speed, R., et al. (1989). "Tectonic evolution of the Tobago Trough forearc basin." Joumal of Geophysical Research 94: 2913-2936.
	
Speed, R. and J. A. Walker (1991). "Oceanic crust of the Grenada Basin in the southem Lesser-Antilles arc platform." Journal of Geophysical Research 96: 3835-3852.
	
Speed, R. C. (1985). "Cenozoic collision of the Lesser-Antilles arc and continental South America and the origin of the El Pilar fault." Tectonics 4: 41-69.
	
Speed, R. C. (1986). Cenozoic tectonics of the southeastern Caribbean and Trinidad. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 270-280.
	
Speed, R. C. (1989). Tectonic evolution of St. Croix:  Implications for tectonics of the northeastern Caribbean. Terrestrial and Marine Geology af St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. D. K. Hubbard. St. Croix, U.S.V.I., West Indies Laboratory. 8: 9-22.
	
Speed, R. C. (1994). Barbados and the Lesser Antilles forearc. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 179-192.
	
Speed, R. C. (2002). Field Guide to the Sub-Quaternary of Barbados - Field Trip #1. 16th Caribbean Geological Conference, June 16th-21st, 2002, Barbados, West Indies - Field Guides. Barbados, West Indies, Government Printing Department: 1-84.
	
Speed, R. C. (???). Caribbeann Geological Evolution:  Report of a Workshop to Define Caribbean Geological Problems, Needed Investigations, and Initiatives for Ocean Drilling. Department of  Geological Sciences. Evanston, IL, Northwestern University: 211.
	
Speed, R. C. and 18 others (1984). Lesser-Antilles arc and adjacent terranes. Atlas 10. Woods Hole, Massachusetts, Marine Science Intemational. 28: 28.
	
Speed, R. C., et al. (1991). "Geologic and hydrocarbon evolution of Barbados." Journal of Petroleum Geology 14(3): 323-342.
	
Speed, R. C. and H. Cheng (2004). "Evolution of marine terraces and sea level in the last interglacial, Cave Hill, Barbados." Bulletin-of-the-Geological-Society-of-America 116(1-2): 219-232.
	The uplifted marine terrace of last interglacial (stage 5e) age at Cave Hill, Barbados, has been investigated with views toward terrace architecture, developmental processes, and sea level history. Methods include stratigraphic analysis of new deep exposures, precise <sup>230</sup>Th geochronology, and geomorphic mapping. Cave Hill was central to earlier studies that led to important ideas on reef and terrace evolution but with which we find significant disagreement. We present a new model of terrace evolution that emphasizes the role of marine erosion, deposition of carbonate cover during the full eustatic cycle rather than only at highstand, and principal reef development during transgression rather than at highstand by keep-up rather than catch-up growth. The new model and geochronology contribute to an improved understanding of surficial processes during emergence of uplifting coral coasts and of global sea level changes in the last interglacial. Transgression in stage 5e at Cave Hill was accompanied by progressive marine erosion of a terrace floor and receding seacliff and deposition of a seaward-thickening reefal wedge on the floor and above limestones of stage 6 and 7 ages. The wedge contains a diachronous basal Acropora palmata fringe reef. This is overlain by an in-place A. cervicornis reef that aggraded progressively during sea level rise. The transgressive phase took place between 136 ka (or earlier) and ca. 128 ka. During highstand between ca. 127 and 120 ka, the floor and seacliff continued to recede landward. Regression began at or after ca. 120 ka, and sea level fell < greater-than-or-equal-to >37 m below the highstand level by ca. 115 ka. In stage 5c, the seaward front of the last interglacial terrace was eroded landward an uncertain distance. The sea level record at Cave Hill has implications for timing and constituent events of the penultimate glacial, the last interglacial highstand, and the fall in sea level at the transition from stage 5e to stage 5d. Shoreline angles, which are isochronous linear geomorphic features, are the most accurate markers of sustained highstand levels. Highstand levels and uplift rates interpreted from A. palmata in Barbados are less accurate and lower because the coral grew mainly in transgression. The coral-derived data therefore include uncertainties of depths of growth and collapse.

Speed, R. C., et al. (1979). "Ages of deposition, deformation, and intrusion of Cretaceous rocks, eastern St. Croix, Virgin Islands." Geological Society of America Bulletin 90: 629-632.
	
Speed, R. C. and J. Joyce (1989). Depositional and structural evolution of Cretaceous strata, St. Croix. Terrestrial and Marine Geology of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. D. K. Hubbard. St. Croix, U.S.V.I., West Indies Laboratory. 8: 23-36.
	
Speed, R. C. and D. K. Lance (1991). "Extension and transtension in the plate boundary zone of the northeastern Caribbean." Geophysical Research Letters 18(3): 573-576.
	
Speed, R. C. and D. K. Larue (1985). Tectonic evolution of Eocene turbidites of Grenada. Symposium Geodymanique des Caraibes. A. Mascle. Paris, Editions Technip: 101-108.
	
Speed, R. C. and P. L. Smith Horowitz (1998). "The Tobago terrane." International Geology Review 40(9): 805-830.
	
Speed, R. C. and P. L. Smith-Horowitz (1998). "The Tobago Terrane." International Geology Review 40(9): 805-830.
	
Speed, R. C. O. N. U., Dep. Geol. Sci., Evanston, IL, United-States; Northwest. Univ., Dep. Geol. Sci., Evanston, IL, United-States (1987). Background and introduction to Caribbean tectonic evolution. Caribbean Geological Evolution:  Report of a Workshop to Define Caribbean Geological Problems, Needed Investigations, and Initiatives for Ocean Drilling. R. C. Speed. Evanston, IL, Northwestern University, Department of  Geological Sciences: 10-33.
	
Speziale, M. G. (1985). The Triple Junction of the North America, Cocos, and Caribbean Plates: Seismicity and Tectonics. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 67.
	
Spikings, R. A., et al. (2001). "Along-strike variations in the thermal and tectonic response of the continental Ecuadorian Andes to the collision with heterogeneous oceanic crust." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 186(1): 57-73.
	
Spotz, B. (1989). Late Miocene-Pliocene Planktonic Foraminiferal Biostratigraphy and Paleoceanography, Northeast Gulf of Mexico, University of Delaware.
	
Sprechmann, P. (1984). Manual de Geologia de Costa Rica (Geology Manual of Costa Rica), ?
	
Stacy, H. E. (1966). The Lower Cretaceous Microfauna From Trinidad and Adjacent Areas. Department of Geological Sciences. Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan: 256.
	
Stainforth, R. M. (1948). "Description, coorelation and paleoecology of Tertiary Cipero Marl Formation, Trinidad." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 32: 1292-1330.
	
Stainforth, R. M. (1970). "Lexico estratigráfico de Venezuela (Stratigraphic Book of Venezuela)." Editorial Sucre: 756.
	
Stainforth, R. M. (1978). "Was it the Orinoco?" American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 62(2): 307-310.
	
Stallard, R. F., et al. (1990). Weathering processes and the composition of inorganic material transported through the Orinoco River system, Venezuela and Columbia. El Rio Orinoco como Ecosistema (The Orinoco River as an Ecosystem). F. H. Weibezahn, H. Alvarez and W. M. Lewis, Jr. Caracas, Venezuela, Impresos Rubel: 81-119.
	
Standard Oil Company (N.J.) (1941). The Geology of the Azua-Enriquillo Basin Areas Covered by Aerial Mosaics, Standard Oil Company, N.J.: 11.
	
Standard Oil Company (N.J.) (1942). The Geology of the Sierra de Neiba, and Valles San Juan and Enriquillo in Mosaic Area, Standard Oil Company (N.J.): 71.
	
Stanek, K. P. (2000). Geotectonic development of northwestern Caribbean - 'Abriß' Geology of Cuba (Geotektonische Entwicklung der nordwestlichen Karibik - Abriß der Geologie von Kuba). Freiberg, Freib. Forsch. Heft.
	
Stanek, K. P. and R. Cabrera (1991). "Tectono-magmatic development of Central Cuba." Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie Teil I 6: 1571-1580.
	
Stanek, K. P., et al. (2000). Geological development of Cuba. Geoscientific Cooperation with Latin America. H. Miller and F. Hervé. 1: 59 - 266.
	
Stanek, K. P. and J. Montenegro (1997). "Structural position of 'Sulfidlagerstätten' in Pinar del Rio, west Cuba (Strukturelle Position der Sulfidlagerstätten in Pinar del Rio, Westkuba)." Freiberger Forschungshefte 470: 97 - 111.
	
Stanek, K. P. and S. Voigt (1994). "Model of Meso-Cenozoic evolution of the northwestern Caribbean." Zentralblatt fuer Geologie und Palaeontologie, Teil I: Allgemeine, Angewandte, Regionale und Historische Geologie 1-2: 499-511.
	
Stanek, K.-P., et al. (2006). Structure, tectonics and metamorphic development of the Sancti Spiritus Dome (eastern Escambray massif, Central Cuba). Caribbean Plate Tectonics, Stratigraphic, Magmatic, Metamorphic and Tectonic Events (UNESCO/IUGS IGCP Project 433). M. A. Iturralde-Vinent and E. G. Lidiak, Geologica Acta. 4(1-2): 151-170.
	
Stanik, E. (1981). Informe del levantamiento geológico, geoquímico y trabajos geofísicos realizados en la parte sur de Cuba central (Report of the Geologic Uplift, Geochemistry and Geophysical Works Realized in the Southern Part of Central Cuba). Fondo Geológico Nacional. La Habana.
	
Stanistreet, I. G. (1993). Ancient and modern examples of tectonic escape basins: The Archaen Witwatersrand basin compared with the Cenozoic
Maracaibo basin, International Association of Sedimentologists. 20: 363-376.
	
Stanker, L. H. (1973). Upper Pleistocene Calcareous Nannofossils From Three Caribbean Cores. Department of Geological Sciences. Chicago, IL, University of Illinois: ?
	
Stanley, D. J. (1988). "Deep-sea current flow in the Late Cretaceous Caribbean:  Measurements on St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands." Marine Geology 79(1-2): 127-133.
	
Stanley, G. D. and C. M. Gonzalezleon (1995). Paleogeographic and tectonic implications of Triassic fossils and strata from the Antimonio formation, northwestern Sonora. Studies on the Mesozoic of Sonora and Adjacent Areas. C. Jacquesayala, C. M. Gonzalezleon and J. Roldanquintana. Boulder, CO, Geological Soc America Inc: 1-16.
	
Stauffer, K. and G. Croft (1995). "A modern look at the petroleum geology of the Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela." Oil and Gas Journal?: 63-66.
	
Stauffer, K. W. (1994). Depositional model of the Cogollo Group, Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 190-206.
	
Stavenhagen, A. U., et al. (1998). "Seismic wide-angle investigations in Costa Rica - a crustal velocity model from the Pacific to the Caribbean coast." Zbl. Geol. Paläont. I(3-6): 393-408.
	
Stearns, C., et al. (1982). "Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary paleomagnetism of Aruba and Bonaire (Netherlands Leeward Antilles)." Journal of Geophysical Research 87: 1127-1141.
	
Steele, D. R. (1985). Physical stratigraphy and petrology of the Cretaceous Sierra Madre Limestone, west-central Chiapas. Contributions to the Stratigraphy of the Sierra Madre Limestone (Cretaceous) of Chiapas, Part 1. Mexico, D.F., Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Instituto de Geologia, Bulletin. 102: 1-101.
	
Stein, S., et al. (1988). "A test of alternative Caribbean plate relative motion models." Journal of Geophysical Research 93(B4): 3041-3050.
	
Stein, S., et al. (1982). "Subduction seismicity and tectonics in the Lesser-Antilles arc." Journal of Geophysical Research 87: 8642-8664.
	
Steiner, M. B. and J. D. Walker (1996). "Late Silurian plutons in Yucatan." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 101(B8): 17727-17735.
	
Steinhauser, P. and S. A. Vincenz (1973). "Paleomagnetism of Lower Cretaceous lavas on Jamaica." Arch. Meteorol. Geophys. Bioklimatol. 22(Ser. A): 325-326.
	
Steinitz, G. and W. B. Maze (1984). "K-Ar ages on hornblende-andesite from the Sierra de Perija, western Venezuela." Geological Society of America Memoir 162: 283-285.
	
Stemann, T. and K. Johnson (1992). "Coral assemblages, biofacies, and ecological zones in the mid-Holocene reef deposits of the Enriquillo Valley, Dominican Republic." Lethaia 25: 231-241.
	
Stemann, T. A. (1991). Evolution of the reef-coral family Agariciidae (Anthozoa: Scleractinia) in the Neogene through Recent of the Caribbean. Department of Geology. Iowa City, Iowa, University of Iowa, Iowa City: 321.
	
Steneck, R. S., et al. (1998). "Ecological controls on stromatolite development in a modern reef environment: A test of the ecological refuge paradigm." Carbonates and Evaporites 13(1): 48-65.
	
Stephan, J. F. (1985). Andes and Caribbean chain south of the Barquisimeto (Venezuela) geodynamic evolution (Andes et chain Cariabe sur la transversale de Barquisimeto (Venezuela) evolution geodynamique). Geodynamique des Cariabes. Paris, Editions Technip: 505-529.
	
Stéphan, J. F. (1985). Andes et Chaine Carïbe sur la transversale de Barquisimeto (Venezuela): Evolution Géodynamique (Andes and Caribbean Chain south of the Barquisimeto Passage (Venezuela)). Geodynamique des Carïbes. A. Mascle. Paris, France, Editions Technip: 505-529.
	
Stéphan, J. F. (1994). Cadena Andina y cadena Caribe en Venezuela relaciones tectonicas, cronologicas y geodinamicas (Andean chain and Caribbean chain in Venezuela related to tectonics, chronology, and geodynamics). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 269-270.
	
Stéphan, J. F., et al. (1980). La chaine Caraibe du Pacifique a l'Atlantique (The Caribbean Chain of the Pacific and the Atlantic). ?: 38-59.
	
Stephan, J. F., et al. (1980). La chaine Caraibe du Pacifique a l'Atlantique (The Caribbean chain from Pacific to Atlantic). Geologique de Chaines Alpines Issues de la Tethys: 216th Congres Geologique Internationalle Colloque (Geology of the alpine chains born of the Tethys: 216th Geologic International Congress). Paris, France, Editions du B.R.G.M. 15: 38-59.
	
Stéphan, J. F., et al. (1994). Historia sedimentaria y tectonica de la parte oriental de la Serrania del Interior Oriental (Venezuela) (Sedimentary and tectonic history of the eastern part of the Serrania del Interior Oriental (Venezuela)). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 267-268.
	
Stéphan, J. F., et al. (1994). Geometria e historia tectono sedimentaria del frente de Montanas Caribe de Venezuela, desde lara hasta el norte de Monagas (Geometry and tectonic-sedimentary history of the front of the Caribbean Mountains of Venezuela, from 'lara' to the north of Monagas). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 265-266.
	
Stephan, J. F., et al. (1986). Northern and southern Caribbean festoon (Panama, Colombian-Venezuela and Hispaniola-Puerto Rico), interpreted as pseudosubdivisions induced by the east-west shortening of the peri-Caribbean continental frame. The origin of Arcs. C. Wezel-Forese. Amsterdam, Elsevier. 21: 401-422.
	
Stéphan, J. F., et al. (1986). Northern and Southern Caribbean festoons (Panama, Colombia - Venezuela and Hispaniola - Puerto Rico), interpreted as pseudosubductions induced by the east-west shortening of the pericaribbean continental frame. The Origin of Arcs: Developments in Geotectonics. F. C. Wezel. Amsterdam, Elsevier. 21: 401-422.
	
Stephan, J. F., et al. (1990). "Paleogeodynamic maps of the Caribbean: 14 steps from Lias to Present." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 8: 915-919.
	
Stéphan, J.-F., et al. (1990). "Paleogeodynamic maps of the Caribbean:  14 steps from Lias to Present." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 8(6): 915-919.
	
Stephens, K. P., et al. (1997). "Scale-dependent physical and geoacoustic property variability of shallow-water carbonate sediments from the Dry Tortugas, Florida." Geo - Marine Letters 17(4): 299-305.
	
Steuber, T., et al. (2002). "Catastrophic extinction of Caribbean rudist bivalves at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary." Geology 30(11): 999-1002.
	
Stevenson, W. G. and Assoc. Ltd. staff (1975). Geologic Map of Western Panama, ?
	
Stewart, H. B., Jr. (1978). CICAR II: Symposium on Progress in Marine Research in the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions, FAO Fisheries. 2: 638.
	
Stewart, H. B., Ed. (1978). Contribuciones sobre oceanografia, meteorologia, geologia, y
 geofisica (Papers on oceanography, meteorology, geology, and geophysics) / Symposium on Progress in Marine Research in the
Caribbean and Adjacent Regions, Caracas, Venezuela, 12-16 July 1976. Rome, Italy, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
	
Stewart, J. H. (1988). "Latest Proterozoic and Paleozoic southern margin of North America and accretion of Mexico." Geology 16: 186-189.
	
Stewart, R. H. (1955). The Hyatt Manganese Mines, District of Colon, Republic of Panama, U.S. Geological Survey (Washington, D.C.): ?
	
Stewart, R. H. (1955). Preliminary Report on the Soledad Manganese Mine, Colon Province, Republic of Panama, U.S. Geological Survey (Washington, D.C.): 14.
	
Stewart, R. H. (1966). The Rio Bayano Basin, a Geologic Report, Canal Commission: 18.
	
Stewart, R. H. (1977). Geology, Seismicity, and Design Structures in the Burica Peninsula Area, ?: 28.
	
Stewart, R. H. (1978). Preliminary Geology, El Volcan Region, Province of Chiriqui, Rep. of Panama.
	
Stewart, R. H. and J. L. Stewart (1980). Geologic map of the Panama Canal and vicinity, Republic of Panama, U.S. Geologic Survey Miscellaneous Investigation Series.
	
Stibane, F. R., et al. (1977). "Zur stratigraphisch - tektonischen Entwicklung der Halbinsel Nicoya (Costa Rica) in der Zeit von Ober - kreide bis Unter - tetiaer." Giessener Geologische Schriften 12: 315-358.
	
Stiles, L. M. (2000). Geochemical evidence for island-arc origin of the Villa de Cura Blueschist Belt, Venezuela. Houston, TX, Rice University: 94.
	
Stinnesbeck, W. and G. Keller (1995). "The Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in southern low-latitude regions: Preliminary study in Pernambuco, northeastern Brazil - Comment." Terra Nova 7(3): 375-378.
	
Stinnesbeck, W., et al. (1994). "Deposition of channel deposits near the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in northeastern Mexico:  Catastrophic or ''normal'' sedimentary deposits?; and Is there evidence for Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary-age deep-water deposits in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico?: Reply." Geology 22(10): 955-956.
	
Stinnesbeck, W., et al. (1999). "Beloc, Haiti, revisited: Multiple events across the KT boundary in the Caribbean." Terra Nova 11(6): 303-310.
	
Stinnesbeck, W., et al. (2002). "The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K/T) boundary transition at Coxquihui, state of Veracruz, Mexico: evidence for an early Danian impact event?" Journal of South American Earth Sciences 15(5): 497-509.
	
Stirton, R. A. (1953). "Vertebrate paleontology and continental stratigraphy in Colombia." Geological Society of America Bulletin 64: 603-622.
	
Stiteler, T. C., et al. (1997). Carbonate platform seismic sequence attributes, Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. Carbonate Seismology. I. Palaz and K. J. Marfurt. Tulsa, OK, Soc Exploration Geophysicists: 425-443.
	
Stock, J. M. and J. Lee (1994). "Do microplates in subduction zones leave a geological record?" Tectonics 13(6): 1472-1487.
	
Stockhert, B., et al. (1995). "Crustal history of Margarita Island (Venezuela) in detail: Constraint on the Caribbean plate-tectonic scenario." Geology 23(9): 787-790.
	
Stoddart, D. R. (1962). "Physiographic studies on the British Honduras reefs and cays." Royal Geographic Society Geography Journal 128(Part 2): 158-173.
	
Stoddart, D. R. (1980). "Geology and geomorphology of Little Cayman." Atoll Research Bulletin 241: 11-16.
	
Stoessell, R. K. and et al. (1989). "Water chemistry and CaCOŽ dissolution in the saline part of an open-flow-mixing zone, coastal Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico." Geological Society America Bulletin 101: 159-169.
	
Stoffa, P. L., et al. (1981). "Sub-B" layering in the southern Caribbean:  The Aruba Gap and Venezuela Basin." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 53: 131-146.
	
Stoffa, P. L., et al. (1991). "Three-dimensional seismic imaging of the Costa Rica accretionary prism: Field program and migration examples." Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth and Planets 96(13): 21693-21712.
	
Stoiber, R. E. and M. J. Carr (1974). "Quartenary volcanic and tectonic segmentation of Central America." Bulletin Volcanologique 37: 304-325.
	
Stride, A. H., et al. (1982). "Structural grain, mud volcanoes and other features on the Barbados Ridge Complex revealed by GLORIA long-range side-scan sonar." Marine Geology 49: 187-196.
	
Stroup, J. B. (1981). Geologic investigations in the Cayman Trough and the nature of the plutonic foundation of the oceanic crust, State University of New York at Albany: 189.
	A survey of the literature that deals with the gabbroic rocks believed to comprise the foundation of the oceanic crust indicates that the overwhelming majority of these rocks are recovered from escarpments associated with transform faults. The wide range of mineral and chemical compositions characterizing oceanic gabbroic rocks suggests that the lower oceanic crust is much more heterogeneous in nature than was previously suggested by the results of geophysical investigations. The examination of gabbroic rocks recovered in situ from the walls of the Mid-Cayman Rise rift valley by the submersible ALVIN not only supports the notion that oceanic gabbroic rocks are heterogeneous in nature but also that widely varying gabbroic rock types are found distributed heterogeneously on the walls at a scale of tens of meters. Observations that the largest escarpments on the walls of the Rise have only several hundreds of meters of vertical offset, and that gabbroic rocks were recovered to within roughly 100 meters of the tops of the rift valley walls, indicate that the shallow intrusive and extrusive carapace of the oceanic crust here must be anomalously thin. It has been suggested that thin oceanic crust characterizes slowly-slipping. ridge-transform intersections elsewhere; the thin crust of the Mid-Cayman Rise may be attributable to the presence of the two long transform faults that bound the 110 km long Rise segment. The two transforms may also have an instantaneous effect on the structural evolution of the Rise creating the well-defined tectonic grain that strikes at a high angle to the axis of the rift valley. 

Stroup, J. B. and P. J. Fox (1981). "Geologic investigations in the Cayman Trough: Evidence for thin oceanic crust along the Mid-Cayman Rise." Journal of Geology 89: 395-420.
	
Suarez, G., et al. (1999). "The 11 December, 1995 earthquake (M (sub 2) = 6.4): Implications for the present-day relative motion on the Rivera-Cocos plate boundary." Geophysical Research Letters 26(13): 1957-1960.
	
Suarez, G., et al. (1983). "Seismicity, fault plane solutions, depth of faulting and active tectonics of the Andes of Peru, Ecuador and southern Colombia." Journal of Geophysical Research 88: 10403-10428.
	
Suarez, G., et al. (1990). "Geometry of subduction and depth of the seismogenic zone in the Guerrero gap, Mexico." Nature 345: 336-338.
	
Suarez, G., et al. (1995). "The Limon, Costa Rica earthquake of April 22, 1991: Back arc thrusting and collisional tectonics in a subduction environment." Tectonics 14(2): 518-530.
	
Subieta, T., et al. (1988). Tectono-stratigraphic evolution of the Interior Serrania and the Maturín sub-basin (Evolución tectonoestratigráfica de la Serranía del Interior y la subcuenca de Maturín). III Simposio Bolivariano. A. Bellizia, A. L. Escoffery and I. Bass. Caracas, Venezuela, Sociedad Venezolana de Geólogos. 2: 549-578.
	
Suess, E. and R. H. Kesel (1985). "Alluvial fan systems in a wet-tropical environment: Costa Rica." National Geographic Research 1(4): 450-469.
	
Summa, L. L., et al. (2003). "Hydrocarbon systems of Northeastern Venezuela: plate through molecular scale-analysis of the genesis and evolution of the Eastern Venezuela Basin." Marine and Petroleum Geology 20: 323–349.
	The prolific, oil-bearing basins of eastern Venezuela developed through an unusual confluence of Atlantic, Caribbean and Pacific plate tectonic events. Mesozoic rifting and passive margin development created ideal conditions for the deposition of world-class hydrocarbon source rocks. In the Cenozoic, transpressive, west-to-east movement of the Caribbean plate along the northern margin of Venezuela led to the maturation of those source rocks in several extended pulses, directly attributable to regional tectonic events. The combination of these elements with well-developed structural and stratigraphic fairways resulted in remarkably efficient migration of large volumes of oil and gas, which accumulated along the flanks of thick sedimentary depocenters. At least four proven and potential hydrocarbon source rocks contribute to oil and gas accumulations. Cretaceous oil-prone, marine source rocks, and Miocene oil- and gas-prone, paralic source rocks are well documented. We used reservoired oils, seeps, organic-rich rocks, and fluid inclusions to identify probable Jurassic hypersaline-lacustrine, and Albian carbonate source rocks. Hydrocarbon maturation began during the Early Miocene in the present-day Serrania del Interior, as the Caribbean plate moved eastward relative to South America. Large volumes of hydrocarbons expelled during this period were lost due to lack of effective traps and seals. By the Middle Miocene, however, when source rocks from the more recent foredeeps began to mature, reservoir, migration pathways, and topseal were in place. Rapid, tectonically driven burial created the opportunity for unusually efficient migration and trapping of these later-expelled hydrocarbons. The generally eastward migration of broad depocenters across Venezuela was supplemented by local, tectonically induced subsidence. These subsidence patterns and later migration resulted in the mixing of hydrocarbons from different source rocks, and in a complex map pattern of variable oil quality that was further modified by biodegradation, late gas migration, water washing, and subsequent burial. The integration of plate tectonic reconstructions with the history of source rock deposition and maturation provides significant insights into the genesis, evolution, alteration, and demise of Eastern Venezuela hydrocarbon systems. We used this analysis to identify additional play potential associated with probable Jurassic and Albian hydrocarbon source rocks, often overlooked in discussions of Venezuela. The results suggest that oils associated with likely Jurassic source rocks originated in restricted, rift-controlled depressions lying at high angles to the eventual margins of the South Atlantic, and that Albian oils are likely related to carbonate deposition along these margins, post-continental break up. In terms of tectonic history, the inferred Mesozoic rift system is the eastern continuation of the Espino Graben, whose remnant structures underlie both the Serrania del Interior and the Gulf of Paria, where thick evaporite sections have been penetrated. The pattern of basin structure and associated Mesozoic deposition as depicted in the model has important implications for the Mesozoic paleogeography of

Sumner, R. and G. Westbrook (2001). "Mud diapirism in front of the Barbados accretionary wedge: The influence of fracture zones and North America-South America plate motion." Marine and Petroleum Geology 18: 591-613.
	
Sun, X. (2007). Three dimensional inner core anisotropy, lowermost mantle structure, and inner core rotation. Urbana-Champaign, IL, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign: 153.
	Three-dimensional anisotropy of Earth's inner core and the lowermost mantle structures are studied from PKP waves. Using a unique data set of PKP travel times at near antipodal distances, I examine the whole inner core anisotropy and the effect from lowermost mantle heterogeneities. The results show AB-DF residuals for polar paths are consistently larger than those of equatorial paths, and are mainly from DF residuals, thus confirmed AB-DF residuals are from inner core anisotropy. Assuming a uniform cylindrical anisotropy model, the average inner core anisotropy amplitude is ∼2.5%. The equatorial PKP differential travel times, however, can be caused by the lowermost mantle structure. Compressional waves that sample the lowermost mantle west of Central America show a rapid change in travel times of up to 4 s over a distance of 300 km and a change in waveforms. The PKP differential travel times correlate remarkably well with predictions from S-wave tomography. Our modeling suggests a sharp transition in the lowermost mantle from a broad slow region to a broad fast region with a narrow zone of slowest anomaly next to the boundary beneath the Cocos and the Caribbean Plate. The structure may be the result of ponding of ancient subducted Farallon slabs situated near the edge of a thermal and chemical upwelling. Depth and longitudinal dependence of the inner core anisotropy are also investigated. I adopt a pseudo-bending ray tracing method in spherical coordinates [koketsu1998] for PKP DF rays, and use B-spline interpolation in the inversion. Our results show clearly hemispherical and depth dependence of the inner core anisotropy, and suggest a distinct inner inner core (IIC), which is about half radius of the inner core. Further examination of this issue from the corrected residuals at near antipodal distances and from the residual changes vs. distance at equatorial directions show very consistent results, indicating the distinct anisotropy in the IIC is robust. Finally, examinations of systematic earthquake mislocations from P wave double differences show that it couldn't explain the BC-DF time change over years, so the inner core rotation observation is valid.

Supko, P. (1971). "Wisker" crystal cement in a Bahamian rock. Carbonate Cements. O. P. Bricker, Johns Hopkins University Studies of Geology. 19: 143-146.
	
Suriel, C. M. (1985). "Estudio preliminar de foraminiferos de Fort Resolue, El Conde y Doña Ana - Canasta (Preliminary study of the foraminfera of Fort Resolue, El Conde and Doña Ana-Canasta)." Caribaea (Publicacion de Museo Nacional de História Naturál, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic) 1: 1-12.
	
Suriel, C. M. and F. Echavarria (1986). Contribución al estudio de los foraminiferos fosiles (Sarcodina Foraminiferida) del sureste de San Cristobal (Contribution to the study of the fossil foraminifera (Sarcodina Foraminiferida) of the southeast of San Cristobal). Universidád Autonoma de Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic. Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic: 86.
	
Sutch, P. L. (1979). Historic Seismicity of Honduras, 1539-1978. Stanford, CA, Stanford University: 87.
	
Suter, H. H. (1951). The general and economic geology of Trinidad. Colonial Geology and Mineral Resources. London, UK, Her Majesty's Stationary Office: 134 pp.
	
Suter, H. H. (1960). The General and Economic Geology of Trinidad, B.W.I. London, UK, H. M. Stationary Office.
	
Suter, M. (1991). State of stress and active deformation in Mexico and western Central America. Neotectonics of North America. D. B. Slemmons, E. R. Engdahl and D. D. Blackwell. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 1: 401-421.
	
Suter, M. (1999). "Effect of strain rate in the distribution of monogenetic and polygenetic volcanism in the Transmexican volcanic belt: Comment." Geology 27(6): 571.
	
Suter, M., et al. (1995). "The Aljibes Half-graben:  Active extension at the boundary between the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and the Basin and Range Province, Mexico." Geological Society of America Bulletin 107(6): 627-641.
	
Swart, P. K., et al. (2000). Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results, Bahamas Transect; covering Leg 166 of the cruises of the drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution, San Juan, Puerto Rico, to Balboa Harbor, Panama, sites 1003-1009, 17 February-10 April 1996. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. G. Lowe. 166: 213.
	
Sweeney, J. J., et al. (1995). "Chemical kinetic model of hydrocarbon generation, expulsion, and destruction applied to the Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela." AAPG Bulletin - American Association of Petroleum Geologists 79(10): 1515-1532.
	
Sykes, L. R. and M. Ewing (1965). "The seismicity of the Caribbean region." Journal of Geophysical Research 70: 5065-5074.
	
Sykes, L. R., et al. (1982). "Motion of the Caribbean plate during last 7 million years and implications for earlier Cenozoic movements." Journal of Geophysical Research 87(B13): 10656-10676.
	
Szabo, B. J. (1966). Distribution of Barium in Sea Water in the Antillean-Caribbean Region. Department of Geological Sciences. Miami, Florida, University of Miami: ?
	
Taber, S. (1922). "The seismic belt in the Greater Antilles." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 12: 199-219.
	
Taber, S. (1934). "Sierra Maestra of Cuba, part of the northern rim of the Bartlett Trough." Geological Society of America Bulletin 45: 567-620.
	
Taboada, A., Rivera, L., Fuenzalida, A., Cisternas, A., Philip, H., Bijwaard, H., Olaya, J. and Rivera, C. (2000). "Geodynamics of the northern Andes: Subductions and intracontinental deformation (Colombia)." Tectonics 19(5): 787-813.
	
Taboada, A., et al. (2000). "Geodynamics of the Northern Andes: Subductions and intracontinental deformation (Colombia)." Tectonics 19(5): 787-813.
	
Taborda, B. A. (1960). Nuevos Aspectos Paleogeologicos de la Concesion de Mares y Su Importancia en la Acumulacion de Petroleo en los Sedimentos Basales del Terciario (New Paleogeological Aspects of the Concesion de Mares and Their Improtance in the Accumulation of Petroleum in Basal Sediments of the Tertiary), Empresa Colombiana de Petroleos (Bogota, Colombia): ?
	
Taborda, B. A. (1965). Geology of the De Mares Concession.
	
Tada, R., et al. (2003). K/T boundary deposits in the paleo-western Caribbean Basin. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, R. T. Buffler and J. F. Blickwede. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 582-604.
	A  thick, calcareous, clastic megabed of late Maastrichtian age has been known for sometime in western and central Cuba. This megabed was formed in association with the bolide impact at Chicxulub, Yucatan, at the K/T boundary, and is composed of a lower gravity-flow unit and an upper homogenite unit. The lower gravity-flow unit is dominantly composed of calcirudite that was formed because of collapses of the Yucatan, Cuban, and Bahamian platform margins and subsequent accumulation in the lower slope to basin margin environment. The gravity flow probably was triggered by a seismic wave induced by the impact, although a ballistic flow may have triggered collapse in the case of proximal sites (Yucatan margin). The upper homogenite unit is composed of massive and normally graded calcarenite to calcilutite that was formed as a result of large tsunamis associated with the impact and deposited in wider areas in the deeper part of Paleo-western Caribbean basin. Slight grain-size oscillations in this unit probably reflect the influence of repeated tsunamis. The large tsunamis were generated either by the movement of water into and out of the crater cavity or by the large-scale slope failure on the eastern margin of the Yucatan platform. In upper slope to shelf environments, gravity-flow deposits and homogenite are absent, and a thin sandstone complex influenced by repeating tsunami waves was deposited.

Tada, R., et al. (2003). K/T boundary deposits in the paleo-western Caribbean Basin. The circum-Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean; hydrocarbon habitats, basin formation, and plate tectonics. C. Bartolini, R. T. Buffler and J. F. Blickwede. Tulsa, OK, AAPG. 79: 582-604.
	A  thick, calcareous, clastic megabed of late Maastrichtian age has been known for sometime in western and central Cuba. This megabed was formed in association with the bolide impact at Chicxulub, Yucatan, at the K/T boundary, and is composed of a lower gravity-flow unit and an upper homogenite unit. The lower gravity-flow unit is dominantly composed of calcirudite that was formed because of collapses of the Yucatan, Cuban, and Bahamian platform margins and subsequent accumulation in the lower slope to basin margin environment. The gravity flow probably was triggered by a seismic wave induced by the impact, although a ballistic flow may have triggered collapse in the case of proximal sites (Yucatan margin). The upper homogenite unit is composed of massive and normally graded calcarenite to calcilutite that was formed as a result of large tsunamis associated with the impact and deposited in wider areas in the deeper part of Paleo-western Caribbean basin. Slight grain-size oscillations in this unit probably reflect the influence of repeated tsunamis. The large tsunamis were generated either by the movement of water into and out of the crater cavity or by the large-scale slope failure on the eastern margin of the Yucatan platform. In upper slope to shelf environments, gravity-flow deposits and homogenite are absent, and a thin sandstone complex influenced by repeating tsunami waves was deposited.

Taggart, B. E. and J. Joyce (1991). Radiometrically dated marine terraces on northwestern Puerto Rico. Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Laure and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 248-258.
	
Taggert, B. E. (1992). Tectonic and eustatic correlations of radiometrically dated late Quaternary marine terraces on northwestern Puerto Rico and Isla de Mona, Puerto Rico. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico: 252.
	
Tagudin, J. E. (1988). A Correlation Between Fault Vergence, Fault Spacing and Sediment Type in the North Panama Thrust Belt. Santa Cruz, CA, University of California at Santa Cruz: 32.
	
Tajima, F. (1984). "Study of source processes of the 1965, 1968, and 1978 Oaxaca earthquakes using teleseismic short-period records." Journal of Geophysical Research 89: 1867-1873.
	
Tajima, F. (1985). "The 1983 Costa Rica earthquake:  A complex and long-lasting event." Earthquake Notes 55: 14-15.
	
Tajima, F. and M. Kikuchi (1991). "The 1983 and 1991 Costa Rica earthquake:  Complex source processes with mechanism changes." EOS (American Geophysical Union Transactions) 72: 302.
	
Tajima, F. and M. Kikuchi (1995). Tectonic implications of the seismic ruptures associated with the 1983 and 1991 Costa Rica earthquakes. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the Caribbean Plate Boundary in Southern Central America: 327-340.
	
Takayama, H. (1999). Origin of the Penalver Formation in northwestern Cuba and its relation to K/T boundary impact event. Tokyo, Japan, University of Tokyo: 122.
	
Takayama, H., et al. (2000). Origin of the Penalver Formation in northwestern Cuba and its relation to K/T boundary impact event. Seismoturbidites, seismites and tsunamiites. T. Shiki, M. B. Cita and D. S. Gorsline. 135: 295-320.
	
Talavera, F., et al. (1985). "Petrología y geoquímica de las secuencias volcánicas de la región Ciego de Avila-Camagüey-Las Tunas (Petrology and geochemistry of the volcanic sequences of the Ciego de Avila-Camaguey-Las Tunas region)." Acad. Ciencias de Cuba, Inst. Geol. y Paleontología: 83.
	
Talavera-Coronel, F., et al. (1986). "Consideraciones petrológicas sobre las vulcanitas de la región Ciego de Avila-Camagüey-Las Tunas (Cuba) (Petrological considerations on the volcanics of the region Ciego de Avila-Camaguey-Las Tunas (Cuba))." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(11): 47-56.
	
Talavera-Coronel, F., et al. (1986). "Características generales del vulcanismo en la región Ciego de Avila-Camagüey-Las Tunas (General characteristics of volcanism in the region Ciego de Avila-Camagü ey-Las Tunas)." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(11): 15-24.
	
Talavera-Mendoza, O., et al. (2007). "Detrital zircon U/Pb geochronology of southern Guerrero and western Mixteca arc successions (southern Mexico); new insights for the tectonic evolution of southwestern North America during the late Mesozoic." Geological Society of America Bulletin 119(9-10): 1052-1065.
	Late Jurassic-Cretaceous arc-related volcaniclastic rocks from the southern Guerrero and western Mixteca terranes of Mexico were analyzed by U-Pb detrital zircon geochronology (laser ablation-multicollector-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy) to place constraints on the depositional history and provenance of the rocks. Pre-Middle Jurassic basement rocks and sandstone from the Upper Cretaceous Mexcala Formation were also analyzed to define the origin and provenance of the prevolcanic substratum, and the time of accretion of Guerrero composite terrane sequences. Data from the Taxco-Taxco Viejo, Teloloapan, and Arcelia assemblages indicate that the youngest (129-141 Ma) zircon fraction in each sequence was derived from local volcanic sources, whereas older populations (ca. 247-317, 365-459, 530-617, 712-878, 947-964, 1112-1188, 1350-1420, 1842-1929, 2126-2439, and 2709-3438 Ma) show sediment influx from varied sources, most likely through grain recycling. The major zircon clusters in these sequences match the populations recorded in the nearby Acatlan Complex. In contrast, the Huetamo sample is dominated by Lower Cretaceous (ca. 126 Ma) zircons of local volcanic provenance, and the Zihuatanejo sample contains zircon clusters (ca. 259, ca. 579, and ca. 947-1162 Ma) comparable to major populations recorded in the underlying Arteaga Complex. A sample from the Middle Triassic-Middle Jurassic Arteaga Complex at Tzitzio contains zircon clusters (ca. 202-247, ca. 424, ca. 600, ca. 971, and ca. 2877 Ma) consistent with an ultimate derivation from both North American and South American sources. The sample from the Las Ollas suite contains comparable zircon populations (ca. 376-475, ca. 575, ca. 988-1141, and ca. 2642-2724 Ma), and it is interpreted to be part of the prevolcanic basement. In contrast, the youngest zircon cluster (ca. 105 Ma) in the Mexcala Formation coincides with the major volcanic events in the Taxco-Taxco Viejo, Teloloapan, and Arcelia assemblages, whereas the older clusters (ca. 600, ca. 953, ca. 1215, ca. 1913, and ca. 2656-2859 Ma) broadly match the major populations recorded in rocks from the Acatlan Complex. These new data combined with available geochemical and isotopic data indicate that the Taxco-Taxco Viejo arc assemblage developed on continental crust. The Acatlan Complex is the most plausible candidate. The Teloloapan and Arcelia arc assemblages were developed on oceanic crust as offshore arcs facing the Acatlan Complex. The Zihuatanejo terrane assemblages were developed on the Arteaga Complex, and evidence no influence from the Acatlan Complex. This suggests that these assemblages were formed farther away or in a restricted basin. The Guerrero composite and Mixteca arc successions are coeval with the Alisitos arc of northern Mexico and in part with the Nevada and Klamath ranges of the southwestern United States, and with the arc series from the Greater and Lesser Antilles and northern South America. Data indicate that during late Mesozoic time, southwestern North America was a site of intensive volcanism in a complex arc-trench system similar to that of the east Pacific. Our data are consistent with a diachronic accretion of the Guerrero composite terrane sequences, beginning during late Cenomanian time with the amalgamation of the Teloloapan and probably the Arcelia assemblages, and finishing at the end of Cretaceous time with the accretion of the Zihuatanejo terrane assemblages.

Talukdar, S., et al. (1988). "Generation and migration of oil in the Maturín sub-basin, eastern Venezuelan basin." Organic Geochemistry 13: 537-547.
	
Talukdar, S. C., et al. (1990). "Deep oil prospects in Trinidad." Bulletin Houston Geological Society 33(2): 16-19.
	
Talukdar, S. C., et al. (1990). "Geochemistry of oils provides optimism for deeper exploration in Atlantic off Trinidad." Oil and Gas Journal 88(46): 118-120, 122.
	
Talukdar, S. C. and F. Marcano (1994). Petroleum systems of the Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela. Petroleum System - From Source to Trap. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 60: 463-481.
	
Talukder, A. R., et al. (2008). "Tectonic framework of the mud mounds, associated BSRs and submarine landslides, offshore Nicaragua Pacific margin." Journal of the Geological Society of London 165(1): 167-176.
	The regional distribution of mounds, associated bottom-simulating reflectors (BSRs) and submarine landslides of the Pacific margin of Nicaragua suggests a genetic relationship between them. In the landslide-dominated parts of the margin, mud mounds occur in groups upslope behind the scarps and aligned parallel to the headwall. The morphotectonic features associated with the slides suggest that the slope failure could be triggered by slope oversteepening on the trailing flank of subducted seamounts. Geometric analysis of the faults triggering and controlling the mud mounds and associated BSRs also indicates that they were caused by collapses of the uplifted sea floor. Thus we propose a simple conceptual genetic model for the occurrences of the submarine landslides, surrounding mud mounds and associated BSRs in the area. Seamount subduction created locally higher fluid overpressure in the decollement. The uplift and fracturing of the margin wedge above the subducting seamount opened pathways for the overpressured fluid to escape, leading to the formation of numerous mud mounds on the sea floor and the BSR in the subsurface. The higher fluid supply locally reduced the shear strength of the sediments and facilitated failure of these sediments as landslides on the oversteepened slope caused by the subduction of the seamount.

Talwani, M. (1977). Multichannel seismic study in the Venezuelan Basin and the Curaçao Ridge. Island Arcs, Deep Sea Trenches, and Back-arc Basins. M. Talwani and W. C. Pitman, III. Washington, D.C., American Geophysical Union. 1: 83-98.
	
Talwani, M., et al. (1959). "A crustal section across the Puerto Rico Trench." Journal of Geophysical Research 64: 1545-1555.
	
Tardy, M., et al. (1993). "Intra-oceanic settings of the western Mexico Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous arc sequences. Implications for the Pacific-Tethys geodynamic relationships during the Cretaceous." Geodinamica Acta 6(3): 174-185.
	
Tardy, M., et al. (1994). "The Guerrero suspect terrane (western Mexico) and coeval arc terranes (the Greater Antilles and the Western Cordillera of Colombia): a late Mesozoic intra-oceanic arc accreted to cratonal America during the Cretaceous." Tectonophysics 230: 49-73.
	
Tarr, A. C. (1968). The Dispersion of Rayleigh Waves in the Crust and Upper Mantle Under the Western North Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea. University of Pittsburgh, Department of Geology & Planetary Sciences. Pittsburgh, PA: 155.
	
Tator, B. A. and L. E. Hatfield (1975). Bahamas present complex geology. Oil and Gas Journal. 73: 172-176.
	
Tauvers, P. R. and W. R. Muehlberger (1987). "Is the Brunswick Magnetic Anomaly really the Alleghanian suture?" Tectonics 6: 331-342.
	
Tavakoli, B. (2003). Prediction of Strong Ground Motion and Hazard Uncertainties. Sweden, Uppsala Universitet: 27.
	The purpose of this thesis is to provide a detailed description of recent methods and scientific basis for characterizing earthquake sources within a certain region with distinct tectonic environments. The focus will be on those characteristics that are most significant to the ground-shaking hazard and on how we can incorporate our current knowledge into hazard analyses for engineering design purposes. I treat two particular geographical areas where I think current hazard analysis methods are in need of significant improvement, and suggest some approaches that have proven to be effective in past applications elsewhere. A combined hazard procedure is used to estimate seismicity in <italic> northern Central America</italic>, where there appear to be four tectonic environments for modeling the seismogenic sources and in <italic>Iran</italic>, where the large earthquakes usually occur on known faults. A preferred seismic hazard model for northern Central America and the western Caribbean plate based on earthquake catalogs, geodetic measurements, and geological information is presented. I used the widely practiced method of relating seismicity data to geological data to assess the various seismic hazard parameters and test parameter sensitivities. The sensitivity and overall uncertainty in peak ground acceleration (PGA) estimates are calculated for northwestern Iran by using a <italic>specific randomized blocks design</italic>. A Monte Carlo approach is utilized to evaluate the ground motion hazard and its uncertainties in northern Central America. A set of new seismic hazard maps, exhibiting probabilistic values of peak ground acceleration (PGA) with 50%, 10%, and 5% probabilities of exceedance (PE) in 50 years, is presented for the area of relevance. <italic>Disaggregation of seismic hazard</italic> is carried out for cities of San Salvador and Guatemala by using a spatial distribution of epicenters around these sites to select design ground motion for seismic risk decisions. In conclusion, consideration of the effect of parameters such as seismic moment, fault rupture, rupture directivity and stress drop are strongly recommended in estimating the near field ground motions. The rupture process of the 2002 Changureh earthquake (<italic>M<sub>w</sub></italic> = 6.5), Iran, was analyzed by using the <italic>empirical Green's function</italic> (<italic> EGF</italic>) <italic>method</italic>. This method simulates strong ground motions for future large earthquakes at particular sites where no empirical data are available. 

Taylor, F. W. and P. Mann (1991). "Late Quaternary folding of coral reef terraces, Barbados." Geology 19: 103-106.
	
Taylor, F. W., et al. (1985). "Stratigraphy and radioisotopic dating of a subaerially exposed Holocene coral reef, Dominican-Republic." Journal of Geology 93: 311-332.
	
Taylor, G. D. (1975). The Geology of the Limon Area of Costa Rica. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University: 116.
	
Taylor, M. J. (2004). Surviving Utopia A Journey to Ixcán, Guatemala, May 14 to 17, 2004: A field guide prepared for the Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers meeting in Antigua, Guatemala. May 2004.
	
Taylor, R. C. (1852). "Substance of notes made during a geological reconnaissance in the auriferous porphyry region next to the Caribbean Sea in the province of Veraguas and Isthmus of Panama." Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 2: 81-88.
	
Tchounev, D., et al. (1986). "About the presence of tholeitic lavas in the region Guá maro-Las Tunas (Cuba)." Ciencias de la Tierra y el Espacio(11): 3-14.
	
Tchounev, D., et al. (1984). A model of the Cretaceous island arc in central Cuba. Contributions of Bulgarian Geology. K. Khrischev and I. Nachev. Sofia, Bulgarian Geological Society: 117- 125.
	
Tedesco, L. P. and R. C. Aller (1997). "Pb-210 chronology of sequences affected by burrow excavation and infilling: Examples from shallow marine carbonate sediment sequences, Holocene South Florida and Caicos Platform, British West Indies." Journal of Sedimentary Research 67(1): 36-46.
	
Teeter, J. W. and R. J. Bain (1984). Geology Field Trip Workbook - San Salvador, Bahamas. San Salvador, Bahamas, CCFL Bahamian Field Station.
	
Teeter, J. W. and K. L. Tualman (1984). Second Symposium on the Geology of the Bahamas Field Trip to Pigeon Creek. Proceeding of 2nd Symposium on the Geology of the Bahamas, June 16-20: 117-118.
	
Telemaque, C. P. (1990). An evaluation of the geological history and hydrocarbon potential of the late Miocene-? Plio/Pleistocene sediments of the Goudron Field, Trinidad. Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conferencee, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 415-429.
	
Temples, T. J. (1978). Stable Isotope Variations in Foraminifera From Eastern Caribbean Cores: Stratigraphic Implications. Department of Geology. Athens, GA, Department of GeologyUniversity of Georgia: ?
	
ten Brink, U., et al. (1999). Seismic and tsunami hazard in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. San Juan, Puerto Rico, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
ten Brink, U. S., et al. (2002). "The nature of the crust under Cayman Trough from gravity." Marine and Petroleum Geology 19: 971-987.
	
Ten-Brink, U. (2005). "Vertical motions of the Puerto Rico Trench and Puerto Rico and their cause." Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth 110(6): 1-16.
	The Puerto Rico trench exhibits great water depth, an extremely low gravity anomaly, and a tilted carbonate platform between (reconstructed) elevations of +1300 m and -4000 m. I argue that these features are manifestations of large vertical movements of a segment of the Puerto Rico trench, its forearc, and the island of Puerto Rico that took place 3.3 m.y. ago over a time period as short as 14-40 kyr. I explain these vertical movements by a sudden increase in the slab's descent angle that caused the trench to subside and the island to rise. The increased dip could have been caused by shearing or even by a complete tear of the descending North American slab, although the exact nature of this deformation is unknown. The rapid (14-40 kyr) and uniform tilt along a 250 km long section of the trench is compatible with scales of mantle flow and plate bending. The proposed shear zone or tear is inferred from seismic, morphological, and gravity observations to start at the trench at 64.5< degrees >W and trend southwestwardly toward eastern Puerto Rico. The tensile stresses necessary to deform or tear the slab could have been generated by increased curvature of the trench following a counterclockwise rotation of the upper plate and by the subduction of a large seamount.

Tenreyro, R. (1987). "Geologically effective methods for refraction in Cuba." Revista Tecnológica 17(1): 3-8.
	
Tenreyro-Pérez, R., et al. (19??). "Geological-geophysical model of the Varadero-Cardenas area."??? ???: 109-119.
	
Tenreyro-Pérez, R., et al. (1986). "Complex interpretation of geophysical data in the north of Cuba." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 3: 73-87.
	
Termer, F. (1936). "Zur geographie der republik Guatemala (The geography of the Guatemala republic)." Geog. Gesell. Mitt. Hamburg 44: 89-275.
	
Terry, R. A. (1941). "Notes on submarine valleys of the Panamanian coast." Geogogical Review ??? 31(3): 377 - 384.
	
Terry, R. A. (1956). "A geological reconnaissance of Panama." California Academy of Science Occassional Papers 23: 1-91.
	
Testamarck, J. S., et al. (1994). Estilos estructurales del flanco suroriental de la Sierra de Perija (Structural style of the southeast flank of the Sierra de Perija). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 314-316.
	
Testarmata, M. M. and W. A. Gose (1984). A paleomagnetic evaluation of the age of the dolomite from site 536, Leg 77, southeastern Gulf of Mexico. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 77. ??? Washington, D.C, U.S. Government Printing Office. 77: 525-530.
	
Testrepo, J. J. and J. F. Toussaint (1987). "Cuencas de traccion sinistrales en la falla de minas del sistema Cauca-Romeral, en las cercanias de Medillin, Colombia (Left-lateral basins in the mining fault of the Cauca-Romeral system, in the areas of Medillin, Colombia)." Revista Geologica de Chile 31(57-60): South-America,Colombia,tectonic.
	
Thayer, T. P. (1942). "Chrome resources of Cuba." U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 935A: 1-74.
	
Thayer, T. P. and P. W. Guild (1947). "Thrust faults and related structures in eastern Cuba." Transactions, American Geophysical Union 28: 919-930.
	
Thery, J.-M., et al. (1977). "Signification geotectonique de datations radiometriques dans des sondages de Basse Magdalena (Colombie) (Geotectonic significance of radiometric dates within the soundings of Basse Magdalena (Colombia))." Bulletin Des Centres de Recherches Exploration - Production ELF Aquitaine 1(2): 475-494.
	
Thiadens, A. A. (1937). "Geology of the southern part of the province of Santa Clara." Geogr. Geol. Meded., Phys. Geol. Reeks 2( 12): 1-69.
	
Thiadens, A. A. (1937). "Geology of the southern part of the province of Santa Clara (las Villas), Cuba." Geographische en Geologische Mededeelingen.  Physiographisch-Geologische Reeks, Series 2 12: 69.
	
Thom, M. (1976). Geomorphic and structural studies in Hispaniola using LANDSAT and low altitude aerial photographs. Washington, D. C., The George Washington University: 53.
	
Thomas, D. J., et al. (2003). "Neodymium isotopic reconstruction of late Paleocene-early Eocene thermohaline circulation." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 209(3-4): 309-322.
	High-resolution, fish tooth Nd isotopic records for eight Deep Sea Drilling Project and Ocean Drilling Program sites were used to reconstruct the nature of late Paleocene-early Eocene deep-water circulation. The goal of this reconstruction was to test the hypothesis that a change in thermohaline circulation patterns caused the abrupt 4-5< degrees >C warming of deep and bottom waters at the Paleocene/Eocene boundary - the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM) event. The combined set of records indicates a deep-water mass common to the North and South Atlantic, Southern and Indian oceans characterized by mean < epsilon ><inf>Nd</inf> values of < similar-to > -8.7, and different water masses found in the central Pacific Ocean (< epsilon ><inf>Nd</inf> < similar-to > -4.3) and Caribbean Sea (< epsilon ><inf>Nd</inf> < similar-to > 1.2). The geographic pattern of Nd isotopic values before and during the PETM suggests a Southern Ocean deep-water formation site for deep and bottom waters in the Atlantic and Indian ocean basins. The Nd data do not contain evidence for a change in the composition of deep waters prior to the onset of the PETM. This finding is consistent with the pattern of warming established by recently published stable isotope records, suggesting that deep- and bottom-water warming during the PETM was gradual and the consequence of surface-water warming in regions of downwelling.

Thomas, S. (1995). Paleomagnetic studies of Cretaceous-Tertiary rocks in Hispaniola. Germany, University of Köln: 237.
	
Thompson, G., et al. (1980). "Geological and geophysical investigation of the Mid-Cayman Rise spreading center: Geochemical variation and petrogenesis of basalt glasses." Journal of Geology 88: 41-55.
	
Thompson, M. L. and A. K. Miller (1944). "The Permian of southernmost Mexico and its fusulinid fauna." Journal of Paleontology 18: 481-504.
	
Thompson, N. R. (1973). The Economic Geography of the Mining Industry of Honduras, Central America. Knoxville, TN, University of Tennessee: 165.
	
Thompson, P. M. E., et al. (2004). "Hf-Nd isotope constraints on the origin of the Cretaceous Caribbean plateau and its relationship to the Galapagos plume." Earth-and-Planetary-Science-Letters 217(1-2): 59-75.
	Formation of the Cretaceous Caribbean plateau, including the komatiites of Gorgona, has been linked to the currently active Galapagos hotspot. We use Hf-Nd isotopes and trace element data to characterise both the Caribbean plateau and the Galapagos hotspot, and to investigate the relationship between them. Four geochemical components are identified in the Galapagos mantle plume: Two 'enriched' components with < epsilon > Hf and < epsilon > Nd similar to enriched components observed in other mantle plumes, one moderately enriched component with high Nb/Y, and a fourth component which most likely represents depleted MORB source mantle. The Caribbean plateau basalt data form a linear array in Hf-Nd isotope space, consistent with mixing between two mantle components. Combined Hf-Nd-Pb-Sr-He isotope and trace element data from this study and the literature suggest that the more enriched Caribbean end member corresponds to one or both of the enriched components identified on Galapagos. Likewise, the depleted end member of the array is geochemically indistinguishable from MORB and corresponds to the depleted component of the Galapagos system. Enriched basalts from Gorgona partially overlap with the Caribbean plateau array in < epsilon >Hf vs. < epsilon >Nd, whereas depleted basalts, picrites and komatiites from Gorgona have a high < epsilon >Hf for a given < epsilon >Nd, defining a high-< epsilon >Hf depleted end member that is not observed elsewhere within the Caribbean plateau sequences. This component is similar, however, in terms of Hf-Nd-Pb-He isotopes and trace elements to the depleted plume component recognised in basalts from Iceland and along the Reykjanes Ridge. We suggest that the Caribbean plateau represents the initial outpourings of the ancestral Galapagos plume. Absence of a moderately enriched, high Nb/Y component in the older Caribbean plateau (but found today on the island of Floreana) is either due to changing source compositions of the plume over its 90 Ma history, or is an artifact of limited sampling. The high- < epsilon > Hf depleted component sampled by the Gorgona komatiites and depleted basalts is unique to Gorgona and is not found in the Caribbean plateau. This may be an indication of the scale of heterogeneity of the Caribbean plateau system; alternatively Gorgona may represent a separate oceanic plateau derived from a completely different Pacific plume, such as the Sala y Gomez.

Thompson, P. M. E., et al. (1999). The association between island arcs, tonalitic batholiths and oceanic plateaux in the Netherlands Antilles: Implications for continental growth. International Symposium for Andean Geodynamics. IRD, Gottingen, German.
	
Thompson, P. R. (1982). Foraminifers of the Middle America Trench. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 67. ??? Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. 67: 351-381.
	
Thrasher, J., et al. (1996). Surface geochemistry as an exploration tool in the South Caribbean. Hydrocarbon migration and its near-surface expression. D. Schumacher and M. A. Abrams. Tulsa, AAPG. 66: 373-384.
	
Tibaldi, A. and L. Ferrari (1992). "Latest Pleistocene-Holocene tectonics of the Ecuadorian Andes." Tectonophysics 205: 109-125.
	
Tibuleac, I. M. and E. Herrin (1999). "Lower mantle lateral heterogeneity beneath the Caribbean Sea." Science 285(5434): 1711-1715.
	
Tijomirov, I. N. (1967). "Formaciones magmáticas de Cuba y algunas particularidades de su metalogénia (Magmatic formations of Cuba and some particularities of its metalogeny)." Revista Tecnológica 5(4): 13-22.
	
Tijomirov, I. N., et al. (1968). "Magmatismo y metalogénia de Cuba (Magmatism and metalogeny of Cuba)." Fondo Geológico Nacional, La Habana.
	
Tijormirov, I. N. (1967). "Magmatic formations in Cuba and their metalogenic particularities." Revista Tecnológica 5(4): 13-22.
	
Tilander, N. F. and C. F. Kluth (1994). Lateral extensional faulting in Tertiary piggy-back basins and foredeeps along the southern Trinidad fold-thrust belt. Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 264  ???
	
Timofeyev, P. P. (1990). Geotermal'naya aktivnost' i osadochnyy protsess v Karibsko-Meksikanskom regione (Geothermal activity and sedimentary processes of the Caribbean-Mexican region). Moskva, Trudy Geologicheskiy Institut.
	
Tinkle, A. (1981). Sediment Velocity Structure of the Yucatan Basin, Caribbean Sea, from Conventional CDP Seismic Data. College Station, TX, Texas A&M University: 235.
	
Tiratsoo, E. N. (1984). Oil Fields of the World, 3rd. Ed. Beaconsfield, Scientific Press Ltd.
	
Tobisch, O. T. and Turner (???). Geologic map of the San Sabastian Quadrangle, Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Tocco, R., et al. (1994). "Organic Geochemistry of the Carapita Formation and Terrestrial Crude Oils in the Maturin Subbasin, Eastern Venezuelan Basin." Organic Geochemistry 21(10-11): 1107-1119.
	
Tocco, R., et al. (1995). "Geochemistry of oil seeps and rock samples of the Early Tertiary section from the Northandean Flank of the Venezuelan Andes." Organic Geochemistry 23(4): 311-327.
	
Tocco, R. and A. Margarita (1999). "Geochemical study of Misoa Formation crude oils, Centro Lago Field, Lake Maracaibo, Western Venezuelan Basin." Marine and Petroleum Geology 16(2): 135-150.
	
Todd, R. and D. Low (1979). Smaller foraminifera from deep wells on Puerto Rico and St. Croix, U.S. Geological Survey. 863: 1-32.
	
Todd, R. and D. Low (1979). Smaller Foraminifera From Deep Wells on Puerto Rico and St. Croix. Washington, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey.
	
Tolkunov, A. Y. and R. Cabrera (1972). "Characteristics of the geology and metallogeny of the mineralized regions of Las Villas and Oriente." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 7.
	
Toloczyki, M. and I. Ramirez (1991). Mapa Geologica de la Republica Dominicana, 1:250,000, Ministerio de la Industria y Comerecio, Dirección General de Minería, .
	
Tomblin, J. F. (1968). St. Lucia. Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, 28 March-12 April 1965. J. B. Saunders: 451-?
	
Tomblin, J. F. (1975). The Lesser-Antilles and the Aves Ridge. The Ocean Basins and Margins, Volume 3:  The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. A. E. M. Nairn and F. G. Stehli. New York, Plenum Press. 3: 467-500.
	
Tomblin, J. M. and G. R. Robson (1977). A catalogue of felt earthquakes for Jamaica with references to other islands in the Greater Antilles. Kingston, Jamaica, Mines and Geology Division, Ministry of Mining and Natural Resources, Jamaica.
	
Tongpenyai, B. and B. Jones (1991). "Application of image analysis for delineating modern carbonate facies changes through time:  Grand Cayman, western Caribbean Sea." Marine Geology 96(1/2): 85-101.
	
Toro, M., et al. (1994). Ambientes sedimentarios y distribucion de porosidad y permeabilidad de las formaciones mirador y carbonera en la region de lobatera, edo. Tachira, Venezuela (Surrounding sediments and distribution of porosity and permiability of the formations "mirador" and coalmine in the region of "lobatera", "edo." Tachira, Venezuela). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 207-209.
	
Torrez, M. and E. Fonseca (1990). "Caracteristicas geologicas, petrologicas del contacto entre la asociacion ofilitica y el arco volcanico en Moa- Barocoa (Geologic, petrologic characteristics of the contact between the ophiolite association and arc volcanics in Moa-Barocoa)." Boletin de Geociencias, Centro Universitario de Pinar del Rio 1: 12-19.
	
Torrini, R. E., Jr. (1985). The Structural and Stratigraphic History of the Oceanic Beds of Barbados: Implications for Forearc Basin/Structural High Tectonics, Northwestern University: 233.
	Multichannel seismic reflection profiles reveal that Cenozoic strata on the oceanward flank of the Tobago Trough forearc basin in the Lesser Antilles arc system occupy a deformed, oceanward-thinning wedge, here called the inner forearc deformation belt (IFDB). The IFDB is bounded on the east by the structural high of the accretionary prism and on the west by the inner deformation front, an arcward-verging fold-fault system. The eastern portion of the IFDB is characterized by oceanward-verging folds and thrusts in duplexes or imbricate fans. Mud diapirs occur along a NE-trending chain. Low-angle normal faults are common where local tectonic or diapiric steepening of the slope has occurred. Coupling of E-W (arc-normal) and N-S (arc-parallel) contractions has resulted in basin and dome interference patterns within the IFDB. Barbados Island exposes the structural high of the accretionary prism and an overlying cover of mainly calcareous pelagic and volcano-genic, Eocene-Miocene strata called the Oceanic beds. The Oceanic beds occupy a pre-Pleistocene nappe complex and are underlain by a major sole thrust, the sub-Oceanic fault zone (SOFZ). Sequences and orientations of structures reveal generally easterly transport of Oceanic nappes and upward younging of nappe emplacement, indicating that the deformation front propagated westward. Pre- and post-nappe folds record N-S shortening, consistent with folded accretionary strata on Barbados and with deformed forearc basin strata in the eastern most IFDB in the offshore. The Oceanic beds are interpreted as trapped outer forearc basin strata that have been tectonically shouldered by the arcward migrating prism flank or crest. A minimum of 25 km of arc-normal contraction has occurred across the IFDB. N-S (arc-parallel) contraction may be related to the collision of the Lesser Antilles arc system with the South American plate. Paleobathymetric data from the Oceanic beds of Barbados indicate that the structural high existed by middle Miocene time. Major contraction and uplift of outer forearc basin strata probably began in middle Miocene time. Contraction was episodic and may be ongoing. The forearc basin depocenter remained approximately constant. The basin became increasingly asymmetric with time.

Torrini, R. J. and R. Speed (1989). "Tectonic wedging in the forearc basin-accretionary prism transition, Lesser-Antilles forearc." Journal of Geophysical Research 94: 10549-10584.
	
Toscano, M. A. and J. Lundberg (1998). "Early Holocene sea-level record from submerged fossil reefs on the Southeast Florida margin." Geology 26(3): 255-258.
	
Toto, E. A. and J. N. Kellogg (1992). "Structure of the Sinu-San Jacinto fold belt: An active accretionary prism in northern Colombia." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 5: 211-222.
	
Toula, F. (1909). "Eine jungetertiäre fauna von Gatún am Panama-Kanal (Some early Tertiary fauna of Gatun, Panama Canal)." Kaiserlich-königlichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt, Jahrbuch 58: 673-760.
	
Toula, F. (1911). "Eine jungetertiäre fauna von Gatún am Panama-Kanal  (Some early Tertiary fauna of Gatun, Panama Canal)." Kaiserlich-königlichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt, Jahrbuch 59: 487-530.
	
Tournon, J. (1972). "Presence de basaltes alcalins recente au Costa Rica (Amerique Central) (Presence of Recent alkalin basalts in Costa Rica (Central America)." Bulletin Volcanologique 36: 140-147.
	
Tournon, J. (1984). Magmatismes du Mesozoique a L'actuel en Amerique Centrale: L'exemple de Costa Rica, des Ophiolites aux Andesites (Mesozoic to Recent Magmatisms in Central America: The Example of Costa Rica, Ophiolites in Andesites). Paris, France, Universite Pierre et Marie Curie: 335.
	
Tournon, J. and J. Azéma (???). "Sobre la estructura del macizo ultrabasico de Santa Elena (provincia de Guanacaste, Costa Rica) (On the structure of the ultrabasic massif of Santa Elena (Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica)."??? ???: 17-54.
	
Tournon, J., et al. (1995). "The Rio San Juan peridotites (Nicaragua Costa Rica): A possible landmark an E-W trending ultramafic suture zone in south Central America." Comptes Rendus de L Academie Des Sciences Serie II 320(8 Part 2): 757-764.
	
Tournon, J., et al. (1989). "Amphibolites from Panama: Anti-clockwise P-T paths from a pre-Upper Cretaceous basement in the isthmian Central America." Journal of Metamorphic Petrology 7: 539-546.
	
Toussaint, J. F. (1978). "Grandes rasgos geologicos de la parte septentrional del occidente Colombiano (Great geologic features of the septentrional part of the western Colombiano)." Medellin, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Boletin de Ciencias de la Tierra 3: 231.
	
Toussaint, J. F. and J. J. Restrepo (1982). "Magmatic evolution of the northwestern Andes of Colombia." Earth Science Reviews 18: 205-213.
	
Toussaint, J. F. and J. J. Restrepo (1987). "Limites de placas y acortamientos recientes entre los paralelos 5°N y 8°N, Andes Colombianos (Plate boundaries and recent markings between the parallels 5°N and 8°N, Colombian Andes)." Revista Geologica de Chile 31: 95-100.
	
Toussaint, J.-F. and J. J. Restrepo (1994). The Colombian Andes during Cretaceous times. Cretaceous Tectonics in the Andes. J. A. Salfity. Vieweg, Braunschweig, Earth Evolution Sciences: 61- 100.
	
Traineau, H., et al. (1994). "Mont Pelee Volcano, Martinique: Its evolution and recent activity." Chishitsu News 1994(11): 15-25.
	
Treadgold, G. E. (1975). Modelling and Interpretation of the Oceanic Crustal Structure North of the Puerto Rico Trench. Austin, Texas, The University of Texas at Austin: 190.
	
Trechmann, C. T. (1922). "The Cretaceous and Tertiary question in Jamaica." Geological  Magazine 59: 422- 431.
	
Trechmann, C. T. (1924). "The carbonaceous shale of Richmond Formation of Jamaica." Geological Magazine 61: 2-19.
	
Trechmann, C. T. (1924). "The Carbonaceous shale or Richmond formation of Jamaica." Geologic Magazine 61: 2-19.
	
Trechmann, C. T. (1927). "The Cretaceous shales of Jamaica." Geological  Magazine 64: 27-42, 49-65.
	
Trechmann, C. T. (1930). "The Manchioneal beds of Jamaica." Geological Magazine 67: 199-218.
	
Trechmann, C. T. (1935). "Fossils from the Northern Range of Trinidad." Geological Magazine 72: 166-175.
	
Trechmann, C. T. (1936). "The basal complex question in Jamaica." Geological Magazine 73: 251-267.
	
Trechmann, C. T. (1942). "Metasomatism and intrusion in Jamaica." Geological Magazine 79: 161-178.
	
Trechmann, C. T. (1943). "Tertiary and Quaternary beds of Tobago, West Indies." Geology Magazine 71: 481-493.
	
Trenkamp, R., Kellogg, J., Freymueller, J. and Mora, H. (2002). "Wide plate margin deformation, southern Central America and northwestern South America, CASA GPS observations." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 15: 151-171.
	
Trenkamp, R., et al. (2002). "Wide plate margin deformation, southern Central America and northwestern South America, CASA GPS observations." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 15(2): 157-171.
	
Trenkamp, R. A. (2003). Interplate Strain, Wide Plate Margin Deformation, Intraplate Strain: The GPS Analysis Spectrum, University of South Carolina: 122.
	Global Positioning System (GPS) data from southern Central America and northwestern South America collected during 1991, 1994, 1996, and 1998 reveal wide plate boundary deformation and escape tectonics occurring along an 1400 km length of the North Andes; locking of the subducting Nazca plate, strain accumulation in the Ecuador-Colombia forearc; ongoing collision of the Panama arc and Colombia; and convergence of the Caribbean plate with Panama and South America. Elastic modeling of observed horizontal displacements in the Ecuador forearc is consistent with partial locking (50%) in the subduction zone and partial transfer of motion to the overriding South American plate. The deformation is hypothesized to reflect elastic recoverable strain accumulation associated with the historic seismicity of the area and active faulting associated with permanent shortening of 6 mm/a. Deformation associated with the Panama-Colombia collision is consistent with elastic strain accumulation on a fully locked Atrato-Uraba Fault Zone suture. On August 4, 1998, a magnitude M<italic><sub>w</sub></italic> = 7.1 earthquake occurred near Bahia Caraquez, Ecuador. Prior to the earthquake, geodetic control had been established during a GPS survey carried out throughout central and northern Ecuador. GPS measurements are consistent with slip on an &sim;40 x 30 km section of the subducting Nazca plate and a complete release of the strain that has accummulated on that section since the 1942 event. Repeat occupations of the 1998 and 1999 sites in 2001 suggest a volume undergoing near-field and far-field post-seismic relaxation/after-slip. Recent reoccupation of a 20 station grid near the location of current seismicity (the inferred location of the 1886 Charleston earthquake) have refined and are consistent with the previous shear strain calculations and suggest an average shear strain rate over the area that is at least an order of magnitude higher than the average intraplate strain rate for the eastern North American Plate. Further, subnet strain analysis suggests that the higher strained areas within the study area coincide with the regions of current seismicity and span the area of inferred seismogenic structures and the orientation is consistent with S<italic><sub>H</sub></italic>max. 

Trias, J. L. (1991). Marine Geologic Map of the Puerto Rico Insular Shelf; Guanica to Ponce Area, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
Triffleman, N. J., et al. (1992). "Morphology, sediments, and depositional environments of a small carbonate platform: Serranilla Bank, Nicaraguan Rise, Southwest Caribbean Sea." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 62(4): 591-606.
	
Triffleman, N. J., et al. (1991). "Distribution of foraminiferal tests in sediments of Serranilla Bank, Nicaraguan Rise, southwestern Caribbean." Journal of Foraminiferal Research 21(1): 39-47.
	
Trifflemann, N. J. (1989). Morphology, Sediments, and Depositional Environments of a Partially Drowned Carbonate Platform: Serranilla Bank—Southwest Caribbean Sea. St. Petersburg, FL, University of South Florida: 118.
	
Trifflemann, N. J., et al. (1992). "Morphology, sediments, and depositional environments of a partially drowned carbonate platform: Serranilla Bank-southwest Caribbean Sea." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 62: 591-566.
	
Trombley, R. B. (2002). An improved statistical long-range volcano eruption forecasting programme, "Eruption" Pro 9.6. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 257-268.
	
Truchan, M. and R. L. Larson (1973). "Tectonic lineaments on the Cocos Plate." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 17: 46-432.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Barrio Zambumbia Traverse (Geologic Memorandum PT-18). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 1.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Caguaguas - Quemado de Guines Traverse (Geologic Memorandum PT-14). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Caibarien-Rojas Railroad and San Felipe Quarry Traverses (Geologic Memorandum PT-11). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Canada de San Pedro Traverse (Geologic Memorandum PT-13). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Central Resolucion - Lutgardita, Las Villas Province (Geologic Memorandum PT-16). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 1.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Geology of a Traverse Across the Sierra de Jatibonico from Florencia to Mabuya Station (Piedras), Camaguey (Geologic Memorandum PT-6). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Geology of the Chambas - Tamarindo Road, Camaguey (Geologic Memorandum PT-7). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Geology of the Finca Alunado Area, Las Villas Province (Geologic Memorandum PT-5). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Geology of the Mayajigua - Los Ramos Traverse, Las Villas Province (Geologic Memorandum PT-4). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Geology of the Mayajigua - Perea Traverse, Las Villas Province (Geologic Memorandum PT-3). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Geology of the Rio Guani and Rio Vinas Areas, Las Villas Province (Geologic Memorandum PT-2). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Geology of the Rio Sagua de Chica Area, Las Villas Province (Geologic Memorandum PT-1). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Loma de Yeso, Punta Alegre, Camaguey Province (Geologic Memorandum PT-9). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Loma Margarita Traverse (Geologic Memorandum PT-15). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Ramona - Sabanilla Traverse (Geologic Memorandum PT-17). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Reconnaissance Survey of Igneous Area South of the Sierra de Jatibonico (Geologic Memorandum PT-8). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Rio Camaco Traverse (Geologic Memorandum PT-12). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Traverse, Remedios - North (Geologic Memorandum PT-10). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1952). Via Verde - San Jose Traverse (Geologic Memorandum PT-19). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1953). Geology of Santa Clara -Calabazar - Camajuani - Placetas Area (Geologic Memorandum PT-21). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: ???
	
Truitt, P. B. (1953). Iguara - Arroyo Blanco Area (Geologic Memorandum PT-28). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: ???
	
Truitt, P. B. (1953). Petrographic Study of Jarahueca Igneous Rocks (Geologic Memorandum PT-23). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 5.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1953). Placetas - Fomento Roadtraverse (Geologic Memorandum PT-25). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1953). Reconnaissance of Igneous Rock Areas of Placetas Region (Geologic Memorandum PT-24). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: ???
	
Truitt, P. B. (1953). Reconnaissance of Placetas - Jarahueca area; Semi-detail of Jarahueca area (Geologic Memorandum PT-22). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: ???
	
Truitt, P. B. (1953). Reconnaissance of Sta. Clara - Calabazar - Camajuani - Placetas Area (Geologic Memorandum PT-20). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: ???
	
Truitt, P. B. (1954). Geology of the Sierra Morena - Motembo Oil Field Region, NE Las Villas (Geologic Memorandum PT-30). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: ???
	
Truitt, P. B. (1954). Mapping in the Placetas Area (Geologic Memorandum PT-29). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1954). Reconnaissance of the Placetas - Mabujina area (Geologic Memorandum PT-26). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: ???
	
Truitt, P. B. (1955). Geology of Corojo - Florida - Magarabomba area, Camaguey Province (Geologic Memorandum PT-35). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: ???
	
Truitt, P. B. (1955). Geology of Loma Cunagua, Camaguey Province (Geologic Memorandum PT-36). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1955). Geology of the Placetas - Central Fidencia Area (Geologic Memorandum PT-33). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1955). Geology of the Placetas -Fidencia area (Geologic Memorandum PT-42). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1955). Geology of the Punta Alegre - Cayo Coco - Turiguano Area (Geologic Memorandum PT-34). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 16.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1955). Geology of the Sancti Spiritus - Tamarindo - Ciego de Avila - Gaspar - Central Violeta Area (Geologic Memorandum PT-???). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: ???
	
Truitt, P. B. (1955). Jatibonico Oil Field - Structure. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 5.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1955). New Location - Kewanee Second Jarahueca Deep Test (Geologic Memorandum PT-39). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1955). Reconnaissance of Manacas - Quemado de Guines Area (Geologic Memorandum PT-32). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1955). Review of Jatibonico - Sancti Spiritus Tertiary Basin Oil Possibilities (Geologic Memorandum PT-40). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1956). Geology of Pinar del Rio and Isla de Pinos, Cuba (Geological Memorandum PT-48). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 50.
	
Truitt, P. B. (1956). PreTertiary Stratigraphy of Northern Las Villas Province and Northwestern Camaguey Province, Cuba (Geologic Memorandum PT-47). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 6.
	
Trump, G. W. and A. Salvador (1964). Guidebook to the Geology of Western Táchira. Caracas, Venezuela, Venezuelan Association of Geology, Mining, and Petroleum.
	
Trumpy, D. (1943). "Pre-Cretaceous of Colombia." Geological Society of America Bulletin 54(9): 1281-1304.
	
Tschanz, C. M., et al. (1974). "Geologic evolution of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, northeastern Colombia." Geological Society of America Bulletin 85: 273-284.
	
Tschanz, C. M., et al. (1974). "Geologic evolution of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, northeastern Colombia." Geological Society of America Bulletin 85(2): 273-284.
	
Tschanz, C. M., et al. (1974). "Geologic evolution of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, northeastern Colombia." Geoplogical Society of America Bulletin 85: 273-284.
	
Tuitjer, E. (2003). The depositional history of the Plio-Pleistocene (Glob. alt.) interval; central and eastern Gulf of Mexico. Dept. of Geological Sciences. Austin, University of Texas at Austin.
	
Turner, H. L., III, et al. (2007). "Kinematics of the Nicaraguan forearc from GPS geodesy." Geophysical Research Letters 34(2).
	
Turner, S., et al. (1996). "U-series isotopes and destructive plate margin magma genesis in the Lesser Antilles." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 142(1-2): 191-207.
	
Tuttle, M. P., et al. (2005). Liquefaction induced by historic and prehistoric earthquakes in western Puerto Rico. Active Tectonics and Seismic Hazards of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Offshore Areas. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 385: 263–276.
	
Tuttle, M. P., et al. (2003). "Late Holocene liquefaction features in the Dominican Republic: A powerful tool for earthquake hazard assessment in the northeastern Caribbean." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 93(1): 27-46.
	Several generations of sand blows and sand dikes, indicative of significant and recurrent liquefaction, are preserved in the late Holocene alluvial deposits of the Cibao Valley in northern Dominican Republic. The Cibao Valley is structurally controlled by the Septentrional fault, an onshore section of the North American-Caribbean strike-slip plate boundary. The Septentrional fault was previously studied in the central part of the valley, where it sinistrally offsets Holocene terrace risers and soil horizons. In the eastern and western parts of the valley, the Septentrional fault is buried by Holocene alluvial deposits, making direct study of the structure difficult. Liquefaction features that formed in these Holocene deposits as a result of strong ground shaking provide a record of earthquakes in these areas. Liquefaction features in the eastern Cibao Valley indicate that at least one historic earthquake, probably the moment magnitude, M 8, 4 August 1946 event, and two to four prehistoric earthquakes of M 7 to 8 struck this area during the past 1100 yr. The prehistoric earthquakes appear to cluster in time and could have resulted from rupture of the central and eastern sections of the Septentrional fault circa A.D. 1200. Liquefaction features in the western Cibao Valley indicate that one historic earthquake, probably the M 8, 7 May 1842 event, and two prehistoric earthquakes of M 7-8 struck this area during the past 1600 yr. Our findings suggest that rupture of the Septentrional fault circa A.D. 1200 may have extended beyond the central Cibao Valley and generated an earthquake of M 8. Additional information regarding the age and size distribution of liquefaction features is needed to reconstruct the prehistoric earthquake history of Hispaniola and to define the long-term behavior and earthquake potential of faults associated with the North American-Caribbean plate boundary.

Twichell, D., et al. (1998). GLORIA sidescan sonar field data and navigation data collected off Puerto Rico in 1985 and the Eastern United States in 1987. Open-File Report - U. S. Geological Survey: (1 disc).
	
Twichell, D. C., et al. (1993). CD-ROM atlas of the deepwater parts of the U. S. Exclusive Economic Zone in the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the eastern Caribbean Sea. ???, U. S. Geological Surve: ???
	
Twidale, C., et al. (1991). "Disloged blocks." Rev. Géom. Dyn. 40: 119-129.
	
Tyburski, S. A. (1992). Deformational Mechanisms Along Active Strike-Slip Faults: SeaMARC II and Seismic Data from the North America-Caribbean Plate Boundary. Austin,  TX, University of Texas at Austin: 194.
	
Tyson, L. (1989). "Structural features associated with the Los Bajos fault and their interpretation in light of current theories of strike-slip tectonics." Transactions of the 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, U. S. Virgin Islands: 403-414.
	
Tyson, L. (1990). Structural features associated with the Los Bajos fault and their interpretation in the light of current theories of strike-slip tectonics. Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 403-414.
	
Tyson, L. (1991). Cretaceous to Middle Miocene sediments in Trinidad. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Tyson, L. (2001). Cretaceous to Middle Miocene Sediments In Trinidad - Field Trip Guide. Transactions of the 2nd Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad. K. A. Gillezeau: 266-?
	
Tyson, L. and W. Ali (1990). "Cretaceous to Middle Miocene sediments in Trinidad." Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago, Port of Spain, Trinidad: 266-277.
	
Tyson, L., et al. (1991). Middle Miocene tectonics and its effects on late Miocene sedimentation in Trinidad. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of-Spain, April 3-8, 1990. K. A. Gillezeau. San Fernando, Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago. 2: 26-40.
	
Tzankov, T., et al. (1989). "Particularidades estructurales fundamentales del arco volcánico cretácico en Cuba Central (Fundamental structural particularities of the Cretaceous volcanic arc in Central Cuba)." Resúmenes y Programa del Primer Congreso Cubano de Geología: 87.
	
U. S. Geological Survey (1974). Caribbean Region (Hydrologic Unit Maps). Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
U. S. Geological Survey (1988). Codes for the identification of hydrologic units in the United States and the Caribbean outlying areas, U.S. Geological Survey: C1-C8.
	
U. S. Geological Survey (1988). A U. S. Geological Survey Data Standard:  Codes for the Identification of Hydrologic Units in the United States and the Caribbean Outlying Areas. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey: A1-A115.
	
U.S. Army Map Service (AMPV) (1959). Topographic Map of Panama. E762 series. Washington D.C., Direccion de Cartografia de Panama; Inter American Geodetic Survey; Army Map Service of the U.S.
	
U.S. Geological Survey (1981). Index to Water Data Acquisition: Region 21, Caribbean, 1980. Catalog, U.S. Geological Survey: 47.
	
U.S. Geological Survey (2000). Digitized aeromagnetic datasets for the conterminous United States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. Reston, VA, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
U.S. Navy Surveys staff (1981). Panama-South Coast. Washington, D.C., Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic/Topographic Center; Washington, D.C., 20315.
	
Uchupi, E. (1967). Bathymetry of the Gulf of Mexico. Transcripts Gulf Coast Association Geological Society. 17: 161-172.
	
Uchupi, E. (1968). Map showing relatial of land and submarine topography, Mississippi Delta to Bahia de Campeche., United States Geological Survey: 2.
	
Uchupi, E. (1973). "The continental margin off eastern Yucatan and western Caribbean tectonics." American Association of Petroleum Geologists 57: 1074-1085.
	
Uchupi, E. (1973). "Eastern Yucatan continental margin and western Caribbean tectonics." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 57: 1075-1085.
	
Uchupi, E. (1975). The physiography of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. A. E. M. Nairn and F. G. Stehli. New York, Plenum Press. 3: 1-64.
	
Uchupi, E. and K. O. Emery (1968). "Structure of continental margin off Gulf Coast of United States." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 52: 1162-1193.
	
Uchupi, E., et al. (1971). "Structure and origin of southern Bahamas." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 55: 687-704.
	
Ulloa, C. and E. Rodriguez (1979). "Geologia del cuadrangulo K-12 Guateque (Geology of the K-12 Guateque quadrangle)." Boletin Geologico, INGEOMINAS, Bogota (Colombia) 22: 1-84.
	
Ulloa, C. E. and E. Rodriguez (1976). Mapa Geologico Plancha 211-Tauramena (1:100,000), Colombia Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Mineras.
	
Ulloa, C. E. and E. Rodriguez (1978). Mapa Geologico Plancha 170 (1:100,000), Colombia Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Mineras.
	
Ulloa, C. E., et al. (1973). Mapa Geologico Plancha 192 (1:100,000), Colombia Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Mineras.
	
Ulloa, C. E., et al. (1973). Mapa Geologico Plancha 172-Paz del Rio (1:100,000), Colombia Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Geologico-Mineras.
	
Ulloa-Chaverri, F. (1977). Aspects of the eastern part of the Santa Elena Peninsula (from Cuajiniquil to Santa Rosa from the Guanacaste intersection). Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 76.
	
Umhoefer, P. (2003). A model for the North America Cordillera in the Early Cretaceous: Tectonic escape related to arc collision of the Guerrero terrane and a change in North America plate motion. Special Paper. S. E. Johnson, S. R. Paterson, J. M. Fletcher et al. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America (GSA). 374: 117–134.
	
UNDP (1972). Invesigación de los Recursos Minerales en Areas Seleccionadas, Honduras: Geología de la Región Noroeste de Honduras (Investigation of Mineral Resources in Selected Areas: The Geology of the Northeast Region of Honduras). New York, United Nations Development Program: 28.
	
UNEP (1982). Development and Environment in the Wider Caribbean Region:  A Synthesis. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies. Geneva, Switzerland, United Nations Environment Program. 14: 41.
	
Unger, L. M., et al. (2005). Geochemical evidence for island arc origin of the Villa de Cura blueschist belt, Venezuela. Caribbean-South American plate interactions, Venezuela. H. G. Ave Lallemant and V. B. Sisson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 94: 223-249.
	
Union Oil Company (1955). Geologic Map - Senosri Hills Area, Panama. Panama, Union Oil Company.
	
United Nations (1986). Water Resources Legislation and Administration in Selected Caribbean Countries. New York, NY, United Nations.
	
United Nations Development Program (1972). Mineral Survey of Eastern Panama, United Nations. 1-4.
	
United States Geological Survey (1967). Geological Survey Research 1967: Oceanic Islands:  Geology of Swan Island.
	
Unruh, J. R., et al. (1991). "Tectonic wedging beneath fore-arc basins: Ancient and modern examples from California and Lesser Antilles." GSA Today 1(9): ?
	
Urbani, F., et al. (2005). Cordillera de la Costa, Venezuela: Geological Field Trip, FUNVISIS 2005 Annual Meeting of the Projects: Southeast Caribbean Continental Dynamics Project: BOLÍVAR
(Broadband Ocean-Land Investigation of Venezuela and the Antilles arc Region) and GEODINOS (Geodinámica del Norte de Suramérica) Colonia Tovar, Aragua State, Venezuela October 8-11, 2005.
	
Urish, C. L. (1976). Microfloral Borers in Recent Caribbean Scleractinian Corals. Department of Geology & Geophysics. Houston, TX, Rice University: ?
	
Urish, D. W. (1991). Hydrogeology of Caribbean coral reef islands. Coastlines of the Caribbeanan. G. Chambers. Funabashi, Japan, Nihon University: 136-148.
	
Urrutia-Fucugauchi, J., et al. (1998). "Rock-magnetic properties of the Cretaceous/Tertiary Micara Formation in the Guantanamo area, eastern Cuba." Geofisica Internacional 37(4): 253-262.
	
Urrutia-Fucugauchi, J. and J. Rosas-Elguera (1994). "Paleomagnetic study of the eastern sector of Chapala Lake and implications for the tectonics of west-central Mexico." Tectonophysics 239(1-4): 61-71.
	Western Mexico is characterized by several large-scale tectonic depressions which have been interpreted in terms of active continental rifting, tectonic transpression and coastal sinistral lateral transport of terranes. In this paper we report results of a paleomagnetic study of 148 samples from 22 sites in the Neogene volcanics from the eastern sector of the Chapala graben (western end of the E-W Chapala-Tula fault zone). Characteristic remanent magnetization directions have been isolated after detailed thermal demagnetization for sixteen sites. Six sites present reverse polarities and ten sites present normal polarities. Two sites show a low-latitude VGP and are considered as transitional. The normal and reverse polarity directions are almost antipodal. The overall characteristic pole position for the normal and reverse polarity sites, N = 16, P (sub LAT) = 74 degrees N, P (sub LONG) = 160 degrees E, K = 25 and A (sub 95) = 7.6 degrees , lies to the left of the Neogene segment of the North American or northern Mexico apparent polar wander path, which suggest the occurrence of a counterclockwise rotation of -15.5+ or -7.4 to -16.5+ or -6.9 degrees . Results are interpreted in terms of counterclockwise vertical-axis rotation associated with regional transtension and left-lateral shear as a result of oblique subduction of the Cocos plate along the Middle American trench. We suggest that the Chapala graben developed early in the Miocene, in a left-lateral strike-slip environment within the regional E-W Chapala-Tula fault zone. Results support recent studies that propose relative motion for southern Mexico along the volcanic arc and trench-parallel strike-slip faulting.

Ushakov, S. A., et al. (1979). Disturbance of lithosphere isostasy in the Caribbean region and a geodynamical analysis of its character. Tektonika i geodynamika Karibskogo regiona (Tectonics and geodynamics of the Caribbean region). Y. M. Pushcharovskiy and et al.?, Nauka. 57: 63-77.
	
Vachard, D., et al. (2000). "New Early Permian fusulinid assemblage from Guatemala." Earth and Planetary Sciences 331: 789-796.
	
Vacher, H. L. and R. S. Harmon (1987). Penrose Conference Field Guide to Bermuda Geology.
	
Vahrenkamp, V. C. (1988). Constraints of the Formation of Platform Dolomites: A Geochemical Study of Late Tertiary Dolomite From Little Bahama Bank, Bahamas. Miami, FL, University of Miami: 466.
	
Vahrenkamp, V. C., et al. (1993). Maracaibo Platform (Aptian-Albian), northwestern Venezuela. Cretaceous Carbonate Platforms. J. A. T. Simo, R. W. Scott and J.-P. Masse. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 56: 25-33.
	
Valderrama, R. (1982). Desarrollo de facies en la Cuenca de Los Llanos Orientales (Development of facies in the Los Llanos Orientales Basin). I Simposio de Exploracion Petrolera en las Cuencas Subandinas de Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador y Peru. Bogota, Colombia, Asociacion Colombiana de Geologos y Geofisicos del Petroleo. ?: ?
	
Valdes Gonzalez, C. and D. A. NoveloCasanova (1998). "The Western Guerrero, Mexico, seismogenic zone from the microseismicity associated to the 1979 Petatlan and 1985 Zihuatanejo earthquakes." Tectonophysics 287(1-4): 271-277.
	
Valdez-Carrillo, M. R. (1987). Preliminary Geologic-geotechnical Study of the Savegre Hydroelectric Project Along the Pacific Margin, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: ?
	
Valencia-Moreno, M., et al. (2006). "Temporal constraints on the eastward migration of the Late Cretaceous–early Tertiary magmatic arc of NW Mexico based on new 40Ar/39Ar hornblende geochronology of granitic rocks." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 22(1-2): 22-38.
	Hornblende step-heating 40Ar/39Ar dating for granitic plutons along an E–W transect of centralnext term Sonora was carried out to constrain the Late Cretaceous–early Tertiary migration of the cordilleran magmatic arc across northwestern Mexico. Geochronological data from previous studies offer a good estimate of the overall process, but because they come from different dating schemes performed on a variety of rocks and/or minerals with a wide range of closure temperatures, the ages largely overlap when plotted on a map. Previous data suggest that the Cordilleran magmatic arc was nearly static in the western portion of the Peninsular Ranges batholith in Baja California (140–105 Ma), then the axis of magmatism migrated east at approximately 10 km/Ma and reached coastal Sonora approximately 90 Ma ago. The locus of the plutonic emplacement continued to migrate inland during the Laramide magmatic pulse (80–40 Ma), penetrating up to previous termcentralnext term Chihuahua. New argon data indicate that granitic plutons intruded the region northeast of Bahía Kino, in coastal Sonora, approximately 77 Ma ago. Magmatism subsequently moved east to the area surrounding the city of Hermosillo approximately 69 Ma ago and continued its easterly migration, reaching the Sonora–Chihuahua state boundary 59 Ma ago. However, the granitic rocks of east-previous termcentralnext term Sonora yield ages in a relatively wide range of 62–56 Ma. Synchronic plutons reported farther east in previous termcentralnext term Chihuahua suggest an unusually broad magmatic arc, which appears difficult to explain on the basis of the traditional subduction model assumed for southwestern North previous termAmericanext term during this time and may reflect particular – and little understood – previous termtectonicnext term conditions derived from the relatively flat subduction regime prior to the extinction of the Laramide magmatic arc. Moreover, volcanic rocks exposed in east-previous termcentralnext term Sonora yield fairly old U–Pb zircon dates of 90–70 Ma, which have no known contemporaneous plutons, and complicate the scenario for the Laramide event in Sonora, perhaps requiring the existence of a second volcanic arc. Considering solely the evidence from granitic plutons, the data provide a systematic way to evaluate the shift of magmatic activity across Sonora. It needs a proper restitution for the conspicuous Cenozoic extension affecting the region. After restoring the cumulative extension of 90% estimated for east-previous termcentralnext term Sonora, a rate of approximately 8.5 km/Ma of eastward migration can be roughly estimated for the Laramide arc across Sonora.

Valencio, D. A. (1964). "A structural analysis of the island of Cuba and its platform, based upon a study of geophysical data collected prior to 1961." Revista de la Asociatión Geológia Argentina 19(1): 19-34.
	
Valverde-Guillén, R. (1989). Geologic-environmental Investigation of the Pejibaye Tunnel Project, Cartago, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: ?
	
Valyashko, G. M., et al. (1976). "New data on structure of deep-water trenches, Puerto Rico and Cayman." Vestn. Mosk. Univ., Ser. geol.(1): 34-43.
	
van Andel, T. H. (1958). "Origin and classification of Cretaceous, Paleocene, and Eocene sandstones of western Venezuela." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 42: 734-763.
	
van Andel, T. H., et al. (1971). "Tectonics of the Panama Basin, eastern equatorial Pacific." Geological Society of America Bulletin 82: 1489-1508.
	
van de Meer Mohr, C. G. (1977). Field trip to the salinas of Bonaire. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdamm - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 76-87.
	
van Decar, J. C., et al. (2003). "Aseismic continuation of the Lesser Antilles slab beneath continental South America - art. no. 2043." Journal of Geophysical Research   Solid Earth 108(B1): 2043.
	
van den Berghe, B. (1983). Evolution sédimentaire et structurale depuis le Paléocene du secteur 'Massif de la Selle' (Haiti) - 'Baoruco' (Republique Dominicaine) - 'Nord de la Ride de Beata' dans l' orogene nord Caraibe (Hispaniola - Grandes Antilles) (Sedimentar and structural evolution since the Paleocene from sector 'Massif de la Selle' (Haiti) - 'Baoruco' (Dominican-Republic) - 'North of the Beata Ridge' within the north Caribbean orogeny (Hispaniola - Greater Antilles)). Université Pierre et Marie Curie. Paris, France: ?
	
van den Berghe, B. (1983). Sedimentary and Structural Evolution Since the Paleocene of the Sector of the Selle Massif (Haiti), Bahoruco (Dominican Republic) to the North of the Beata Ridge, Within the North Caribbean Orogeny (Hispaniola, Greater Antilles) (Evolution sédimentaire et structurale depuis le Paléocène du secteur du massif de la Selle ( Haïti), Bahoruco (République Dominicaine) au Nord de la ride de Beata, dans l'orogène nord-caraïbe (Hispaniola, Grandes Antilles)). Paris, France, Université Pierre et Marie Curie: 205.
	
van den Bold, W. (1975). "Neogene biostratigraphy (Ostracoda) of southern Hispaniola." Bulletin of American Paleontology 66(286): 39.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1957). "Oligo-Mocene Ostracoda from the southern Trinidad." Micropaleontology 3: 231-254.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1957). "Ostracoda from the Paleocene of Trinidad." Micropaleontology 3: 1-18.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1958). "Ostracoda of the Brasso Formation of Trinidad." Micropaleontology 4: 391-418.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1960). "Eocene and Oligocene ostracoda of Trinidad." Micropaleontology 6: 145-196.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1968). "Ostracoda of the Yague Group (Neogene), Dominican Republic." Bulletin of American Paleontology 54(239): 106.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1969). "Neogene Ostracoda from southern Puerto Rico." Caribbean Journal of Science 9(3-4): 117-125.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1970). "Ostracoda of the lower and middle Miocene of St. Croix, St. Martin, and Anguilla." Caribbean Journal of Science 10: 35-61.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1971). "Distribution of ostracodes in the Oligo-Miocene of the northern Caribbean." Transactions Fifth Caribbean Geological Conference: 123-128.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1971). "Ostracoda of the Coastal Group of Formations of Jamaica." Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies, Transactions 1: 325-348.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1973). "Distribution of Ostracoda in the Oligocene and Lower and Middle Miocene of Cuba." Caribbean Journal of Science, 1973, Vol. 13, Issue 3-4, pp. 145-159 13(3-4): 145-159.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1975). "Neogene biostratigraphy (Ostracoda) of Southern Hispaniola." Bulletin of American Paleontology 66(286): 88.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1975). "Ostracods from the Late Neogene of Cuba." Bulletin of American Paleontology 68: 121-167.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1975). "Remarks on ostracode biostratigraphy of the late and middle Tertiary of southwest Puerto Rico." Caribbean Journal of Science 15(1-2): 31-36.
	
Van Den Bold, W. A. (1980). "Notes on the distribution of some mid-Tertiary ostracodes of Puerto Rico." Transactions of the Caribbean Geological Conference (Memorias - Conferencia Geologica del Caribe) 9(1): 225-230.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1981). "Distribution of ostracoda in the Neogene of Central Haiti." Bulletin of American Paleontology 79(312): 136.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1983). Shallow-marine biostratigraphic zonation in the Caribbean post-Eocene. Transactions of the 8th International Symposium on Ostracoda, ???, ???
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1983). Shallow-marine biostratigraphic zonation in the Caribbean post-Eocene. 8th International Symposium on Ostracoda, Transactions: 400-416.
	
van den Bold, W. A. (1990). Late Holocene ostracoda in and around Lake Enriquillo, Dominican-Republic. Transactions 12th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Croix, Aug. 7-11, 1989. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. Miami, FL, Miami Geological Society: 163-173.
	
Van Den Bold, W. A. (1990). "Short review of the Ostracoda of the Montpelier and coastal groups of Jamaica." Transactions of the Caribbean Geological Conference (Memorias - Conferencia Geologica del Caribe) 12: 99-103.
	
van den Oever, F. (2000). "Aruba; a geochemical baseline study
Geochemical mapping in the Kingdom of the Netherlands." Geologie en Mijnbouw. Netherlands Journal of Geosciences 79(4): 467-477.
	A stream-sediment survey was carried out for the island of Aruba. Concentrations in stream sediments represent the abundance of chemical elements in the drainage basins. A geochemical atlas was created from the collected data and natural background values were established. Cluster analysis and pattern recognition techniques were used to gain a better understanding of the data set. Two cluster models were selected to study the various geochemical controls on the sediments and to establish a spatial basis of environmental-quality settings for the development of future environmental policies. The first cluster model was suitable to recognise in some detail the reflection of the geology on the geochemistry of the stream sediments. The second, coarser cluster model stressed the importance to distinguish between the two main lithological units of the island when instituting natural background values. Not one uniform value per element is valid, but the value depends on the lithology.

van der Hammen, T. (1954). "El desarrollo de la flora Colombiana en los periodos geologicos, I. Maestrichtiano hasta Terciario mas inferior (The development of the Colombian flora in the geologic periods, I. Maestrichtian to lowest Tertiary)." Boletin Geologico, Instituto Geologico Nacional, Bogota (Colombia) 2(1): 49-106.
	
van der Hammen, T. (1957). "Estratigrafia palinologica de la Sabana de Bogota (Palynologic stratigraphy of the Bogata Savana)." Boletin Geologico 5: 187-203.
	
van der Hammen, T. (1958). "Estratigrafia del Terciario y Maestrichtiano continentales y tectonogenesis de los Andes Colombianos (Stratigraphy of the Tertiary and Maestrichtian continents and tectonogenesis of the Colombian Andes)." Boletin Geologico, Instituto Geologico Nacional, Bogota (Colombia) 6(1-3): 67-128.
	
van der Hammen, T. (1961). "Late Cretaceous and Tertiary stratigraphy and tectogenesis of the Colombian Andes." Geologie en Mijnbouw 40: 181-188.
	
van der Hammen, T., et al. (1973). "Palynological record of the upheaval of the northern Andes:  A study of the Pliocene and Lower Quaternary of the Colombian eastern Cordillera and the early evolution of its high Andean biota." Review of Paleobotany and Palynology 16: 1-122.
	
van der Hammen, T., et al. (1973). "Palynological record of the upheaval of the northern Andes: A study of the Pliocene and Lower Quaternary of the Colombian Eastern Cordillera and the early evolution of its high-Andean biota." Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 16: 1-122.
	
van der Hilst, R. (1990). Tomography with P, PP, and pP delay-time data and the three-dimensional mantle structure below the Caribbean region. Holland, University of Utrecht: 250.
	
Van der Hilst, R. and P. Mann (1994). "Tectonic implications of tomographic images of subducted lithosphere beneath northwestern South America." Geology 22: 451-454.
	
van der Hilst, R. D. (1990). Tomography with P, PP and pP delay-time data and the three-dimensional mantle structure below the Caribbean region.
	
van der Hilst, R. D. and E. R. Engdahl (1991). "On ISC PP and pP data and their use in delay-time tomography of the Caribbean region." Geophysical Journal International 106(1): 169-188.
	
van der Hilst, R. D. and W. Spakman (1989). "Importance of reference model in linearized tomography and images of subduction below the Caribbean plate." Geophysical Research Letters 16(10): 1093-1096.
	
van der Voo, R., et al. (1976). "Permian-Triassic continental configurations and origin of the Gulf of Mexico." Geology 4: 177-180.
	
van Fossen, M. C. and J. E. T. Channell (1988). "Paleomagnetism of Late Cretaceous and Eocene limestones and chalks from Haiti tectonic interpretations." Tectonics 7(3): 601-612.
	
Van Fossen, M. C., et al. (1995). "Geomagnetic polarity stratigraphy and nannofossil biostratigraphy at the K/T boundary section near Beloc, Haiti." Cretaceous Research 16(1): 131-139.
	
van Fossen, M. C., et al. (1989). "Paleomagnetic evidence for Tertiary anticlockwise rotation in southwest Puerto Rico." Geophysical Research Letters 16: 819-822.
	
Van Gestel, J.-P., Jr. (2000). Structure and tectonics of the Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands platform and multi-configuration ground penetrating radar data. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 214.
	
van Gestel, J. P., et al. (1998). "Structure and tectonics of the upper Cenozoic Puerto Rico Virgin Islands carbonate platform as determined from seismic reflection studies." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 103(B12): 30505-30530.
	
van Gestel, J. P., et al. (1999). "Three-phase tectonic evolution of the northern margin of Puerto Rico as inferred from an integration of seismic reflection, well, and outcrop data." Marine Geology 161: 257-286.
	
van Houten, F. B. (1976). Late Cenozoic volcaniclastic deposits, Andean foredeep, Colombia. ? ? Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 87: 481-495.
	
van Houten, F. B. and H. E. James (1984). Late Cenozoic Guayabo delta complex in southwestern Maracaibo Basin, northeastern Colombia. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. Bonini, R. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 325-332.
	
van Houten, F. B. and R. B. Travis (1968). "Cenozoic deposits, Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 52(4): 675-702.
	
van Soest, M. C., et al. (1998). "Tracing crustal and slab contributions to arc magmatism in the Lesser Antilles island arc using helium and carbon relationships in geothermal fluids." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 62(19-20): 3323-3335.
	
Van Soest, M. C., et al. (2002). "Resolving sediment subduction and crustal contamination in the Lesser Antilles island Arc: A combined He-O-Sr isotope approach." Journal of Petrology 43(1): 143-170.
	
van Veen, F. R. (1972). Ambientes sedimentarios de las formaciónes Mirador y Misoa del Eoceno inferior y medio de la cuenca del Lago de Maracaibo (Sedimentary environments of the Mirador and Misoa formations of the Lower Eocene and the middle of the basin of Lake Maracaibo). 4th Venezuelan Geological Congress (Caracas, Venezuela): 1074-1114.
	
Van Wessem, A. (1943). "Geology and paleontology of central Camaguey, Cuba."  5: 88.
	
van Wessen, A. (1843). "Geology and paleontology of central Camagüey, Cuba." Geographische en Geologische Mededeelingen.  Physiographisch-Geologische Reeks  5: ??
	
van Wyk de Vries, B., et al. (2000). "Sector collapse forming at Casita Volcano, Nicaragua." Geology 28(2): 67-170.
	Catastrophic sector collapse occurs when a volcano becomes structurally unable to support its own load. One process particularly capable of weakening the edifice is hydrothermal activity. It can produce high pore pressures and alter strong rock to clays. Alteration can extend progressively over long periods (>100 yr), allowing deformation to develop slowly before collapse. An important finding is that structures produced by such deformation are recognizable and could permit collapse prediction. We present the case of Casita, Nicaragua, where hydrothermal activity has been weakening the edifice core, causing flank spreading, altering original constructional shape, and steepening flank slopes. One side is slumping outward, producing a crescentic scar with a basal bulge. We identify this feature as the site of a potential sector collapse, with conditions ripe for failure.

Vanderwiel, A. M. (1991). Uplift and Volcanism of the SE Colombian Andes in Relation to Neogene Sedimentation in the Upper Magdalena Valley. ? Amsterdam: 208.
	
VanDusen, S. R. and D. I. Doser (2000). "Faulting processes of historic (1917-1962) M >= 6.0 earthquakes along the north-central Caribbean margin." Pure and Applied Geophysics 157(5): 719-736.
	
Vannucchi, P., et al. (2004). "Long-term subduction-erosion along the Guatemalan margin of the Middle America Trench." Geology Boulder 32(7): 617-620.
	A new analysis of Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) Leg 84 data demonstrates that the dominant process controlling the Guatemala margin tectonic evolution since ca. 25 Ma is subduction-erosion. Data from benthic foraminifera, assemblages from upper-slope DSDP Sites 568, 569, and 570 indicate long-term, progressive subsidence from upper to middle bathyal depths (600-1000 m) ca. 19 Ma to modern abyssal depths (>2000 m). Rapid subsidence migrated landward starting at the Oligocene-Miocene boundary time under the current middle slope, where it increased sharply ca. 19 Ma, reached the current upper slope by ca. 15 Ma, and arrived at the uppermost slope ca. 2 Ma. Subsidence indicates crustal thinning by basal tectonic erosion of mass from the underside of the upper plate. Under the assumption that, in the Miocene, the morphology of the forearc was similar to that of today, landward migration of the trench was at a rate of 0.8-0.9 km/m.y. This linear rate corresponds to a tectonic erosion rate of the submerged forearc of 11.3-13.1 km (super 3) . m.y. (super -1) . km (super -1) . The evolution of arc magmatism and superfast spreading at the East Pacific Rise since early Miocene time may have caused slab shallowing and tectonic erosion that readjusted the forearc geometry.

Vannucchi, P., et al. (2003). "Fast rates of subduction erosion along the Costa Rica Pacific margin: Implications for nonsteady rates of crustal recycling at subduction zones - art. no. 2511." Journal of Geophysical Research   Solid Earth 108(B11): 2511.
	
Vannucchi, P., et al. (2001). "Tectonic erosion and consequent collapse of the Pacific margin of Costa Rica; Combined implications from ODP Leg 170, seismic offshore data, and regional geology of the Nicoya Peninsula." Tectonics 20(5): 649-668.
	
Vannucchi, P. and H. Tobin (2000). "Deformation structures and implications for fluid flow at the Costa Rica convergent margin, ODP Sites 1040 and 1043, Leg 170." Journal of Structural Geology 22(8): 1087-1103.
	
Vargas, C. C. (1987). Las Calizas Neriticas de la Vertiente Pacaifica del Norte de Costa Rica y Sur de Nicarague: Epocas y Sistemas de Sedimentacion Asociados, Con la Apertura y Evolucion del  Margen Convergente de la America Central Meridiona (The Neritic Limestones of the Pacific Slope from the North of Costa Rica and South of Nicaragua:  Epochs and Systems of Associated Sedimentation, With the Opening and Evolution of the Convergent Margin of the Meridonal Central America). Universidad de Costa Rica, Faculdad de Ciencias, Escuela Centroamericana de Geologia. Costa Rica: 165.
	
Vargas, F. and A. Alfaro (1992). "Technical note, Presence of serpentinites and alkaline basalts in the northern Atlantic zone of Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 14: ?
	
Vargas-H, R., et al. (1985). Corte estratigrafico  panoramico de la Formacion los Santos, carretera quebrada del Medio-EI Boqueron (Santander) (Panoramic stratigraphic section of the Santos Formation, highway ravine of the Medio-El Boqueron (Santander)). Proyecto  Cretacico, Contribuciones. F. Etayo-Serna and F. Laverde-M. Bogota, Colombia, Publicaciones Geologicas Especiales del Ingeominas. 16, V: 12.
	
Vargas-Higuera, R., et al. (1981). "Geologia del Cuadrangulo I-13 Malaga (Geology of the I-13 Malaga Quadrangle)." Ingeominas, Boletin Geologico (Bogota, Colombia) 24(3): 1-76.
	
Vasilev, E. and et al. (1989). "Informe del levantamiento geológico y las búsquedas acompañantes a escala 1:50 000 al Norte de Las Villas (Poligono II), Jíbaro-Báez (Report of the Geologic Uplift and the Accompanying Searches at Scale 1:50000 to the north of Las Villas (Polygon II), Jibaro-Baez)."
	
Vasquez, E. and P. Dickey (1972). Major faulting in northwestern Venezuela and its relation to global tectonics. Transactions Caribbean Geological Conference, 6th: 191-202.
	
Vásquez-Rojas, R. (1989). Statistical Analysis of Geochemical Data From Three Fluvial Sedimentary Deposits of Epithermal Gold, Cordillera de Tilarán-Montes del Aguacate, Costa Rica. Central American School of Geology. San Pedro, San José, Costa Rica: 111.
	
Vaughan, T. W. (1918). "Geologic history of the West Indies and Central America during Cenozoic time." Geological Society of America Bulletin 29: 615-630.
	
Vaughan, T. W. (1919). "Contributions to the geology and paleontology of the Canal Zone, Panama, and geologically related areas in Central America and the West Indies." Bulletin of the United States National Museum 103: 547-612.
	
Vaughan, T. W. (1919). "Fossil corals from Central America, Cuba, and Puerto Rico with an account of American Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent coral reefs." U.S. National Museum Bulletin 103: 189-524.
	
Vaughan, T. W. (1919). The stratigraphic horizon of the beds containing Lepidocyclina chaperi on Haut Chagres, Panama. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 12: 519-522.
	
Vaughan, T. W., et al. (1921). A geological reconnaissance of the Dominican-Republic. Geological Survey of the Dominican-Republic. Washington, D.C, ? 1: ?
	
Vaughan, T. W. and J. E. Hoffmeister (1925). "New species of fossil corals from the Dominican-Republic." Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College 67: 315-326.
	
Vaughan, T. W. and J. E. Hoffmeister (1926). Miocene corals from Trinidad. Papers of the Department of Marine Biology, Carnegie Institution of Washington. 23: 105-140.
	
Vaughn, T. W. (1983). Un reconocimiento geologico de la Republica Dominicana (A Geological Reconnaissance of the Domincian Republic). Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, Servicio Geologico de la Republica Dominicana, Edition de Santa Domingo.
	
Vaughn, W. W., et al. (1981). A Geological Reconnaissance of the Dominican Republic. Washington, D.C., Gibson Brothers.
	
Vaugnat, M. (1959). Preliminary Report on the Investigation of Ultramafic Rocks in Cuba. Fondo Geológico Nacional. La Habana.
	
Vazquez, R., et al. (1998 ). "Carbon and oxygen isotope halos in the host limestone, El Mochito Zn-Pb-(Ag) skarn massive sulfide-oxide deposit, Honduras." Economic Geology 93: 15-32 
	
Vedder, J. G. (1972). Acoustic Reflection Profiles, East Margin Yucatan Basin, IDOE, US Geological Survey: 7.
	
Vedder, J. G., et al. (1973). "Age and metamorphic implications of some low-grade metamorphic rocks from the Yucatan Channel." Journal of Research U. S. Geologic Survey 1(2): 157-164.
	
Vega, J. E. (1990). The Archaeology of Coastal Change, Puerto Rico, University of Florida: 174.
	
Vega, V. and J. N. Kellogg (1992). "Repeat observations over northwestern South America, the Caribbean, Panama from the CASA Global Positioning System Project." EOS (American Geophysical Union Transactions) 73: 86.
	
Velez, R. (1985). A survey of seismic reflection data for Puerto Rico and its environs. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico: 25.
	
Vence, E. M. (2008). Subsurface Structure, Stratigraphy, and Regional Tectonic Controls of the Guajira Margin of Northern Colombia. Department of Geological Sciences. Austin, TX, University of Texas at Austin: 128.
	I combine previous data from Mesozoic outcrops in the Guajira Peninsula of northern Colombia with new regional gravity, bathymetric, and seismic interpretations to demonstrate the existence of a 280-km-long, western extension of the Great Arc of the Caribbean (GAC) along the continental margin of Colombia. Seismic data reveal a 80 to 100 km-wide domal-shape basement high lacking seismic reflectivity and mappable for 1800 km from the Aves Ridge to the study area in offshore Colombia. The western extension of the GAC in Colombia and western Venezuela is buried by 700 to 3000 m of continental margin sediments because it collided earlier (Cretaceous-early Paleogene collision) than its subaerially exposed eastern part on the Leeward Antilles Ridge (late Paleogene-Neogene collision). Compilation of radiometric age dates and geologic information from the entire GAC shows that arc magmatism ocurred from 128 to 74 Ma with a general pattern of younging from west to east. 	 I mapped six Upper Eocene to Recent marine seismic sequences that overlie the domal basement high of the GAC using 2400 km of seismic reflection data and 12 wells. Three deformation events affecting the sequences include: 1) late Eocene rifting, in an east-west direction produced half-grabens in the northern part of the area; 2) Oligocene transtension, in the southern part of the area expressed by right-lateral Oligocene strikeslip faulting and extensional basin formation; 2) early – middle Miocene transtension; and 3) late Miocene – early Pliocene Andean uplift and clastic infilling of offshore basins.  

Venneman, T. W., et al. (1993). "Stable isotope evidence for magmatic fluids in the Pueblo Viejo epithermal acid sulfate, Au-Ag deposit, Dominican Republic." Economic Geology 88: 55-71.
	
Verdonck, D. (1990). Subduction of the Cocos Ridge and vertical movement of western Costa Rica. Department of Geosciences. University Park, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State University: 52.
	
Vergara, A. (1987). "Technical note: Importance of prevention." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 7: ?
	
Vergara Munoz, A. (1988). "Seismicity of the Panama Block.  I:  Magnetudes and spatial distribution of epicentres." Tectonophysics 145: 213-224.
	
Vergara-Munoz, A. (1986). A Catalogue of Seismicity in Panama for the Interval 1904 - 83.
	
Vergara-Muñoz, A. (1988). "Tectonic patterns of the Panama block deduced from seismicity, gravitational data, and earthquake mechanisms: Implications to the seismic hazard." Tectonophysics 154: 253-267.
	
Vermut, L. W. (1937). Geology of the Province of Pinar del Rio, Cuba. Utrecht, Holland, Instituut der Rijksuniversiteit.
	
Vernette, G. (1986). La Plate-forme Continentale Caraibe de Colombie (du Debouche du Magdalena au Golfe de Morrosquillo):  Importance du Diapirisme Argileux Sur la Morphologie et la Sedimentation (Caribbean Continental Platform of Columbia (the Magdalena Outlet of the Gulf of Morrosquillo):  Importance of Clay Diapirism on Morphology and Sedimentation). 20: 391.
	
Vernette, G. and A. Klingebiel (1988). Geometry and sedimentary facies of interdiapiric basins along the Caribbean Colombian margin. Transaction of the Eleventh Caribbean Geological Conference. L. Barker. Dover Beach, Barbados, Energy and Natural Resource Division, Barbados: 6:1-6:9.
	
Vernette, G., et al. (1992). "Mud diapirism, fan sedimentation and strike-slip faulting, Caribbean Colombian margin." Tectonophysics 202(2/4): 335-349.
	
Vespucci, P. (1980). Preliminary account of the petrology of the late Cenozoic volcanic province of Hispaniola. Transactions of the 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic: 379-389.
	
Vespucci, P. (1989). Summary of trace element and isotope data, Late Cretaceous volcanics, Hispaniola. Transactions 10th Caribbean Geological Conference, Cartagena, Colombia: 467-472.
	
Vespucci, R. M. (1976). Petrology and geochemistry of the Late Cenozoic volcanic rocks of the Dominican Republic. Washington, D. C., The George Washington University: 286.
	
Vezina, J., et al. (1999). "Sea-level highstands over the last 500,000 years: Evidence from the Ironshore formation on Grand Cayman, British West Indies." Journal of Sedimentary Research 69(2): 317-327.
	
Viapiana, R. P. (1990). Eocene stratigraphy studies, Maracaibo Basin, northwestern Venezuela. Transactions of the Twelfth Caribbean Geological Conference. D. K. Larue and G. Draper. St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, Miami Geological Society, Miami: 485-494.
	
Vicente, V. P. and J. A. Rivera (1982). "Depth limits of the seagrass Thalassia Testudinum (Konig) in Jobos and Guayanilla bays, Puerto Rico." Caribbean Journal of Science 17: 73-79.
	
Victor, L. (1976). Structures of the Continental Margin of Central America From Northern Nicaragua to Northern Panama. Department of Geosciences. Corvallis, OR, Oregon State University: 76.
	
Vidal, F. P. (1982). El Potenciál Minero - Energético de la Provincia Peravia (The mining-energy potential of the Peravia Province). Santo Domingo, Dominican-Republic, Dirección Generál de Minería y Hídrocarbunos.
	
Viele, G. W. and W. A. Thomas (1989). Tectonic synthesis of the Ouachita orogenic belt. The Appalachian-Ouachita Orogen in the United States. R. D. Hatcher, Jr., W. A. Thomas, Jr. and G. W. Viele. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. F-2: 695-728.
	
Vierbuchen, R. (1984). The geology of the El Pilar Fault Zone and adjacent areas in northeastern Venezuela. The Caribbean-South American Plate Boundary and Regional Tectonics. W. E. Bonini, R. B. Hargraves and R. Shagam. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 162: 189-252.
	
Vierbuchen, R. C., Jr. (1979). The Tectonics of Northeastern Venezuela and the Southeastern Caribbean Sea, Princeton University: 193.
	
Vila, J. M., et al. (1987). "Le complexe chaotique fini-eocene de Chouchou (Massif du Nord d'Haiti):  Un enregistrement du debut des decrochements senestres nord-caraibes (Uppermost Eocene chaotic complex of Chouchou (Massif du Nord, Haiti):  A recording of beginning for the North Caribbean left-lateral faulting)." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Serie 2 304(1): 39-42.
	
Vila, J. M., et al. (1986). "Evolution sedimentaire et structurale du bassin oligo-miocene de Trois-Rivieres sur la frontiere decrochante nord-caraibe (Massif du Nord d'Haiti, Grandes Antilles) (Sedimentary and structural evolution of the Oligo-Miocene basin of Trois Rivers on the border of the strike-slip fault of the northern Caribbean, North Haiti Massif, Greater Antilles)." Revue de Geologie Dynamique et de Geographie Physique 27(3/4): 183-192.
	
Vila, J. M., et al. (1989). "Un Nouvel indice de vergence tectonique nord dans l'orogene laramien nord-caraibe; le pli couche du Morne Miguinda (monts de Terre-Neuve, nord-ouest d'Haiti, Hispaniola) (A new indicator of north-trending tectonics in the northern Caribbean Laramide Orogeny; the recumbent fold of Morne Miguinda, Terre-Neuve Mountains, northwestern Haiti, Hispaniola)." Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Serie 2, Mecanique, Physique, Chimie, Sciences de l'Univers, Sciences de la Terre 309(13): 1395-1399.
	
Vila, J.-M., et al. (1990). "A tectonic-sedimentary event in the southern Haiti (vière Gosseline, Greater Antilles): Consequences on the extension and the mise in place of the Macaya nappe (Un événement tectono-sédimentaire danien dans le sud d'Haiti (Rivière Gosseline, Grandes Antilles): Conséquences sur l'extension et la mise en place de la nappe de Macaya)." Bulletin of the Geological Society of France 8: 349-359.
	
Vila, J.-M., et al. (1985). Carte Géologique d'Haïti au 1/1,000,000 Avec Notice Explicative Détaillée (Geologic Map of Haiti at 1:1,000,000 With Detailed Explicative Notes). C. Girault. Bordeaux, France, CEGET-CNRS.
	
Vila, J.-M., et al. (1982). "Données nouvelles sur les roches métamorphiques de l'Ile de la Tortue (Hispaniola, Grandes Antilles) (New data concerning the metamorphic rocks of the Island of Tortue (Hispaniola, Greater Antilles)." Comptes Rendus Académie des Sciences de Paris 294: 1103-1106.
	
Villa, J.-M. and H. Feinberg (1982). "Les discordances successives a la terminaison sud-est de la Cordillére Centrale dominicaine: un enrégistrement du calendrier tectonique d'Hispaniola (Grandes Antilles) (The successive discordances at the termination southeast of the Dominican Central Cordillera:  A record of tectonic calendar of Hispaniola (Greater Antilles)." Bulletin of the Geological Society of France 24: 153-156.
	
Villain, J. M. and S. de Cabrera (1987). "Biostratigraphy and sedimentary environment of the Upper Cretaceous in the northeast of Guárico (Bioestratigrafía y ambiente sedimentario del Cretaceo Superior en el noreste de Guárico)." 15.
	
Villain, J. M. and S. deCabrera (1988). Biostratigraphic synthesis of the Tertiary in the sub-basin of  northeast Guárico (Síntesis bioestratigráfica del Terciario en el subsuelo del noreste de Guárico), Corpoven: 8.
	
Villamil, t. (1998). Chronology, relative sea-level history and a new sequence stratigraphic model for basinal Cretaceous facies of Colombia. Paleogeographic Evolution and Non-glacial Eustacy: North America. J. L. Pindell and C. Drake. Tulsa OK, Society for Sedimentary Geology. 58: 161-216.
	
Villamil, T. and C. Arango (1998). Integrated stratigraphy of latest Cenomanian and Early Turonian facies of Colombia. Paleogeographic Evolution and Non-glacial Eustacy: North America. J. L. Pindell and C. Drake. Tulsa OK, Society for Sedimentary Geology. 58: 129-159.
	
Villamil, T., et al. (1999). Plate tectonic paleogeographic hypothesis for Cretaceous source rocks and cherts of northern South America. Evolution of the Cretaceous Ocean-Climate System. E. Barrera and C. C. Johnson. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 332: 191-202.
	
Villamil, t. and J. L. Pindell (1998). Mesozoic paleogeographic evolution of northern South America:  Foundations for sequence stratigraphic studies in passive margin strata deposited during non-glacial times. Paleogeographic Evolution and Non-glacial Eustacy: North America. J. L. Pindell and C. Drake. Tulsa OK, Society for Sedimentary Geology. 58: 283-318.
	
Villaroel, V. (1993). Santa-Rosa-Field - Venezuela Eastern Venezuela Basin. Structural Traps VIII. N. H. Foster and E. A. Beaumont. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. VIII: 193-213.
	
Villasenor Hidalgo, A. (1995). Seismicity and tectonics in the Caribbean plate boundary: Northeastern Venezuela and Hispaniola. Barcelona, Spain, Universitat de Barcelona: 237.
	
Villata, C. (1986). "Exploitation of Gold in Costa Rica." Geological Magazine of Central America, published by the Central American School of Geology 5: ?
	
Villegas, M., et al. (1994). Analisis integrado de cuencas:  Metodologia y modelo de evolucion de la cuenca de los Llanos Orientales, Columbia
(Integrated analysis of basins:  Methodology and model of evolution of the basin of Llanos Orientales, Colombia). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 509-535.
	
Vincenz, S. A. and S. N. Dasgupta (1978). "Paleomagnetic study of some Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks on Hispaniola." Pure and Applied Geophysics 116: 1200-1210.
	
Vincenz, S. A., et al. (1973). "Paleomagnetism of Upper Cretaceous ignimbrites on Jamaica." Z. Geophys. 39: 727-737.
	
Viniegra, O. F. (1981). "Great carbonate bank of Yucatan, southern Mexico." Journal Petroleum Geology 3: 247-278.
	
Viniegra-O, F. (1981). "Great carbonate bank of Yucatan, southern Mexico." Journal of Petroleum Geology 3: 247-278.
	
Viniegra-O., F. (1971). "Age and evolution of salt basins of southeastern Mexixo." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 55: 478-494.
	
Viniegra-O., F. (1981). "Great carbonate bank of Yucatan, southern Mexico." Journal of Petroleum Geology 3: 247-278.
	
Vink, A., et al. (2001). "Shifts inthe position of the North Equatorial Current and rapid productivity changes in the western Tropical Atlantic during the last glacial." Paleoceanography 16(10): 1-12.
	
Vink, G. E., et al. (1984). "Preferential rifting of continents:  A source of displaced terranes." Journal of Geophysicsal Research 89: 10072-10076.
	
Vinson, G. L. (1962). "Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary stratigraphy of Guatemala." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 17: 101-163.
	
Vitali, C., et al. (1985). Panamanian and Colombian deformed belts: An integrated study using Gloria and SEA BEAM transits and seismic profiles. Proceedings, Geodynamique des Caribbes Symposium. Paris, France, Editions Technip: 451-461.
	
Vletter, D. R. (1955). "How Cuban nickel ore was formed." Engineering Mining Journal 156(10): 84-87.
	
Vogel, P. N. and J. E. Mylroie (1988). Description of Caves on San Salvador. Field Guide to the Karst Geology of San Salvador Island, Bahamas. J. E. Mylorie. Fort Lauderdale, Florida, Department of Geology and Geography, Mississippi State University and CCFL Bahamian Field Station: 45-70.
	
Vogt, P. R. (1973). Early events in the opening of the North Atlantic. Implications of Continental Drift to the Earth Sciences. D. H. Tarling and S. K. Runcorn. London, Academic Press. 2: 693-712.
	
Vogt, P. R., et al. (1976). Subduction of aseismic ridges:  Effects on shape, seismicity, and other characteristics of consuming plate boundaries. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America.
	
Vokes, E. H. (1979). The age of the Baitoa Formation, Dominican Republic, using Mollusca for correlation. 15: 105-116.
	
Vokes, E. H. (1989). "On the occurrence of the Caribbean species Haustellum chrysostoma (Gastropoda, Muricidae) in the Pliocene of western Ecuador." Tulane Studies in Geology and Paleontology 22(3-4): 123-127.
	
Vokes, E. H. (1998). "Neogene paleontology in the northern Dominican Republic, 18, The superfamily Volutacea (in part) (Mollusca, Gastropoda)." Bulletins of American Paleontology 113(354): 54.
	
Volckmann, R. P. (1983). "Upper Cretaceous stratigraphy of southwest Puerto Rico: A revision." U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1537-A: A73-A83.
	
Volckmann, R. P. (???). Geologic Map of the Cabo Rojo and Parguera Quadrangles, Southwest Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Volckmann, R. P. (???). Geologic map of the Puerto Real Quadrangle, Southwest Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Volckmann, R. P. (???). Geologic map of the San German Quadrangle, Southwest Puerto Rico, United States Geological Survey.
	
Vollbrecht, R. and D. Meischner (1996). "Diagenesis in coastal carbonates related to Pleistocene sea level, Bermuda Platform." Journal of Sedimentary Research Section A - Sedimentary Petrology and Processes 66(1): 243-258.
	
Volochkovich, K. L., et al. (1987). "Metallogeny of Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba." International Geological Review 29: 445-455.
	
Vomel, H., et al. (2004). "Hf-Nd isotope constraints on the origin of the Cretaceous Caribbean plateau and its relationship to the Galapagos plume." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 217(1-2): 59-75.
	Formation of the Cretaceous Caribbean plateau, including the komatiites of Gorgona, has been linked to the currently active Galapagos hotspot. We use Hf-Nd isotopes and trace element data to characterise both the Caribbean plateau and the Galapagos hotspot, and to investigate the relationship between them. Four geochemical components are identified in the Galapagos mantle plume: Two 'enriched' components with < epsilon > Hf and < epsilon > Nd similar to enriched components observed in other mantle plumes, one moderately enriched component with high Nb/Y, and a fourth component which most likely represents depleted MORB source mantle. The Caribbean plateau basalt data form a linear array in Hf-Nd isotope space, consistent with mixing between two mantle components. Combined Hf-Nd-Pb-Sr-He isotope and trace element data from this study and the literature suggest that the more enriched Caribbean end member corresponds to one or both of the enriched components identified on Galapagos. Likewise, the depleted end member of the array is geochemically indistinguishable from MORB and corresponds to the depleted component of the Galapagos system. Enriched basalts from Gorgona partially overlap with the Caribbean plateau array in < epsilon >Hf vs. < epsilon >Nd, whereas depleted basalts, picrites and komatiites from Gorgona have a high < epsilon >Hf for a given < epsilon >Nd, defining a high-< epsilon >Hf depleted end member that is not observed elsewhere within the Caribbean plateau sequences. This component is similar, however, in terms of Hf-Nd-Pb-He isotopes and trace elements to the depleted plume component recognised in basalts from Iceland and along the Reykjanes Ridge. We suggest that the Caribbean plateau represents the initial outpourings of the ancestral Galapagos plume. Absence of a moderately enriched, high Nb/Y component in the older Caribbean plateau (but found today on the island of Floreana) is either due to changing source compositions of the plume over its 90 Ma history, or is an artifact of limited sampling. The high- < epsilon > Hf depleted component sampled by the Gorgona komatiites and depleted basalts is unique to Gorgona and is not found in the Caribbean plateau. This may be an indication of the scale of heterogeneity of the Caribbean plateau system; alternatively Gorgona may represent a separate oceanic plateau derived from a completely different Pacific plume, such as the Sala y Gomez.

Von Breymann, A. (1989). Marine Geophysical Studies of the Atlantic Margin of Costa Rica. Department of Geology. College Station, TX, Texas A&M University: 245.
	
von der Hoya, H. A., II (1986). A Reflection Seismic and Magnetic Investigation of the Tela Basin:  Northern Offshore Honduras. Department of Geological Sciences. Dallas, TX, Southern Methodist University: 112.
	
Von Eynatten, H., et al. (1992). "Sedimentary history and geodynamic significance of Plio-Pleistocene shallow and deep marine forearc sediments (Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica)." Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie 6: 1479-1492.
	
Von Eynatten, H., et al. (1994). Plio-Pleistocene outer arc basins in southern Central America. Sedimentary and Tectonics. L. Frostick and R. Steel. ?, International Association of Sedimentologists. 20: 399-414.
	
von Heune, R. (1984). "Structural diversity along convergent margins and the role of overpressured pore fluids in subduction zones." Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 7(XXVI, 2): 207-219.
	
von Huene, R. (1989). The middle America convergent plate boundary, Guatemala. The Eastern Pacific Ocean and Hawaii. E. L. Winterer, D. M. Hussong and R. W. Decker. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. N: 535-550.
	
von Huene, R., et al. (1980). "Leg 67:  The Deep Sea Drilling Project Mid-America Trench transect off Guatemala." Geological Society of America Bulletin 91: 421-432.
	
von Huene, R., et al. (1991). Morphotectonic Features of the Costa Rica Pacific Margin Surved During the Sonne 76 Cruise. ?, ?
	
von Huene, R., et al. (1995). Morphotectonics of the Pacific convergent margin of Costa Rica. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean Plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 295: 291-307.
	
von Huene, R., et al. (1995). Morphotectonics of the Pacific convergent margin of Costa Rica. Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America Special Paper. 295: 291-307.
	
von Huene, R. and et al. (1980). "The Deep Sea Drilling Project in the Mid-America Trench transect off Guatemala." Geological Society of America Bulletin 91: 412-432.
	
von Huene, R., et al. (2004). "Tsunamigenic slope failure along the Middle America Trench in two tectonic settings." Marine Geology 203(3-4): 303-317.
	Slope failure along the Costa Rica convergent margin commonly results from steepening of the continental slope above underthrust relief on the subducting plate. The 50-km-wide prehistoric Nicoya Slump was a big event that was followed by small slides from its headwall. Estimated maximum wave height above the slide is 27 m. The headwall occurs along a tectonized and unstable zone that extends northwest. An expected great earthquake in the adjacent Nicoya seismic gap could trigger future tsunamigenic landslides along this zone. The central Nicaragua slope, where the 1992 tsunamigenic earthquake occurred, has failed from steepening by tectonic erosion and perhaps subducting relief. The steep middle slope displays several large slide scars, each of which had the potential to generate a 6-7-m-high wave. A relation between the youngest slide and the 1992 earthquake is uncertain. Principal causes of landslides off Middle America were tectonic steepening and elevated fluid pressure. A mid-slope tectonized zone off Costa Rica allowed detachment of a huge slump involving the entire lower slope to the plate boundary. It may pose a hazard during rupture of the Nicoya locked zone.

von Huene, R., et al. (2000). "Quaternary convergent margin tectonics of Costa Rica, segmentation of the Cocos Plate, and Central American volcanism." Tectonics 19(2): 314-334.
	
von Reimer, W. (1978). "Results of geological investigations in the northwestern part of the Dominican Republic." Neues Jahrbuch Geol. Paleont. MH. Heft 35: 162-172.
	
von Seebach, K. (1892). Uber die Vulkane Zentralamerikas. Göttingen, Germany, Abh. Kgl. Ges. Wiss.
	
Vonhof, H. B., et al. (2003). "Paleogeography of Miocene Western Amazona: Isotopic composition of molluscan shells constrains the influence of marine incursions." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 115(8): 983-993.
	Strontium, oxygen, and carbon isotope compositions of well-preserved mollusks (bivalves) indicate a dominantly freshwater depositional setting for the lower Miocene-upper Miocene Pebas Formation in Western Amazonia. Molluscan <sup>87</sup>Sr/<sup>86</sup>Sr ratios identify different freshwater sources. Andean runoff was the dominant water source in Miocene Western Amazonia, though there was occasional influx of waters from cratonic catchments. At only one stratigraphic level, isotope signals indicate increased (mesohaline) aquatic salinities, in concertwith a clearly more saline molluscan faunal assemblage. Strontium isotope-based salinity estimates are surprisingly low when compared to other paleosalinity estimates based on the interpretation of (ichno)faunal assemblages and sedimentological structures. We propose that these seemingly contrasting observations can be unified if Miocene Western Amazonia was occupied by a long-lived (lacustrine) wetland system with a restricted connection, via the Los Llanos Basin, to the Caribbean Sea. Abundant runoff supplied fresh water to this system, which effectively blocked the influx of saline waters through the restricted marine connection to the north. Much like modern Lake Maracaibo, such a system could have been the site of microtidal currents and thus could have hosted brackish-water fauna in a dominantly freshwater depositional system.

Vonhuene, R., et al. (1996). "Development of the accretionary prism along Peru and material flux after subduction of Nazca Ridge." Tectonics 15(1): 19-33.
	
Vonsalis, K. and R. Speed (1995). "Correlation of Miocene strata on the submarine St. Croix Ridge and onland St. Croix, US Virgin Islands." Geo-Marine Letters 15(1): 17-22.
	
Wadge, G. (1982). "A Miocene submarine volcano at Low Layton, Jamaica." Geology Magazine 119(193-199).
	
Wadge, G. (1984). "Comparison of volcanic production rates and subduction rates in the Lesser-Antilles and Central America." Geology 12: 555-558.
	
Wadge, G. (1994). The Lesser Antilles. Caribbean Geology: An Introduction. S. K. Donovan and T. A. Jackson. Kingston, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Publisher's Association: 167-177.
	
Wadge, G. and K. Burke (1983). "Neogene Caribbean plate rotation and associated Central American tectonic evolution." Tectonics 2: 633-643.
	
Wadge, G. and T. Dixon (1984). "A geological interpretation of SEASAT-SAR imagery of Jamaica." Journal of Geology 92: 561-581.
	
Wadge, G. and G. Draper (1977). "The geology of Jamaican caves." Jamaica Underground 247 p. 12-15.
	
Wadge, G. and G. Draper (1977). "The influence of lithology on Jamaican cave morphology." Proc. 7th International Speleological Conference, Sheffield, England: 414-416.
	
Wadge, G. and G. Draper (1977). "Tectonic control of speleogenesis in Jamaica." Proc. 7th International Speleological Conference, Sheffield, England: 416-419.
	
Wadge, G. and G. Draper (1978). "Structural geology of the southeast Blue Mountains, Jamaica." Geologie in Mijnbouw 57: 347-352.
	
Wadge, G., et al. (1984). Ophiolites of the northern Caribbean:  A reappraisal of their roles in the evolution of the Caribbean plate boundary. Ophiolites and Oceanic Lithosphere. I. G. Gass, S. J. Lippard and A. W. Shelton. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications. 13: 367-380.
	
Wadge, G., et al. (1980). "Gravity anomalies in the Blue Mountains, eastern Jamaica." Transactions 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo: 467-474.
	
Wadge, G., et al. (1982). "Gravity anomalies in the Blue Mountains, eastern Jamaica." Transactions 9th Caribbean Geological Conference, Santo Domingo, 1980: 467-474.
	
Wadge, G. and A. N. Eva (1978). "The geology and tectonic significance of the Sunning Hill Inlier." Journal of the Geological Society of Jamaica 17: 1-15.
	
Wadge, G., et al. (1979). "The caves of Jackson's Bay and the Cainozoic geology of southern Jamaica." Trans. British Cave Res.Assoc 6
39: 70-84
73-11.
	
Wadge, G. and D. Hudson (1985). Neotectonics of southern Tobago. Transactions of the First Caribbean Geologic Conference. K. R. Rodrigues, Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago: 7-20.
	
Wadge, G. and D. Hudson (1986). Neotectonics of Southern Tobago. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago, ???, ???
	
Wadge, G., et al. (1982). "The ophiolitic Bath-Dunrobin Formation, Jamaica:  Significance for Cretaceous plate margin evolution in the northwestern Caribbean." Journal of the Geological Society of London 139: 321-333.
	
Wadge, G. and R. MacDonald (1985). "Cretaceous tholeiites of the northern continental margin of South America; the Sans Souci Formation of Trinidad." Journal of the Geological Society of London 142(2): 297-308.
	
Wadge, G. and J. B. Shepherd (1984). "Segmentation of the Lesser-Antilles subduction zone." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 71: 297 304.
	
Wadge, G. and J. L. Wooden (1982). "Late Cenozoic alkaline volcanism in  the northwestern Caribbean:  Tectonic setting and Sr isotopic characteristics." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 57: 35-46.
	
Wagner, E. and C. Schubert (1972). "Prehispanic workshop of serpentinites artifacts, Venezuelan Andes, and possible raw material source." Science 175: 888-890.
	
Wagner, M. (1861). Beiträge zu einer physisch-geographischen skizze des isthmus von Panama. Petermann's Geographische Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft: 1-25.
	
Wagner, M. (1862). "Eine reise in das innere der landenge von San Blas und der cordillere non Chepo in der Provinz Panama." Petermann's Geographische Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft: 128-141.
	
Waite, E. (1985). Biostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental analysis of the Sierra Madre Limestone. Contributions to the Stratigraphy of the Sierra Madre Limestone (Cretaceous) of Chiapas, Part 2. Mexico, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Instituto de Geologia, Bulletin. 102: 103-245.
	
Waite, T. D. and R. Szymczak (1993). "Manganese dynamics in surface waters of the eastern Caribbean." Journal of Geophysical Research:   Oceans 98(2): 2361-2369.
	
Waite, T. D. and R. Szymczak (1993). "Particulate iron formation dynamics in surface waters of the eastern Caribbean." Journal of Geophysical Research 98(2): 2371-2383.
	
Walker, B. M. (1972). Petrogenesis of Oceanic Granites from the Aves Ridge in the Caribbean Basin. Department of Geological Sciences. East Lansing, MI, Michigan State University: 7.
	
Walker, J. A. (1981). "Petrogenesis of lavas from cinder cone fields behind the volcanic front of Central America." Journal of Geology 89: 721-739.
	
Walker, J. A. (1984 ). "Volcanic rocks from the Nejapa and Grenada cinder cone allignments, Nicaragua." Journal of Petrology 25: 299-342.
	
Walker, J. A. (1989). "Caribbean arc tholeiites." Journal of Geophysical Research 94(8): 10539-10548.
	
Walker, J. A., Carr, M. J., Patino, L. C., Johnson, C. M., Feigenson, M. D., and Ward, R. L. (1995). "Abrupt change in magma generation processes across the Central American are in southeastern Guatemala: Flux dominated melting near the base of the wedge to decompression melting near the top of the wedge." Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 120(3-4): 378-390.
	
Walker, J. A., et al. (1990). "The petrogentic significance of interstratified high- and low-Ti basalts in central Nicaragua." Journal of Petrology 31: 501-537.
	
Walker, J. A., et al. (2000). "Petrogenetic insights provided by compositional transects across the Central American Arc: Southeastern Guatemala and Honduras." Journal of Geophysical Research, B, Solid Earth and Planets 105(8): 18949-18963.
	
Wallace, M. (1945). Reconnaissance geologic map of frontal strip of Cordillera Central between Rio del Medio and Calderas Bay, Sheet 1 - El Numero, Dominican Seaboard Oil Company: ?
	
Walles, F. E. (1993). "Tectonic and diagenetically induced seal failure within the south-western Great Bahamas Bank." Marine and Petroleum Geology 10: 14-28.
	
Walper, J. L. (1960). "Geology of Cobán-Purulhá area, Alta Verapaz, Guatemala." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 44: 1273-1315.
	
Walper, J. L. (1980). Geologic evolution of the Greater Antilles. Transactions of the Caribbean Geologic Conference. Santo Domingo. 9: 13-21.
	
Walper, J. L. (1980). Tectonic evolution of the Gulf of Mexico. Symposium on the origin of the Gulf of Mexico and the early opening of the Central North Atlantic Ocean. R. H. Pilger, Jr. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University: 87-98.
	
Walper, J. L. and C. L. Rowett (1972). Plate tectonics and the origin of the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico. Transactions of the Gulf Coast Association of the Geological Society. 22: 105-116.
	
Walsh, J. J., et al. (1999). "Simulation of carbon-nitrogen cycling during spring upwelling in the Cariaco Basin." Journal of Geophysical Research - Oceans 104(C4): 7807-7825.
	
Walther, C. H. E. (2003). "The crustal structure of the Cocos ridge off Costa Rica - art. no. 2136." Journal of Geophysical Research   Solid Earth 108(B3): 2136.
	
Walther, C. H. E., et al. (2000). "Crustal structure across the Pacific margin of Nicaragua: Evidence for ophiolitic basement and a shallow mantle sliver." Geophysical Journal International 141(3): 759-777.
	
Ward, D. E., et al. (1973). "Geologia de los Cuadrangulos H-12 Bucaramanga y H-13 Pamplona, Departamento de Santader (Geology of the H-12 Bucaramanga and H-13 Pamplona Quadrangles, Department of Santader)." Ingeominas, Boletin Geologico (Bogota, Colombia) 21(3): 126.
	
Ward, D. E., et al. (1973). Geologia de los cuadrangulos H-12 Bucaramanga y H-13 Pamplona, Departamento de Santander (Geology of th H-12 Bucaramanga and H-13 Pamplona quadrangles, Department of Santander). Boletin Geologico INGEOMINAS, Bogota (Colombia). 21: 126.
	
Ward, P. L. and K. H. Jacob (1971). "Microearthquakes in the Ahuachapan Geothermal Field, El Salvador, Central America." Science 173: 328-330.
	
Ward, W. C. (1996). "Yucatan subsurface stratigraphy: Implications and constraints for the Chicxulub impact: Reply." Carbonates and Evaporites 11(1): 142.
	
Ward, W. C. and R. B. Halley (1985). "Dolomitization in a mixing zone of near-seawater composition, late Pleistocene, northeastern Yucatan Peninsula." Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 55: 407-420.
	
Warne, A., Aslan, A., White, W., Gibeaut, J., Tremblay, T., Smyth, R., Guevara, E., and others (1999). Geo-environmental characterization of the Delta del Orinoco, Venezuela. Austin, The University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology, Center for space Research and PDVSA/DAO.
	
Warne, A. G., et al. (2002). "Regional controls on geomorphology, hydrology, and ecosystem integrity in the Orinoco Delta, Venezuela." Geomorphology 44(3-4): 273-307.
	
Warner, A. J., Jr. (1988). Geologic evolution of the Caribbean Plate with special reference to the Lesser Antilles:  A synopsis. ??? R. B. Schultz. Wichita, KS, Wichita State University. 65: 100-110.
	
Warner, A. J., Jr. (1991). Regional aspects of Cretaceous and Tertiary evolution, depositional history, and relation to the occurrence of petroleum of the Saba Bank, northeastern Caribbean. Department of Geology. Wichita, KS, Wichita State University: 118.
	
Warzeski, E. R., et al. (1996). "A neogene mixed siliciclastic and carbonate foundation for the Quaternary carbonate shelf, Florida Keys." Journal of Sedimentary Research 66(4 Part B): 788-800.
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Camaguey Coring Project - Cuba: Final Report. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Geologic Map, El Palenque Quarry; Geologic Map, San Agustin - Zulueta, Las Villas Province, Cuba (Geological Memorandum HW-3). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Geologic Map, Guira - Jaguita, Las Villas Province, Cuba (Geological Memorandum HW-10). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Geologic Map, Loma Santa Isabel, Las Villas Province, Cuba (Geological Memorandum HW-12). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 1.
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Geologic Map, Malpaes -Chinchila area, Las Villas Province, Cuba (Geological Memorandum HW-7). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Geologic Map, Rio Camajuni; Geologic Map, Rio Guani (Guan Pollo), Las Villas Province, Cuba (Geological Memorandum HW-2). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Geologic Map, Rio los Perros (Chambas - Florencia), Camaguey Province (Geological Memorandum HW-5). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Geologic Map, Rio Sagua la Chica and Rio Camajuani, Las Villas Province, Cuba (Geological Memorandum HW-1). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Geological Map, Jatibonico del Norte River, Las Villas Province, Cuba (Geological Memorandum HW-4). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 1.
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Geological Map, Lutgarda - Guayabo, Las Villas Province, Cuba (Geological Memorandum HW-9). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Geological Map, Malpaez - Chinchila - Jumagua; Geological Map, Finca la Ronda Section, Las Villas Province, Cuba (Geological Memorandum HW-8). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: ???
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Geological Map, Sagua la Grande River, Las Villas Province (Geological Memorandum HW-6). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 2.
	
Wassall, H. (1952). Sagua - Calabazar Area (Geological Memorandum HW-11). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: ???
	
Wassall, H. (1953). Geological Memorandum HW-14. La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 4.
	
Wassall, H. (1953). Geology of Cifuentes - San Diego del Valle Area, Cuba (Geological Memorandum HW-15). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 15.
	
Wassall, H. (1953). Geology South of the Playa Panchita - Central Santa Teresa Area (Geological Memorandum HW-13). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Wassall, H. (1953). Jarahueca Area (Geological Memorandum HW-17). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 5.
	
Wassall, H. (1953). Santa Clara Area (Geological Memorandum HW-16). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 11.
	
Wassall, H. (1954). Santa Clara - Placetas Area (Geological Memorandum HW-19). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 6.
	
Wassall, H. (1954). Santa Clara Area (Geological Memorandum HW-20). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Wassall, H. (1954). Seibabo - Santa Clara - Falcon Areas (Geological Memorandum HW-18). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 7.
	
Wassall, H. (1955). Cabaiguan - Jatibonico Area (Geological Memorandum HW-21). La Habana, Cuban Gulf Oil Co.: 3.
	
Wassall, H. (1956). The relationship of oil and serpentine in Cuba. 20th International Geological Congress, Mexico City, Mexico. ??? Mexico City, Mexico, ???: 67-77.
	
Wassall, H. (1957). "Cuba's north coast offers good exploration prospects." World Oil 44: 240261-240262.
	
Watanabe, T., et al. (1998). "Coral records of the Caribbean Sea and marine environmental reconstruction." Chishitsu News 7(527): 37-42.
	
Watkins, J. S. (1989). The Middle America Trench off southern Mexico. The Eastern Pacific Ocean and Hawaii. E. L. Winterer, D. M. Hussong and R. W. Decker. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. N: 523-533.
	
Watkins, J. S., et al. (1981). "Accretion, underplating, subduction, and tectonic evolution, southern Mexico." Oceanologica Acta 4 (supplement): 213-224.
	
Watkins, N. D., and Cambray, F. W. (1970). "Paleomagnetism of Cretaceous dikes from Jamaica." Geophysical Journal Royal Astronomical Society of London 22: 163-179.
	
Watkins, N. D. and F. W. Cambray (1971). "Paleomagnetism of Cretaceous dikes from Jamaica." Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomy Society 22: 163-179.
	
Watters, D., et al. (1991). paleoshorelines and the prehistory of Barbuda, West Indies. Paleoshorelines and Prehistory: An Investigation of Method. L. L. Johnson and N. Stright. Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press: 15-52.
	
Watters, D. R. and J. Donahue (1990). Geoarchaeological research on Barbuda, Antigua and Montserrat. Proceedings of the Eleventh Congress of the International Association for Caribbean Archaeology. A. G. P. Tekakis, I. V. Arenas and M. S. Obediente, Universiyt of Puerto Rico, U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Forest Service: 375-379.
	
Weaver, J., Ed. (1962). Transactions of the 2nd Caribbean Geological Conference, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico , 4-9 Jan. 1959.
	
Weaver, J. (1962). Transactions of the 2nd Caribbean Geological Conference, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, January 4-9, 1959. Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico: 176.
	
Weaver, J., et al. (1975). "Geology and tectonics of the Mona Passage." Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 56: 451.
	
Weaver, J. D. (1961). "Erosion surfaces in the Caribbean and their significance." Nature 190(4782): 1186-1187.
	
Weaver, J. D. (1977). Geology, Geophysics, and Resources of the Caribbean: Report of the IDOE Workshop on the Geology and Marine Geophysics of the Caribbean region and its resources, Kingston, Jamaica, 17-22 February 1975, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, UNESCO (Universtiy of Puerto Rico Press).
	
Weaver, O. D. (1970). "Caribbean island and shelf areas hit peak exploration activity." Oil and Gas Journal?: 183-186.
	
Webber, B. N. and J. Ojeda (1957). "Investigacion sobre lateritas fosiles en al regiones sureste de Oaxaca y sur de Chiapas (Investigation on fossil laterites in the southeast regions of Oaxaca and south of Chiapas)." Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales, Mexcio City, Boletin 37: 1-67.
	
Weber, B. and H. Kohler (1999). "Sm-Nd, Rb-Sr and U-Pb geochronology of a Grenville terrane in southern Mexico: origin and geologic history of the Guichicovi complex." Precambrian Research 96(3-4): 245-262.
	
Weber, H.-S. (1979). "On the lithology and stratigraphy of the "Estratos de Metapán" in the Republic of El Salvador, Central America." Geologisches Jahrbuch, Reihe B Heft 37: 31-54.
	
Weber, H. S. and G. Wiesemann (1978). Mapa Geológico de la República de El Salvador/América Central (Geologic map of the Republic of El Salvador/Central America). Hanover, Bundesanstalt Für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe.
	
Weber, J. a. A., J. (2015). "Trinidad's Northern Range: "Reversal of forturne": Bedrock Structure and Metamorphic Geology, and Tectonic Geology, Conference Field Trip Field Guide." 20th Caribbean Geological Conference 2015, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad & Tobago, W.I.
	
Weber, J. C., et al. (2001). "GPS estimate of relative motion between the Caribbean and South American plates, and geologic implications for Trinidad and Venezuela." Geology 29(1): 75-78.
	
Weber, J. C. and D. A. Ferrill (2002). Structural geology of the Tompire Bay outcrops, eastern Northern Range, Trinidad. Caribbean Geology Into the Third Millennium: Transactions of the Fifteenth Caribbean Geological Conference. T. A. Jackson. Mona, Jamaica, University of the West Indies Press: 87-95.
	
WEC-Schulberger (1997). Well Evaluation (Evaluación de pozos). Schulberger Surenco: 47.
	
Weeks, L. A., et al. (1971). "Structural relations among Lesser Antilles, Venezuela, and Trinidad-Tobago." The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 55(10): 1741-1752.
	
Weidie, A. E., et al. (1979). Geology of Yucatan Platform. Geology of Cancun, Quintana Roo, Mexico, 1979 Field Trip Guidebook, West Texas Geological Society: 50-68.
	
Weidmann, J. (1978). "Ammonites from the Curaçao lava formation, Curacao, Caribbean." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 361-364.
	
Weiland, T. J., et al. (1992). "Petrologic, stratigraphic and tectonic significance of Mesozoic volcanic rocks in the Río Wampú area, eastern Honduras." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 6: 309-325.
	
Weinberg, R. F. (1992). "Neotectonic development of western Nicaragua." Tectonics 11: 1010-1017.
	
Weisbord, N. E. (1957). "Notes on the Cabo Blanco Area, Venezuela." Bulletin of American Paleontology 38(165): 25.
	
Weisbord, N. E. (1962). "Late Cenozoic Gastropods From Northern Venezuela." Bulletin of American Paleontology 42(193): 672.
	
Weisbord, N. E. (1964). "Late Cenozoic Pelecypods From Northern Venezuela." Bulletin of American Paleontology 45(204): 523.
	
Weisbord, N. E. (1964). "Late Cenozoic Scaphopods and Serpulid Polychaetes From Northern Venezuela." Bulletin of American Paleontology 47(214): 97.
	
Weisbord, N. E. (1967). "Some Late Cenozoic Bryozoa From Cabo Blanco, Venezuela." Bulletin of American Paleontology 53(237): 247.
	
Weisbord, N. E. (1968). "Some Late Cenozoic Stony Corals From Northern Venezuela." Bulletin of American Paleontology 55(246): 288.
	
Weisbord, N. E. (1969). "Some Late Cenozoic Echinoidea From Cabo Blanco, Venezuela." Bulletin of American Paleontology 56(252): 98.
	
Weisbord, N. E. (1971). "A New Species of Coronula (Cirripedia) from the Lower Pliocene of Venezuela)." Bulletin of American Paleontology 60(265): 13.
	
Weiske, F. (1926). "Memoria detallada de los estudios del Rio Magdalena:  Obras proyectadas para su arreglo y resumen del presupuesto (Detailed account of the studies of the Magdalena River:  Projected works for the order and summary of the budget)." Ministerio de Obras Publicas, Editorial Minerva, Bogota: ?
	
Wellington, G. and P. Glynn (1983). "Environmental influences on skeletal banding in Eastern Pacific (Panama) corals." Coral Reefs 1: 215-222.
	
Wells, G. C. (1964). Middle Magdalena Valley, Geologic Map, Intercol.
	
Wells, J. W. (1941). "Upper Cretaceous Corals From Cuba." Bulletin of American Paleontology 256(97): 18.
	
Wells, J. W. and J. C. Lang (1973). "Systematic list of Jamaican shallow-water Scleractinia." Bulletin of Marine Science 23: 55-58.
	
Wells, S. G., et al. (1988). "Regional variations in tectonic geomorphology along a segmented convergent plate boundary, Pacific coast of Costa Rica." Geomorphology 1: 239-265.
	
Wells, W. V. (1857). Explorations and Adventures in Honduras. New York, Harper Brothers.
	
Werner, R. and K. Hoernle (2003). "New volcanological and volatile data provide strong support for the continuous existence of Galapagos Islands over the past 17 million years." International Journal of Earth Sciences 92(6): 904-911.
	The first systematic rock sampling of volcanoes along the Galapagos hotspot tracks (the aseismic Cocos, Carnegie, Malpelo and Coiba ridges and adjacent seamounts) in the area between the Galapagos Islands and Central and South America was carried out on R/V Sonne cruise 144-3. Guyot-shaped seamounts, paleo-beach or intertidal wave-cut platform deposits, the structure and texture of volcanic rocks, and low sulfur contents of fresh glasses dredged at these volcanoes imply that ocean islands existed continuously above the Galapagos hotspot for at least the past 17 million years. These new data significantly extend the time period over which the unique endemic Galapagos fauna could have evolved, providing a complete solution to the long-standing enigma of the evolution of Galapagos land and marine iguanas.

Werner, R., et al. (2003). "Geodynamic evolution of the Galapagos hot spot system (Central East Pacific) over the past 20 m.y.: Constraints from morphology, geochemistry, and magnetic anomalies - art. no. 1108." Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 4: 1108.
	
Werner, R., et al. (2003). "Geodynamic evolution of the Galápagos hot spot system (Central East Pacific) over the past 20 m.y.: Constraints from morphology, geochemistry, and magnetic anomalies." Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 4(12): 1108.
	We report results of magnetic data from the Nazca Plate and of geochemical (major element and Sr-Nd-Pb-isotope) analyses of rocks dredged from the Galápagos hot spot tracks (Cocos, Carnegie, Malpelo and Coiba Ridges and adjacent seamounts) in the Central East Pacific. Magnetic anomalies indicate that the Malpelo and Carnegie Ridges were once attached and that seafloor spreading separated the two ridges between 14.5 Ma and 9.5 Ma. The variations in Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic composition show that three of the mantle components currently observed at the Galápagos (Central, Southern, and Eastern) existed in the hot spot for at least 20 m.y., whereas the Northern Galápagos mantle component has been present for at least ~15 Ma. Our data are consistent with the existence of a compositionally zoned/striped Galápagos plume since ~20 Ma. Combined constraints from the morphology of the hot spot tracks, the magnetic record, and the isotope geochemistry of the rock samples provide new insights into the hot spot-ridge geometry and interaction of the Galápagos hot spot with the Cocos-Nazca spreading center (CNS) over the past 20 m.y. At 19.5 Ma a ridge jump moved the spreading axis to the northern edge of the hot spot. Between 19.5 and 14.5 Ma, the spreading axis was located above the center of the hot spot. At 14.5 Ma, a new ridge jump moved the spreading axis to the south, splitting the paleo-Carnegie Ridge into the present Carnegie and Malpelo Ridges. The repeated ridge jumps reflect capture of the northwardly drifting spreading center by the Galápagos hot spot. At 11–12 Ma an offset of the spreading axis lay above the plume center. Spreading between the Carnegie and Malpelo Ridges continued until 9.5 Ma.

Werner, R., et al. (1999). "Drowned 14-m.y.-old Galapagos Archipelago off the coast of Costa Rica: Implications for tectonic and evolutionary models." Geology (Boulder) 27(6): 499-502.
	Volcanic rocks were dredged from the Cocos and Fisher ridges and seamounts along a 250 km profile parallel to the Pacific coast of Costa Rica. The composition and laser (super 40) Ar/ (super 39) Ar ages of the Cocos Ridge and Seamounts are consistent with their formation above the Galapagos hotspot 13.0-14.5 Ma. The reconstructed paleoenvironment and chemistry of the Fisher Ridge are consistent with it having originated at a mid-oceanic ridge system. Laser (super 40) Ar/ (super 39) Ar dating of fresh basalt glass from the Fisher Ridge yielded isochron ages of 19.2+ or -0.3 Ma and 30.0+ or -0.5 Ma. The Fisher Ridge is along a lithospheric fault that may represent an extensional fracture formed when the oceanic floor rode over the Galapagos hotspot. Even though the younger structures are currently at water depths of >1000 m, volcanological, geochemical, and geophysical observations indicate that they once formed an emerged archipelago very similar in morphology to the Galapagos islands. The diversity of the biota on the isolated Galapagos islands, as first described by Charles Darwin, has had an important influence on the development of the theory of evolution. The existence of a now-drowned Galapagos archipelago 14.5 Ma considerably increases speciation times for the Galapagos biota and provides a complete solution to a long-standing controversy concerning the divergence of the Galapagos marine and land iguanas from a single ancestral species.

Wernicke, B. and P. G. Tilke (1989). Extensional tectonic framework of the U.S. central Atlantic passive margin. Extensional tectonics and stratigraphy of the north Atlantic margins. A. J. Tankard and H. R. Balkwill. Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 46: 7-21.
	
Wescott, W. A. and F. G. Ethridge (1983). "Eocene fan delta/submarine fan deposition in the Wagwater Trough, east-central Jamaica." Sedimentology 30: 235-247.
	
Wessen, A. v. (1943). Geology and Paleontology of Central Camaguey, Cuba. Utrecht, Holland, Instituut der Rijksuniversiteit.
	
Westbrook, G., et al. (1988). "Cross section of an accretionary complex: Barbados Ridge complex." Geology 16: 631-635.
	
Westbrook, G. K. (1975). "The structure of the crust and upper mantle in the region of Barbados and the Lesser-Antilles." Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 43: 201-242.
	
Westbrook, G. K. (1982). The Barbados Ridge Complex:  Tectonics of a mature forearc system. Trench-forearc geology:  sedimentary and tectonics on modern and active ancient plate margins. J. K. Leggett. London, UK, Blackwell. 10.
	
Westbrook, G. K., et al. (1995). Structure and tectonics of the Panama-Nazca plate boundary. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the Caribbean Plate Boundary in Southern Central America: 91-109.
	
Westbrook, G. K., et al., Eds. (1984). Geophysics and the Structure of Lesser Antilles Fore-arc. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project.
	
Westbrook, G. K. and W. R. McCann (1986). Subduction of Atlantic lithospher beneath the Caribbean. The Geology of North America, Vol. M:  The Western North Atlantic Region. P. R. Vogt and B. E. Tucholke. Boulder, CO, Geological Socienty of America. M: 341-350.
	
Westbrook, G. K., et al. (1982). "Extensive underthrusting of undeformed sediment beneath the accretionary complex of the Lesser Antilles subduction zone." Nature 300: 625-628.
	
Westercamp, D., et al. (1985). The Grenadines, Southern Lesser-Antilles:  I. Stratigraphy and volcano-structural evolution. Symposium Geodynamique des Caraibes. A. Mascle. Paris, Technip: 109-118.
	
Westphall, M. J. (1986). The Holocene Reef of the Enriquillo Valley. Fisher island Station, University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science.
	
West-Thomas, J. (1988). Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Provenance of the Silica Sand Deposits Black River St. Elizabeth, Jamaica, W.I., uUniversity of the West Indies: 199.
	
West-Thomas, J. and T. A. Jackson (1988). The mineralogy and chemistry of the silica sand deposits, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica. 11th Caribbean Geological Conference, Barbados. L. Barker. Barbados: 27.21-27.27.
	
Wetzel, W. and R. Weyl (1953). "Zur Kenntnis des Alttertiärs im südlichen Santo Domingo (Westindien)." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen 98: 21-34.
	
Wever, T. F., et al. (1997). "Side-scan and acoustic subbottom characterization of the sea floor near the Dry Tortugas, Florida." Geo - Marine Letters 17(4): 246-252.
	
Weyl, R. (1939). "Geologische Forschungen in der Cordillera Central von Santo Domingo, Westindien." Photographie und Forschung 3: 82-89.
	
Weyl, R. (1939). "Zur Geologie der Cordillera Central von Santo Domingo." Veröffentlichungen des Deutsch-Dominikanischen Tropenforschungs-Instituts 1: 128-133.
	
Weyl, R. (1940). "Blockmeere in der Cordillera Central von Santo Domingo (Westindien)." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 92: 173-179.
	
Weyl, R. (1940). "Geologische Forschungsmöglichkeiten in Santo Domingo (Westindien)." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 92: 54-60.
	
Weyl, R. (1940). "Zum Bau des Antillenbogen." Zentralblatt für Mineralogie, Abteilung B?: 276-288.
	
Weyl, R. (1941). "Bau und Geschichte der Cordillera Central von Santo Domingo (Westindien)." Veröffentlichungen des Deutsch-Dominikanischen Tropenforschungs-Instituts (Jena) 2.
	
Weyl, R. (1941). "Ein geologischer Ausflug an den Enriquillo-See (Dominikanishe Republik, Westindien)." Natur und Volk 71: 215-226.
	
Weyl, R. (1941). "Märchen über das Deutsch-Dominikanische Tropenforschungs-institut." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 93: 250-251.
	
Weyl, R. (1942). "Die geotektonische Stellung der Großen Antillen." Forschungen und Fortschritte 18: 58-60.
	
Weyl, R. (1948). "Antillenbogen und Karibisches Meer." Forschungen und Fortschritte 24: 281-284.
	
Weyl, R. (1948). "Die kristallinen Schiefer des Antillenbogens." Forschungen und Fortschritte 24: 5-7.
	
Weyl, R. (1948). "Geología Histórica de la Cordillera Central de la Isla de Santo Domingo y su posición en el arco de las Antillas (Historic geology of the Central Cordillera of Santo Domingo Island and its position in the Antilles Arc)." Boletín de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística 64: 431-452.
	
Weyl, R. (1949). "Der Bergbau Ibero-Amerikas." Nachrichten für den Außenhandel (Berlin) 4: 3.
	
Weyl, R. (1949). "Die kristallinen Schiefer der Cordillera Central von Santo Domingo und ihre Bedeutung für den Bau des Antillenbogens." Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen, Abteilung B 90: 317-344.
	
Weyl, R. (1949). "Eine neue Tiefenkarte der Caribischen See und ihre tektonische Ausdeutung." Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 4: 173-174.
	
Weyl, R. (1949). "Geología Histórica de la Cordillera Central de la Isla de Santo Domingo y su posición en el Arco de las Antillas (Historic geology of the Central Cordillera of Santo Domingo Island and its position en the Antilles Arc)." Petroleos Mexicanos 73: 13-29.
	
Weyl, R. (1950). "Die geologische Geschichte des Antillenbogens unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Cordillera Central von Santo Domingo." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen 92: 137-242.
	
Weyl, R. (1950). "Die Wurzeln der Gebirge." Natur und Volk 80: 229-237.
	
Weyl, R. (1950). "Dominikanische Republik (Dominican-Republic)." Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 4: 217.
	
Weyl, R. (1950). "Zusammenhänge und Ursachen der Gebirgsbildung." Die Umschau 50: 457-460.
	
Weyl, R. (1951). "Die Großformen der amerikanischen Inselbögen." Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 4: 246-253.
	
Weyl, R. (1951). "Zusammenhänge der Gebirgsbildung." Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau 4: 154-160.
	
Weyl, R. (1952). "Auf den Vulkanen El Salvadors." Natur und Volk 82: 371-380.
	
Weyl, R. (1952). "En los volcanes de El Salvador (In the volcanos of El Salvador)." Anuario Inst. Trop. Invest. Cient. (San Salvador) 2: 33-44.
	
Weyl, R. (1952). "Erscheinungen und Ursachen der Gebirgsbildung." Geographische Rundschau 4: 121-129.
	
Weyl, R. (1952). "Estudios geológicos en la región del Rio Comalapa, El Salvador (Geologic studies in the region of the Comalapa River, El Salvador)." Comun. Inst. Trop. Invest. Cient. (San Salvador) 3.
	
Weyl, R. (1953). "Aktiver und erloschener Vulkanismus in El Salvador - Mittelamerika." Die Umschau 53: 46-48.
	
Weyl, R. (1953). "Aktiver und erloschener Vulkanismus in El Salvador (Zentralamerika)." Geologische Rundschau 42: 146.
	
Weyl, R. (1953). "Beiträge zur Geologie El Salvadors: I. Geologisch-morphologische Übersicht." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte: 198-202.
	
Weyl, R. (1953). "Beiträge zur Geologie El Salvadors: II. Lithogenetische Studien in den Mangroven der Pazifik-Küste." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte: 202-218.
	
Weyl, R. (1953). "Die Sierra de Bahoruco von Santo Domingo und ihre Stellung im Antillenbogen." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen 98: 1-27.
	
Weyl, R. (1953). "Examen geológico-petrográfico de un perfil de toba en la República de El Salvador (Informe preliminar)  (Geologic-petrographic exam of a tuff section in the Republic of El Salvador (Preliminary report))." Comun. Inst. Trop. Invest. Cient. (San Salvador) 2.1: 10-14.
	
Weyl, R. (1953). "Geologische Steifzüge durch Westindien und Mittelamerika." Kramer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main.
	
Weyl, R. (1953). "In den Mangroven El Salvadors." Natur und Volk 83: 120-130.
	
Weyl, R. (1954). "Beiträge zur Geologie El Salvadors: IV. Die Bimsaschen in der Umgebung San Salvadors." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte: 49-70.
	
Weyl, R. (1954). "Beiträge zur Geologie El Salvadors: V. Die Schmelztuffe der Balsamkette." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen 99: 1-32.
	
Weyl, R. (1954). "Beiträge zur Geologie El Salvadors: VI. Die Lavae der jungen Vulkane." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen 101: 12-38.
	
Weyl, R. (1954). "Bibliografía preliminar de la Geología Costaricense (Preliminary Bibliography of the Costa Rican Geology)."?
	
Weyl, R. (1954). "Die Bimsaschen in der Umgebung San Salvadors." Geologischmorphologische Ubersicht 98: 49-70.
	
Weyl, R. (1954). "Die Schmelztuffe des zirkumpazifischen Vulkangürtels." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 105: 207.
	
Weyl, R. (1954). "Estudios litogeneticos en los manglares de las costa del Pacifico (Lithogenetic studies of the mangroves of the Pacific coast)." Comun. Inst. Trop. Invest. Cient. (San Salvador) 3.4: 135-146.
	
Weyl, R. (1954). "Glutwolken, Gluttuffe und Schmelztuffe." Natur und Volk 84: 275-282.
	
Weyl, R. (1954). "Vulkanische Tätigkeit in El Salvador." Photographie und Wissenschaft 3: 3-8.
	
Weyl, R. (1955). "Estudios geológicos en la Cordillera de Talamanca (Geologic studies of the Cordillera de Talamanca)." Insitituto Geográfico de Costa Rica (San José, Costa Rica): ?
	
Weyl, R. (1955). "Geologische Studien in der Cordillera de Talamanca von Costa Rica (Geologic studies of the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica)." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte: 262-269.
	
Weyl, R. (1955). "Las cenizas de pomez en los alrededores de San Salvador (The pumice ashes in the environs of San Salvador)." Comun. Inst. Trop. Invest. Cient. (San Salvador, El Salvador) 4(3/4): 81-94.
	
Weyl, R. (1955). "Vestigos de una glaciación del pleistoceno en la Cordillera Talamanca, Costa Rica, A. C. (Vestiges of a Pleistocene glaciation in the Cordillera Talamanca, Costa Rica)." Instituto Geográfico de Costa Rica (San José, Costa Rica), Informe Trimestral, Julio a Septiembre?
	
Weyl, R. (1956). "Costa Rica, die Schweiz Mittelamerikas." Geographische Rundschau 8: 47-474.
	
Weyl, R. (1956). "Eiszeitliche Gletscherspuren in Costa Rica (Mittelamerika)." Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie 3: 318-325.
	
Weyl, R. (1956). "Excursiones geológicas en Costa Rica (Geologic excursions in Costa Rica)." Instituto Geográfico de Costa Rica (San José, Costa Rica), Informe Triestral, Octubre a Diciembre: ?
	
Weyl, R. (1956). "Geologische Wanderungen durch Costa Rica." Natur und Volk 86: 13-24, 93-102, 211-219, 380-390, 410-421?
	
Weyl, R. (1956). "Neue Erkenntnisse über den geologischen Aufbau der Ozeanböden." Nachrichten der Gießener Hochschulgesellschaft 25: 60-73.
	
Weyl, R. (1956). "Spuren eiszeitlicher Vergletscherung in der Cordillera de Talamanca Costa Ricas (Mittelamerika)." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen 102: 283-294.
	
Weyl, R. (1956). "Volcanismo y plutonismo en el sur de Centro América (Volcanism and plutonism in the south of Central America)." Instituto Geográfico de Costa Rica (San José, Costa Rica), Informe Trimestral, Julio a Septiembre?: ?
	
Weyl, R. (1957). "Beiträge zur Geologie der Cordillera de Talamanca Costa Ricas (Mittelamerika)." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen 105: 123-204.
	
Weyl, R. (1957). Contribución a la Geología de la Cordillera de Talamanca de Costa Rica (Centro America) (Contribution to the Geology of the Cordillera de Talamanca of Costa Rica (Central America)). San José, Costa Rica, ?
	
Weyl, R. (1957). "Erdgeschichte und Bau der Cordillera de Talamanca in Costa Rica (Mittelamerika)." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 109: 663-664.
	
Weyl, R. (1957). "Erdgeschichte und Bau der mittelamerikanishen Festlandsbrücke." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 109: 644-646.
	
Weyl, R. (1957). "Las tobas fundas de la Cadena Costera (The basal tuffs of the Costera Chain)." Comun. Inst. Trop. Invest. Cient. (San Salvador, El Salvador) 6.1: 1-20.
	
Weyl, R. (1957). "Vulkanismus und Plutonismus in südlichen Mittelamerikas (Volcanism and plutonism in southern Middle America)." Geologische Rundschau 46: 220-228.
	
Weyl, R. (1958). "Dominikanische Republik (Dominican-Republic)." Großer Herder Atlas: 350-351.
	
Weyl, R. (1959). "Contribución al conocimiento de las rocas magmáticas de Costa Rica (Contribution to the knowledge of the magmatic rocks of Costa Rica)." Instituto Geográfico de Costa Rica (San José, Costa Rica): Informe semestral, Julio a Diciembre?: 19-23.
	
Weyl, R. (1960). "Die Orogene Mittelamerikas (The Middle America orogeny)." Geologische Rundschau 50: 605-619.
	
Weyl, R. (1960). "Ignimbritas Centroamericanas (Central American ignimbrites)." Instituto Geográfico de Costa Rica (San José, Costa Rica): Informe Semestral, Enero a Junio?: 39-60.
	
Weyl, R. (1960). "Los Orógenos Centroamericanos (The Central American orogeny)." Instituto Geográfico de Costa Rica (San José, Costa Rica): Informe Semestral, Enero a Junio?: 25-38.
	
Weyl, R. (1961). "Die Geologie Mittelamerika."
	
Weyl, R. (1961). "Mittelamerikanische Ignimbrite." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen 113: 23-46.
	
Weyl, R. (1961). "Volcanes en Centroamérica." Alemania 2: 39-43.
	
Weyl, R. (1962). "Geologische Studienreise auf die Kleinen Antillen." Gießener Hochschulblätter 10.
	
Weyl, R. (1962). "Glaciares Pleistocenos en la zona tropical de Centroamerica (Pleistocene glaciation in the tropical zone of Central America)." Alemania 2.
	
Weyl, R. (1962). "Landschaft und Erdgeschichte der Kleinen Antillen:." Natur und Museum 93: 12-20
91-98
169-176.
	
Weyl, R. (1963). "Bau und Bild der Kleinen Antillen." Geographische Rundschau 15: 103-107.
	
Weyl, R. (1963). "Das geologische Erdbild im Wandel der Zeiten." Nachrichten der Gießener Hochschulgesellschaft 32: 41-54.
	
Weyl, R. (1964). "Die paläogeographische Entwicklung des mittelamerikanisch-westindischen Raumes." Geologische Rundschau 54: ?
	
Weyl, R. (1964). Volcanoes and volcanic rocks in Central America and the West Indies. Transactions of the 4th Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad: 357-360.
	
Weyl, R. (1965). Erdgeschichte und Landschaftsbild in Mittelamerika. Frankfurt, Verlag W. Kramer.
	
Weyl, R. (1966). Die Geologie der Antillen. Berlin, Verlag Borntraeger.
	
Weyl, R. (1966). "Die paläogeographische Entwicklung des mittelamerikanischen Raumes." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 116.
	
Weyl, R. (1966). "Ozeanische Kruste im südlichen Mittelamerika? (Ocean crust in southern Middle America)." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte 5: 275-281.
	
Weyl, R. (1966). "The paleogeographic development of the Central American-West Indian region." Boletin Informativo, Associacion Venezolano de Geologia, Mineralogia y Petrologia 9: ?
	
Weyl, R. (1966). "Tektonik, Magmatismus und Krustenbau in Mittelamerika und Westindien." Geotektonische Forschungen 23: 67-109.
	
Weyl, R. (1967). "Krustenbau und sialischer Magmatismus." Geologische Rundschau 56: 369-372.
	
Weyl, R. (1967). "Volcanoes and volcanic rocks in Central America and the West Indies." Bulletin Volcanologique 3.
	
Weyl, R. (1969). "Arenas Magnetíticas de la costa de Nicoya (Magnetitic sands of the coast of Nicoya)." Instituto Geográfico Nacional (San José, Costa Rica), Informe Semestral, Enero-Julio?: ?
	
Weyl, R. (1969). "El desarrollo paleogeográfico de Centramérica (The paleogeographic development of Central America)." First Colombian Geological Congress.
	
Weyl, R. (1969). "Geologische Bilder aus Mittelamerika." Natur und Museum 99: 415-423; 559-570.
	
Weyl, R. (1969). "Magmatische Förderphasen und Gesteinschemismus in Costa Rica (Mittelamerika)." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte: 423-446.
	
Weyl, R. (1969). "Magnetitsande der Küste Nicoyas (Costa Rica, Mittelamerika) (Magnetitic sands of Nicoya coast (Costa Rica, Middle America)." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Monatshefte: 499-511.
	
Weyl, R. (1969). "Mittelamerika, Krustenbau, und paläogeographische Entwicklung." Umschau 1970 (Frankfurt am Main): 295-299.
	
Weyl, R. (1969). Results of Detailed Investigations in the Azuero Area, Panama, United Nations Development Program: ?
	
Weyl, R. (1970). "Geologische Bilder aus Mittelamerika." Natur und Museum 100: 120-128; 269-278;  362-370, ?
	
Weyl, R. (1971). "Die morphologisch-tektonische Gliederung Costa Ricas (Mittelamerika)." Erdkunde (Bonn) 25: 223-230.
	
Weyl, R. (1971). "La Clasificación Morfotectónica de Costa Rica (The Morphotectonic Classification of Costa Rica)." Instituto Geográfico Nacional, Informe Semestral Julio a Diciembre: 107-125.
	
Weyl, R. (1971). "Mittelamerika (Literaturbericht). Mit einem Beitrag von O. H. Bohnenberger." Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie, Teil 1: 1003-1051.
	
Weyl, R. (1972). "Ozeanische Kruste und Mantelgestein in Costa Rica (Mittelamerika)." DFG - Forschungsbericht Unternehmen Erdmantel (Wiesbaden): 336-340.
	
Weyl, R. (1972). "Waldverwüstung, Bodenerosion und Wasserversorgung in Kolumbien." Natur und Museum 102.
	
Weyl, R. (1974). "Die Paläogeographische Entwicklung Mittelamerikas." Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie, Teil 1 5/6: 432-466.
	
Weyl, R. (1974). "El desarrollo de paleogeografía de América Central (The paleogeographic development of Central America)." Boletin de la Asociación Mexicana de Geólogia Petroleos (Mexico City, Mexico) 25: 375-424.
	
Weyl, R. (1974). "Vulkanismus und Vulkanlandschaft im Hochland von Mexiko." Natur und Museum 104: 137-152.
	
Weyl, R. (1976). "Das Erdbeben von Guatemala am 4. Februar." Umschau 76 (Frankfurt am Main): 254-255.
	
Weyl, R. (1976). "Geologische Forschungen in El Salvador (Mittelamerika)." Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv 2: 63-67.
	
Weyl, R. (1978). "The economic significance of magmatism and metallogenesis in Central America." Natural Resources and Development (Tübingen) 8: ?
	
Weyl, R. (1978). "Magmatismus und Metallogenese in Mittelamerika." Münster Forschungen zur Geologie und Paläontologie 44/45: 43-85.
	
Weyl, R. (1980). Geology of Central America. Berlin-Stuttgart, Gebrueder Borntraeger.
	
Weyl, R. (1982). Geology of Central America. Berlin, Borntrager Gebruder.
	
Weyl, R. (???). Costa Rica Bibliography, Biblioteca Geologica, Biblioteca de Ciencias, Museo Nacional de Costa Rica.
	
Weyl, R. and D. Henningsen (1967). "Ozeanische Kruste im Nicoya-Komplex von Costa Rica (Mittelamerika) (Ocean crust in Nicoya Complex of Costa Rica (Middle America)." Geologische Rundschau 57: 33-47.
	
Weyl, R. and H. Pichler (1973). "Petrochemical aspects of Central American magmatism." Publ. Geol. del ICAITI (Guatemala) 4: 81-90.
	
Weyl, R., et al. (1977). "Estudios geológicos de la cuenca alta de Puebla-Tlaxcala (México) (Geologic studies of the high basin of Puebla-Tlaxcala (Mexico))." Fifth Reunión de Geólogos de América Central, Managua, Nicaragua: ?
	
Weyl, R., et al. (1978). "Geologie des Hochbeckens von Puebla-Tlaxcala und seiner Umgebung (Erläuterung zu einer Geologischen Karte)." Das Mexiko-Projekt der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft 11: ?
	
Weyl, R., et al. (1978). "Geologische Untersuchungen im Hochlandsbecken von Puebla-Tlaxcala." Münster Forschungen zur Geologie und Paläontologie 44/45: 1-16.
	
Wharon, S. R. (1991). Regional evaluation of cut-slope instability, using statistical methods - Northern Range, Trinidad. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 107-117.
	
Wharton, S., et al. (1985). A preliminary investigation of the Brigand Hill Limestone, Brigand Hill Quarry, Plum Mitan Road. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. K. Rodrigues. San Juan, Trinidad and Tobago, General Printers: 102-113.
	
Wharton, S. P. (1991). Cut-slope instability and associated sub-watershed development - Carenage/Chaguaramas, Trinidad. Transactions of the Second Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 118-131.
	
Wharton, S. R. (1989). Statistical Analysis of Landslide Parameters, Northern Range, Trinidad. Department of Geology and Geological Engineering. Windsor, Ontario, Canada, University of Windsor: 137.
	
Wharton, S. R. (1991). Cut-slope instability and associated sub-watershed development:  Carenage/Chaguaramas, Trinidad. Transactions of the Second geological conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago. K. A. Gillezeau. 2: 118-130.
	
Wharton, S. R. (1991). Regional evaluation of cut-slope instability, using statistical methods:  Northern Range, Trinidad. Transactions of the Second geological conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad and Tobago. K. A. Gillezeau. 2: 107-117.
	
Wheeler, C. B. (1963). "Oligocene and Lower Miocene stratigraphy of western and northeastern Falcon Basin, Venezuela." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 47: 35-68.
	
Wheeler, O. C. (1935). Tertiary stratigraphy of the Middle Magdalena Valley. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 87: 7-39.
	
Whetten, J. T. (1966). Geology of St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Caribbean Geological Investigations. H. H. Hess. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America Memoir. 98: 177-239.
	
Whetten, J. T. (1974). Field guide to the geology of Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Guidebook to the Geology and Ecology of Some Marine and Terrestrial Environments, St. Croix, US Virgin Islands. H. Multer and L. Gerhard. Christiansted, St. Croix, Virgin Islands, Fairleigh Dickinson University, West Indies Laboratory. 5: 129-143.
	
Whitaker, F. F. and P. L. Smart (1998). "Hydrology, geochemistry and diagenesis of fracture blue holes, South Andros, Bahamas." Cave and Karst Science 25(2): 75-82.
	
White, B., et al. (1998). "Bahamian coral reefs yield evidence of a brief sea-level lowstand during the last interglacial." Carbonates and Evaporites 13(1): 10-22.
	
White, B., et al. (1998). "Bahamian coral reefs yield evidence of a brief sea-level lowstand during the last interglacial: Reply." Carbonates and Evaporites 13(2): 231-234.
	
White, B., et al. (1998). "Bahamian coral reefs yield evidence of a brief sea-level lowstand during the last interglacial
Reef issue; international year of the reef." Carbonates and Evaporites 13(1): 10-22.
	
White, G. W. (1980). "Permian-Triassic continental reconstruction of the Gulf of Mexico-Caribbean Area." Nature 283: 823-826.
	
White, G. W. and K. C. Burke (1980). "Outline of the tectonic evolution of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Region." Houston Geological Society Bulletin June, 1980: 8-13.
	
White, G. W. and J. B. Stroup (1979). "Distribution of rock types in the Mid-Cayman Rise, Caribbean Sea, as evidence for conjugate normal faulting in slowly spreading ridges." Geology 7: 32-36.
	
White, P. M. D. (1993). Structural Evolution of the San Pedro Basin: Implications for the Paleogeographic Position of the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico in a Plate-tectonic Framework. Arlington, TX, University of Texas at Arlington: 46.
	
White, R. A. (1985). "The Guatemala earthquake of 1816 on the Chixoy-Polochic fault." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 75: 455-473.
	
White, R. A. (1991). Tectonic implications of upper-crustal seismicity in Central America. Neotectonics of North America. D. B. Slemmons, E. R. Engdahl and D. D. Blackwell. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 1: 323-338.
	
White, R. A. and D. H. Harlow (1993). "Destructive upper-crustal earthquakes of Central America since 1900." Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 83(4): 1115-1142.
	
White, R. A., et al. (1987). "The San Salvador earthquake of October 10, 1986 -- seismological aspects and other recent local seismicity." Earthquake Spectra 3: 419-434.
	
White, R. A., et al. (2004). Seismic history of the Middle America subduction zone along El Salvador, Guatemala, and Chiapas, Mexico; 1526-2000. Natural hazards in El Salvador. W. I. Rose, J. J. Bommer, D. L. Lopez, M. J. Carr and J. J. Major, Geological Society of America. 375: 379-396.
	We present a catalog of subduction zone earthquakes along the Pacific coast from central El Salvador to eastern Chiapas, Mexico, from 1526 to 2000. We estimate that the catalog is complete since 1690 for M (sub S) > or =7.4 thrust events and M> or =7.4 normal-faulting events within the upper 60 km of the down-going slab. New intensity maps were constructed for the 27 earthquakes since 1690, using mostly primary data sources. By calibrating with recent events we find that the long axis of the (MM) VII intensity contour for such large earthquakes well approximates the length and location of rupture along the subduction zone and can thus be used to estimate the locations and magnitudes of older events. The section from western El Salvador to Chiapas appears to have ruptured completely in a series of four to five earthquakes during each of the periods 1902-1915, 1743-1776, and possibly 1565-1577. Earthquakes of M (sub W) 7.75+ or -0.3 have caused major damage along the 200 km long section from San Salvador to Guatemala City every 71+ or -17 yr, apparently since at least 1575. Although the January 2001 El Salvador earthquake caused damage within part of this zone, no major thrust earthquake has occurred there since at least 1915. We find that much of this section has been relatively quiescent for moderate earthquakes shallower that 50 km since at least 1963. The conditional probability that an earthquake of M (sub W) 7.75+ or -0.3 will occur at this location in the next 20 yr is estimated at 50% (+ or -30%).

White, R. V. (1999). The fundamentals of crust generation: major tonalite intrusions associated with an oceanic plateau, Aruba, Dutch Caribbean. Leicester, University of Leicester.
	
White, R. V., et al. (1999). "Modification of an oceanic plateau, Aruba, Dutch Caribbean: Implications for the generation of continental crust." Lithos 46(1): 43-68.
	
White, S. M., et al. (2003). "Recent crustal deformation and the earthquake cycle along the Ecuador-Colombia subduction zone." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 216(3): 231-242.
	
White, W. and B. Dupre (1986). "Sediment subduction and magma genesis in the Lesser-Antilles: Isotopic and trace element constraints." Journal of Geophysical Research 91: 5927-5941.
	
White, W. M., et al. (1985). "Isotope and trace element geochemistry of sediment from the Barbados Ridge- Demerara Plain region, Atlantic Ocean." Geochemical Cosmochimica Acta 49: 1875-1886.
	
Whitmore, F. C. and R. H. Stewart (1965). "Miocene mammals and Central American seaways." Science 148(3667): 180-185.
	
Wicks, C. M. (1998). "Isla de Mona." Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 60(2): 67-128.
	
Wiedmann, J. (1978). "Ammonites from the Curaçao Lava Formation, Curaçao, Caribbean." Geologie en Mijnbouw 57: 361-364.
	
Wierzbowski, A. (1976). "Oxfordian ammonites of the Pinar del Rio province (Western Cuba): Their revision and stratigraphical significance." Acta Geologica Polonica 26(137-260).
	
Wiesemann, G. (1975). "Remarks on the geologic structure of the Republic of El Salvador, Central America." Mitteilungen aus dem Geologisch-Paläontologischen Institut der Universität Hamburg Heft 44: 557-574.
	
Wiggins-Grandison, M. D. and K. Atakan (2005 ). "Seismotectonics of Jamaica." Geophysical Journal International 160(2): 573-580.
	This is the first seismological investigation of the stress regime in the Jamaican crust. The fault plane solutions of 32 well-recorded local earthquakes were determined and used as inputs for determining stress directions. The results consistently show that a strike-slip fault regime (S<inf>H</inf> > S<inf>v</inf> > S<inf>h</inf>) exists in three homogeneous crustal areas, namely the Blue Mountain-Wagwater restraining bend of eastern Jamaica, the Rio Minho-Crawle River (RMCR) fault of central Jamaica and the Montpelier-Newmarket belt (MNB) of western Jamaica. However, for the island as a whole, a thrust-faulting regime (S<inf>H</inf> > S<inf>h</inf> > S<inf>v</inf>) was found, but inhomogeneity is implied by the higher level of misfit obtained. These results are in keeping with results of other recent studies in the Jamaica-Cuba region and with the strike-slip regime of the Gonave microplate boundaries.

Wilber, R. J., et al. (1990). "Accumulation of Holocene banktop sediment on the western margin of Great Bahama Bank." Geology 18: 970-974.
	
Wildberg, H., et al. (1981). "The Nicoya Complex, Costa Rica, Central America." Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie Teil 1(3/4): 195-209.
	
Wildberg, H. G. H. (1980). The Magmatite of the Nicoya Complexes, Costa Rica [Die Magmatite des Nicoya-Komplexes, Costa Rica]. Munster, Germany, University of Munster: 122.
	
Wildberg, H. G. H. (1983). Die Magmatite des Nicoya - Komplexes, Costa Rica, Zentralamerika (Magmatite of the Nicoya Complex, Costa Rica, Central America). Westfaelische Wilhelms - Univeraitaet zu Muenster. Muenster, Germany: 168.
	
Wildberg, H. G. H. (1984). Der Nicoya-Komplex, Costa Rika, Zentralamerika: Magmatismus und Genese eines polygenetischen Ophiolith-Komplexes. Muenster, West Germany, Verein der Geologie-Studenten in Muenster e.V.
	
Williams, E. A. (1986). An application of seismic stratigraphy in Trinidad, West Indies. Transactions of the First Geological Conference of the Geological Society of Trinidad & Tobago: 149-167.
	
Williams, E. G. (1902). "The manganese industry of the Department of Panama, Republic of Colombia." American Society of Civil Engineers?: 197-234.
	
Williams, H. (1952). The Great Eruption of Coseguina, Nicaragua, in 1835, University of California. 29: 21-46.
	
Williams, H. (1953). Diques de terremota cerca de San Salvador, Universidad de El Salvador.
	
Williams, H. (1960). "Volcanic history of Guatemalan Highlands." University of California Publications in Earth Sciences 38: 86.
	
Williams, H. and A. R. McBirney (1964). "Petrologic and structural contrast of the Quaternary volcanoes of Guatemala." Bulletin of Volcanology 27: 61.
	
Williams, H. and A. R. McBirney (1969). "Volcanic History of Honduras." University of California Publications in Geological Sciences 85: 1-101.
	
Williams, H., et al. (?). Geologic reconnaissance in southeastern Guatemala, University of California.
	
Williams, H. and H. Meyer-Abich (1953). El Origen del Lago de Ilopango (The Origin of Ilopango Lake), Universidad de El Salvador.
	
Williams, H. and H. Meyer-Abich (1954). Historia volcanica del Lago de Coatepeque y sus alrededores (Volcanic History of Coatepeque Lake and its Surroundings), Universidad de El Salvador.
	
Williams, H. and H. Meyer-Abich (1955). "Igneous in the southern part of El Salvador." University of California Publications in Earth Sciences 32(2): 1-64.
	
Williams, H. and H. Meyer-Abich (1955). Volcanism in the Southern Part of El Salvador, University of California.
	
Williams, R. E. (1989). UNOCAL exploration in Honduras and Nicaragua- 1961-1980. Energy and Mineral Potential of the Central American-Caribbean Region. ?, ?: ?
	
Williams, T., et al. (2000). FMS images from carbonates of the Bahama Bank slope, ODP Leg 166; lithological identification and cyclo-stratigraphy. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results. G. Lowe. 166: 77-88.
	Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Leg 166 cored a transect of holes through the prograding carbonate sequences that form the western slope of the Great Bahama Bank, with the aim of detailing the relationship between the sequences and changes in sea-level over the last 25 Ma. A total of 1200 m of FMS resistivity images from Site 1003 (lower slope) and Site 1005 (mid-slope) were divided into three image facies types, with the aid of calibration against the recovered core. Type 1 was conductive (poorly cemented) sediment dominated by pelagic components, Type 2 was resistive (well cemented) sediment dominated by platform (neritic) components, and Type 3 was highly resistive (very well cemented) sediment, usually calciturbidites but occasionally hardgrounds. Much of the section is composed of metre-scale alternations between Type 1 and Type 2 sediment. We have used the cycle thicknesses in the Middle Miocene to obtain a sedimentation rate curve and to refine the biostratigraphy. The cyclicity is modulated by the precessional astronomical cycle. The FMS images were used to evaluate the lithostratigraphic position and significance of prominent isolated uranium peaks. The peaks tend to occur just below the tops of calci-turbidite-rich units, sometimes coincident with sequence boundaries and maximum flooding surfaces.

Wills, K. J. A. (1974). The Geological History of Southern Dominica and Plutonic Nodules From the Lesser Antilles, Durham University: 202.
	
Wilson, B. (2003). "Foraminifera and paleodepths in a section of the Early to Middle Miocene Brasso Formation, Central Trinidad." Caribbean Journal of Science 39(2): 209-214.
	Micropaleontologists have long used the relative abundances of planktonic and benthonic foraminifera in determining paleodepths. Work has shown that in the Recent of the eastern Mediterranean Sea, depth and the percentage of planktonics (%P) are related as follows Depth = e<sup>((%P</sup> <sup>+</sup> <sup>81.9)</sup>/<sup>24)</sup> It is suggested that this expression may be applicable in the Trinidadian region because it and the eastern Mediterranean Sea are influenced by freshwater delivered by major rivers. The expression was applied to the foraminiferal assemblages in a < similar-to >150m section of the Early-Middle Miocene Brasso Formation of Central Trinidad, for which it indicated paleodepths ranging between < similar-to >60 and < similar-to >800m. However, because of presumed post mortem destruction of fragile, agglutinated benthonics in samples near the top of the sequence, the calculated paleodepths were too deep in this uppermost interval. It is concluded, on the basis of (a) percentages of planktonic foraminifera and (b) the known depth ranges of some benthonic species, that actual paleodepths in the sampled section ranged between < similar-to >60m (middle neritic) and < similar-to >470m (deep upper bathyal). The overall pattern of sea-level change comprised a marine transgression during the late Early Miocene followed by a regression during the terminal Early Miocene and early Middle Miocene.

Wilson, C. C. (1940). "Los Bajos Fault of south Trinidad, B.W.I." Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 24(12): 2102-2125.
	
Wilson, C. C. (1958). "The Los Bajos Fault and its relation to Trinidad's oilfield structures." Institute of Petroleum Journal 44(413): 124-136.
	
Wilson, C. C. (1968). The Los Bajos Fault. Transactions of the Fourth Caribbean Geological Conference, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad & Tobago. J. B. Saunders. Arima, Caribbean Printers: 75-86.
	
Wilson, D. S. (1996). "Fastest known spreading on the Miocene Cocos-Pacific plate boundary." Geophysical Research Letters 23(21): 3003-3006.
	
Wilson, D. S., et al. (2003). Data Report: Site survey results from cruise EW9903. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial Reports. D. S. Wilson, Teagle, D.A.H., Acton, G.D., et al. 206: 50.
	
Wilson, D. S. and R. N. Hey (1995). "History of rift propagation and magnetization intensity for the Cocos-Nazca spreading center." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 100(B6): 10041-10056.
	
Wilson, H. H. (1974). "Cretaceous sedimentation and orogeny in nuclear Central America." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 58: 1348-1396.
	
Wilson, H. H. (1977). "Pre-Cretaceous rocks of northwestern Honduras:  Basement terrane in Sierra de Omoa:  Discussion." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 61: 269-270.
	
Wilson, H. H. and W. P. F. T. L. Leutze (1974). Guatemala (including maps of Mayan ruins): Articles and Road Log, GCSSEPM.
	
Wilson, H. H. and A. A. Meyerhoff (1978). "Paleomagnetic results from Cretaceous sediments in Honduras:  Tectonic implications:  Comment." Geology 6: 440-442.
	
Wilson, J. L. (1990). Basement structural controls on Mesozoic carbonate facies in northeastern Mexico - a review, International Association of Sedimentologists. 9: 235-255.
	
Wilson, J. T. (1965). "Submarine fracture zones, aseismic ridges, and the international council of scientific unions line:  Proposed western margin of the  East Pacific Ridge." Nature 207: 907-911.
	
Wilson, J. T. (1966). "Are the structures of the Caribbean and Scotia arc regions analogous to ice rafting." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1: 335-338.
	
Wilson, J. T. (1966). "Did the Atlantic close and then reopen?" Nature 211: 676-681.
	
Wilson, M. A., et al. (1998). "Paleontological evidence of a brief global sea-level event during the last interglacial." Lethaia 31(3): 241-250.
	
Wing, R. S. (1971). "Structural analysis from radar imagery of the eastern Panamanian Isthmus, Part II." Modern Geology 2: 75-127.
	
Wing, R. S. and H. C. MacDonald (1973). "Radar geology-petroleum exploration technique, eastern Panama and northwestern Colombia." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 57(5): 825-840.
	
Winker, C. D. (1982). "Cenozoic shelf margins, northwestern Gulf of Mexico." Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies Transactions: 427-448.
	
Winker, C. D. and R. T. Buffler (1988). "Paleogeographic evolution of early deep-water Gulf of Mexico and margins, Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous (Comanchean)." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 72: 318-346.
	
Winsemann, J. (1992). Tiefwasser-sedimentationsprozesse und -produkte in den forearc-becken des mittleamerikanischen inselbogensystems: Eine sequenzstratigraphische analyse. Stuttgart, Germany, University of Stuttgart: 321.
	
Winsemann, J. (1993). "Historia del antearco mesoamericano austral y sus implicaciones para la evolucion de la Placa del Caribe (Austral mesoamerican fore-arc history and its implications for the Caribbean Plate evolution)." Revista Geologica de America Central 15: 1-21.
	
Winsemann, J. (1994). "Origin and tectonic history of the western Caribbean region." Profil 7: 1-15.
	
Winsemann, J. and H. Seyfried (1991). Response of deep-water forearc systems to sea-level changes, tectonic activity and volcaniclastic input in central America. Sea-level Changes at Active Plate Margins:  Processes and Products. D. I. M. MacDonald. 12: 217-240.
	
Winslow, M. (1988). Tectonic evolution of an actively deforming backarc basin: the Limón Basin of Costa Rica. Transactions of the 11th Caribbean Geol. Conference Barbados: 19:11-19:17.
	
Winslow, M. A. and G. Guglielmo, Jr. (1991). Tectonic evolution of the eastern Cibao (forearc) Basin in northeastern Hispaniola. Geologic and tectonic studies in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 301-333.
	
Winslow, M. A. and G. Guglielmo, Jr. (1991). Tectonic evolution of the San Francisco Ridge of the eastern Cibao Basin, northern Hispaniola. Geologic and Tectonic Development of the North America- Caribbean Plate in Hispaniola. P. Mann, G. Draper and J. F. Lewis. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. 262: 301-313.
	
Winter, A., et al. (1991). "Carbon and oxygen isotope time series from an 18-year Caribbean reef coral." Journal of Geophysical Research:  Oceans 96(9): 16673-16678.
	
Winter, C. (1937). Mittelamerika, handbuch der Regionalen Ggeologie (Middle America, Handbook of Regional Geology). Heidelberg.
	
Winter, T. (1990). Mecanismes de Deformation Recentes Dans les Andes Equatoriennes (Mechanisms of Recent Deformation within the Equatorial Andes). South Paris, Orsay. 205: ?
	
Winter, T. and A. Lavenu (1989). "Morphological and microtectonic evidence for a major active right-lateral strike-slip fault across central Ecuador (South America)." Annales Tectonicae 3: 123-139.
	
Wirtz, W. K. (1985). The petrochemistry and genesis of Late Cenozoic shoshonitic basalts, Dominican Republic, and their tectonic significance. Gainesville, Florida, University of Florida: 113.
	
Witschard, M. and J. F. Dolan (1990). "Contrasting structural styles in siliciclastic and carbonate lithologies of an offscraped sequence: The Peralta accretionary prism, Hispaniola." Geological Society of America Bulletin 102: 792-806.
	
Woakes, E. R. (1899). Modern gold mining in the Darién. Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. 29: 249-280.
	
Woakes, E. R. (1923). Darién gold mines. Mining Magazine, (London): 270-278.
	
Wolters, B. (1983). Seismicity and Earthquake Focal Mechanisms and Their Tectonic implications in Southern Central America and northwestern South America. Department of Geology. Stanford, CA, Stanford University: 89.
	
Wolters, B. (1986). "Seismicity and tectomics of southern Central America and adjacent regions with special attention to the surroundings of Panama." Tectonophysics 128: 21-46.
	
Wong, M. S. and P. B. Gans (2003). "Tectonic implications of early Miocene extensional unroofing of the Sierra Mazatain metamorphic core complex, Sonora, Mexico." Geology 31(11): 953-956.
	
Wood, L. J. (2000). "Chronostratigraphy and tectonostratigraphy of the Columbus Basin, eastern offshore Trinidad." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 84(12): 1905-1928.
	
Wood, L. J. (2001). "Intimate relations: The role of tectonics and sedimentation in producing a world-class hydrocarbon province: Columbus and eastern Maturin Basins, Trinidad and Venezuela." Proceedings Trans. of the 2001Gulf Coast Section of Society for Sedimentary Geology, CD-ROM, Houston, Texas.
	
Wood, L. J. (2001). "The Southeastern Caribbean Gas Cone: Integrating Aggressive Exploration, Processing Facilities and Market Development for World-class Opportunity." Proceedings of the Fourth AAPG/AMPG Meeting, CD-ROM, Veracruz, Mexico.
	
Wood, L. J. and C. Roberts (2001). "Opportunity in a World-class Hydrocarbon Basin: Trinidad and Tobago's Eastern Offshore Marine Province." Houston Geological Society Bulletin 43(10): 37-45.
	
Wood, R. L., et al. (2002). The Field Guide to Ambergris Caye.
	
Woodcock, N. and C. Schubert (1994). Continental strike-slip tectonics. Continental Deformation. P. Hancock. Oxford, Pergamon Press.
	
Woodcock, S. F. (1975). Crustal Structure of the Tehuantepec Ridge and Adjacent Continental Margins of Southwestern Mexico and Western Guatemala. Corvallis, Oregon State University: 52.
	
Woodley, J. D. and E. Robinson (1977). Field guidebook to the modern and ancient reefs of Jamaica. Miami, Atlantic Reef Committee, University of Miami.
	
Woodring, W. P. (1949). "The Panama landbridge." Science 109: 437.
	
Woodring, W. P. (1954). "Caribbean land and sea through the ages." Geological Society of America Bulletin 65: 710-732.
	
Woodring, W. P. (1955). Geologic map of the Canal Zone and adjoining parts of Panama. Miscellaneous Geologic Investigations, Map I-1, United States Geological Survey.
	
Woodring, W. P. (1957). Geology and Paleontology of the Canal Zone and Adjoining Parts of Panama, U. S. Geological Survey.
	
Woodring, W. P. (1958). "Springvaleia, a Late Miocene Xenophora-like Turritellid From Trinidad." Bulletin of American Paleontology 38(169): 15.
	
Woodring, W. P. (1966). "The Panama land bridge as a sea barrier." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 110: 425-433.
	
Woodring, W. P. (1974). "The Miocene Caribbean faunal province and its subprovinces." Verh. Naturf. Ges. Basel 84: 209-213.
	
Woodring, W. P. (1982). Geology and paleontology of Canal Zone and adjoining parts of Panama, description of Tertiary mollusks (pelecypods:  Propeamussiidae to Cuspidariiae; additions to families covered in p 306-E additions to gastropods; cephalopods), U.S. Geological Survey. 306-F: 542-845.
	
Woodring, W. P. and S. N. Daviess (1944). "Geology of manganese deposits of the Guisa-Los Negros area, Oriente province, Cuba." U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 935G: 357-386.
	
Woodring, W. P. and T. F. Thompson (1949). "Tertiary formations of the Panama Canal Zone and adjoining parts of Panama." American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 33: 223-247.
	
Woods, C. A. (1989). Biogeography of the West Indies: Past, Present, and Future. Gainesville, FL, Sandhill Crane Press.
	
Woods, C. A. (1989). The biogeography of West Indian rodents. Biogeography of the West Indies: Past, Present, and Future. C. A. Woods. Gainesville, FL, Sandhill Crane Press: 741-797.
	
Woods, R. D., et al. (1991). Pre-Triassic. The Gulf of Mexico Basin. A. Salvador. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America. J: 109-129.
	
Woodside, P. R. (1981). The Petroleum Geology of Trinidad and Tobago. Reston, VA, U.S. Geological Survey: 90.
	
Woodward-Clyde Consultants (1980). Geologic and Seismologic Investigations for the Boruca Dam Site: ?
	
Worrall, D. and M. Snelson (1989). Evolution of the northern Gulf of Mexico, with emphasis on Cenozoic growth faulting and the role of salt. The Geology of North America-An Overview. A. W. Bally and A. R. Palmer. Boulder, CO, Geological Society of America. A: 97-139.
	
Wortel, M. J. R. (1984). "Spatial and temporal variations in the Andean subduction zone." Journal of the Geological Society of London 141: 783-791.
	
Worzel, J. L. and M. Ewing (1952). "Gravity measurements at sea, 1948 and 1949." Transcripts of the American Geophysical Union 33: 453-460.
	
Worzel, J. L. and M. Ewing (1954). "Gravity anomalies and structure of the West Indies, pt. 2." Geological Society of America Bulletin 65: 195-199.
	
Worzel, J. L. and J. W. Ladd (1985). Tertiary tectonics of central Hispaniola and the adjacent Caribbean Sea. Transactions of the Fourth Latin American geological conference. 4: 1077-1100.
	
Wright, A. A. (1983). Sediment Distribution and Depositional Processes in the Lesser Antilles Intraoceanic Island Arc, Eastern Caribbean. University of California, Earth Sciences Board of Studies. Santa Cruz, CA: 203.
	
Wright, J. (2003). "Field Trip on Aruba, November 9, 2003." 8.
	
Wright, J. C. M. (2005). Evolution of the Galapagos Rise and the Bauer microplate: Implication for the Nazca plate. College Station, TX, Texas A&M: 130.
	Analysis of the satellite altimetry based predicted bathymetry, magnetic anomalies, and earthquake seismic data relating to the geophysical structure on the Nazca plate indicates that the Galapagos Rise system served as the transitional spreading system between Pacific-Farallon spreading and the current East Pacific Rise (EPR) system. First order age/depth relationships for this area indicate that the Galapagos Rise, the most prominent extinct spreading system within the Nazca plate, accommodated most of the Pacific-Nazca plate separation from &sim;23 million years ago (Ma) to &sim;8 Ma. After this time, spreading was dominantly along the EPR, with probable ultra slow spreading along the Galapagos Rise continuing until very recent times (0-5 Ma). Magnetic lineations and depth trends across the Bauer Basin suggest that it was captured between the failing Galapagos Rise and the currently active EPR. Anomalously shallow ridge crests along the Galapagos Rise indicate that magmatic activity may have occurred until very recent time (0-5 Ma). Tightly curved (concave southward) fracture zones offsetting Galapagos Rise ridge segments indicate a pole of rotation at the present day position of &sim;22.5&deg;S and &sim;99.5&deg;W. The curvature of the fracture zones and the fan-shaped spreading pattern of seafloor structures produced at the Galapagos Rise indicate that the Galapagos Rise initiated parallel to the Menda&ntilde;a fracture zone. Consistent with the rotation of the Nazca plate after the fragmentation of the Farallon plate, the Galapagos Rise rotated counter-clockwise during its active phase. The Galapagos Rise initiated in the vicinity of Gallego fracture zones and propagated southward. Failure of the Galapagos Rise occurred as spreading jumped westward in stages to the East Pacific Rise. 

Wright, L. D., et al. (1997). "Effects of benthic biology on bottom boundary layer processes, Dry Tortugas Bank, Florida Keys." Geo - Marine Letters 17(4): 291-298.
	
Wright, R. M. (1966). Biostratigraphical Studies on the Tertiary White Limestone in Parts of Trelawney and St. Ann, Jamaica. London, UK, University of London: ?
	
Wright, R. M. (1971). Tertiary biostratigraphy of central Jamaica: Tectonic and environmental implications. Transactions of the 5th Caribbean Geological Conference, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, 1st-5th July, 1968. P. Mattson: 129.
	
Wright, R. M., Ed. (1974). Field Guide to Selected Jamaican Geological Localities. Special Publication. Kingston, Jamaica, Ministry of Mining and Natural Resources, Mines and Geology Division.
	
Wright, R. M. (1977). "Earthquake risk and hazard." Jamaica Journal 10: 52-60.
	
Wright, R. M. and W. R. Dickinson (1972). "Provenance of Eocene volcanic sandstones in eastern Jamaica - a preliminary note." Caribbean Journal of Science 12: 107-113.
	
Wright, R. M. and E. Robinson, Eds. (1993). Biostratigraphy of Jamaica. Geological Society of America Memoir.
	
Wüst, G. (1963). "On the stratification and the circulation in the cold water sphere of the Antillean-Caribbean basins." Deep-Sea Research 10: 165-187.
	
Yanez, G., et al. (2002). "The Challenger-Juan Fernandez-Maipo major tectonic transition of the Nazca-Andean subduction system at 33-34 degrees S: geodynamic evidence and implications." Journal of South American Earth Sciences 15(1): 23-38.
	
Yang, Y. L., et al. (1995). "Geochemical record of the Panama basin during the last glacial maximum carbon event shows that the glacial ocean was not suboxic." Geology 23(12): 1115-1118.
	
Yarincik, K. M. (1999). Eolian, Hemipelagic, and Redox-controlled Deposition in the Cariaco Basin, Venezuela, Over the Past 578,000 Years. Boston, MA, United States, Boston University: 82.
	I present results from chemical analyses of bulk sediment recovered from the anoxic Cariaco Basin, Venezuela (ODP Leg 165, Site 1002). The sedimentary record spans approximately 578,000 years, with an average age resolution of approximately 2.5 kyr. Samples were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy (ICP-ES) for Al, Ti, K, Mn, Fe, Mo, and V. Elemental ratios were used as the main strategy for interpreting the data. The goal is to determine whether variations in terrigenous input and redox conditions correspond to glacial-interglacial climate change. Visually; all ratios vary closely with delta >18) O, which is confirmed with cross-spectral analyses. Al/Ti and K/Al, both significantly higher during interglacials and lower during glacials, are used to interpret potential wind-blown fractionations and sources of hemipelagic deposition. As shown through chemical and mineralogical comparison with potential sources, terrigenous deposition in Cariaco Basin during glacials is dominated by local Venezuelan fluvial sediment (due to lower sea level which serves to decrease transport into the basin from external sources) and by eolian material from the northern Sahara (due to increased glacial wind strength). Ratios of redox sensitive metals (Mn, Fe, Mo, and V) to Al show a strong relationship between sea level and bottom water oxygenation in Cariaco Basin. Sedimentary enrichments of Mo and V occur during interglacials, indicating bottom water anoxia at the time of deposition. During glacial periods, sedimentary enrichments of Mn and Fe represent oxic bottom water conditions at the time of deposition.

Yassir, N. (2003). "The role of shear stress in mobilizing deep-seated mud volcanoes: Geological and geomechanical evidence from Trinidad and Taiwan." Geological-Society-Special-Publication 216: 461-474.
	Deep-seated mud volcanoes are observed in a variety of geological settings, which has led to considerable debate on their origin. This paper summarizes the geological features common to mud volcanoes around the world and possible mechanisms of their extrusion. Field and laboratory data from Trinidad and Taiwan are discussed to assess the possible sources and causes of the volcanoes. A close association between mud volcanoes and compressional tectonics leads to the conclusion that tectonic activity plays an important part in mud volcano development. Experimental data are presented to explain the role of tectonic activity and the association between shear stresses and mud volcanoes. It is demonstrated that shear stresses applied to low permeability sediments can produce a dramatic increase in pore pressure and can cause sediment flow. This is proposed as one possible contributing cause of mud volcanoes.

Ye, S., et al. (1996). "Crustal structure of the Middle American Trench off Costa Rica from wide-angle seismic data." Tectonics 15(5): 1006-1021.
	
Ye, S., et al. (1996). "Crustal structure of the middle American trench off Costa Rica from wide-angle seismic data." Tectonics 15(5): 1006-1021.
	
Yeung, T. (1981). A Study of the Magnetic Anomalies in the Yucatan Basin. Department of Geosciences. Houston, TX, University of Houston: ?
	
Yidkov, A. Y., et al. (1971). Nuevos datos sobre la composición y estructura de la serie vulcanógeno-sedimentaria "El Cobre" (New data on the composition and structure of the volcano-sedimentary series "El Cobre."). La Habana, Ministerio de Minería.
	
Yong, C., et al. (2002). "Seismic hazard and loss estimation for Central America." Natural Hazards 25(2): 161-175.
	
Young, G. A., et al. (1956). Venezuela cuencas sedimentarias y campos petroliferos (Venezuelan sedimentary basins and petroliferous fields). Congreso Geologico lnternacional, Mexico, Symposium sobre yacimientos de petro y gas, Tomo IV. E. T. Guzman: ?
	
Young, G. A., et al. (1956). "Geology of the sedimentary basins of Venezuela and their petroliferous fields (Geología de las cuencas sedimentarias de Venezuela y de sus campos petrolíferos)." Boletín de Geología, Publicación Especial Dirección de Geología 2: 140.
	
Young On, V. (2001). "Field Trip Report - GSTT in Montserrat." Newsletter of the Geologic Society of Trinidad and Tobago(Feb. 2001): 4-7.
	
Young, S. R. (1998). "Monitoring on Montserrat, the course of an eruption." Astronomy and Geophysics 39(2): 2.18-12.21.
	
Young, S. R. (1998). "The ongoing eruption of the Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat." Mineralogical Society Bulletin 118: 3-4.
	
Young, S. R., et al. (1998). "Overview of the eruption of Soufriere Hills volcano, Montserrat, 18 July 1995 to December 1997." Geophysical Research Letters 25(18): 3389-3392.
	
Ysaccis B., R. (1998). Tertiary evolution of the northeastern Venezuela offshore. Houston, TX, Rice University: 286.
	On the northeastern offshore Venezuela, the pre-Tertiary basement consists of a deeply subducted accretionary complex of a Cretaceous island arc system that formed far to the west of its present location. The internal structure of this basement consists of metamorphic nappes that involve passive margin sequences, as well as oceanic (ophiolitic) elements. The Tertiary evolution of the northeastern Venezuela offshore is dominated by Paleogene (Middle Eocene-Oligocene) extension and Neogene transtension, interrupted by Oligocene to Middle Miocene inversions. The Paleogene extension is mainly an arc-normal extension associated with a retreating subduction boundary. It is limited to the La Tortuga and the La Blanquilla Basins and the southeastern Margarita and Caracolito subbasins. All of these basins are farther north of and not directly tied to the El Pilar fault system. On a reconstruction, these Paleogene extensional systems were located to the north of the present day Maracaibo Basin. By early Miocene the leading edge of the now overall transpressional system had migrated to a position to the north of the Ensenada de Barcelona. This relative to South America eastward migration is responsible for the Margarita strike-slip fault and the major inversions that began during the Oligocene and lasted into the Middle Miocene. The Bocono-El Pilar-Casanay-Warm Springs and the La Tortuga-Coche-North Coast fault systems are exclusively Neogene with major transtension occurring during the Late Miocene to Recent and act independently from the earlier Paleogene extensional system. They are responsible for the large Neogene transtensional basins of the area: the Cariaco trough, the Northern Tuy-Cariaco and the Paria sub-basins, and the Gulf of Paria Basin. This latest phase is characterized by strain-partitioning into strike slip faults, a transtensional northern domain and a transpressional southern domain that is responsible for the decollement tectonics and/or inversions of the Serrania del Interior and its associated Monagas foreland structures. Part of the latest (Middle Miocene to Recent) phase is the formation of a large arch that corresponds to the Margarita-Testigos-Grenada zone which perhaps was subject to mild lithospheric compression during the Plio-Pleistocene.

Ysaccis, R. A. and A. W. Bally (1998). "Tertiary evolution of the northeastern Venezuela offshore." Bulletin - Houston Geological Society 40(8): 13.
	
Yuan, P. B. (1984). Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and Geologic Evolution of the Eastern Terraba Trough, Southwestern Costa Rica. Baton Rouge, LA, Louisiana State University: 110.
	
Yurewicz, D. A., et al. (1998). "Source rocks and oil families, southwest Maracaibo basin (Catatumbo Subbasin), Colombia." AAPG Bulletin - American Association of Petroleum Geologists 82(7): 1329-1352.
	
Zamarsky, V. and M. Kudelásková (1984). "Estudio petrográfico y geoquímico de las ofiolitas de Cuba (Petrographic and geochemical study of the ophiolites of Cuba)." 27th International Geologic Congress, Moscow: 10
?
	
Zambrano, E., et al. (1972). Paleogeographic and Petroleum Synthesis of Western Venezuela. Paris, Editions Technip.
	
Zambrano, E., et al. (1971). "Sintesis paleogeografica y petrolera del occidente de Venezuela (Paleogeographic reconstruction and petroleum in western Venezuela)." IV Congreso Geologico Venezolano, Memoir 1: 481-552.
	
Zans, V. A. (1953). "Bauxite resources of Jamaica and their development." Colonial Geology and Mineral Resources (London) 3(4): 307-333.
	
Zans, V. A., et al. (1963). "Synopsis of the Geology of Jamaica." Bulletin of the Geological Survey Department of Jamaica 4: 72.
	
Zazo, C. (1999). Interglacial sea levels. Recent studies of Quaternary sea-level changes. M. J. Tooley, Y. Ota and W. W. S. Yim. 55: 101-113.
	
Zea, S., et al. (1998). "Biotic changes in the reef complex of San Andres Island (Southeastern Caribbean Sea, Colombia) occurring over nearly three decades." Atoll Reseearch Bulletin 456: 1-30.
	
Zeilinga de Boer, J., et al. (1995). Cenozoic magmatic phases of the Costa Rican island arc (Cordillera de Talamanca). Geologic and tectonic development of the Caribbean Plate boundary in southern Central America. P. Mann, Geological Society of America. 295: 35-55.
	
Zelepuguin, V., et al. (1982). "Asociaciones vulcanógenas de la provincia de Pinar del Río (Volcanic associations of Pinar del Rio Province)." Serié Geológica, Instituto de Geológia y Paleontológia, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba 6: 45-74.
	
Zenker, C. (1986). Uplift and Emergence of the Isthmus of Panama Based on Faunal Evidence from DSDP Sites 502 and 503. Santa Cruz, CA, University of California: ???
	
Zhao, W. L., et al. (1986). "Origin of convex accretionary wedges: Evidence from Barbados." Journal of Geophysical Research 91: 10,246-210,258.
	
Zhao, Z. (1998). Deformation and dewatering of the subducting plate and evolution of the decollement zone under the northern Barbados accretionary prism: Insights from three-dimensional seismic reflection data, University of Hawai'i: 136.
	A 3-D seismic data set reveals a detailed structure and stratigraphy of the subducting plate and overlying sediment under the toe of the northern Barbados accretionary prism. The oceanic basement shows a preexisting horst and graben structure. The upper Cretaceous to lower Eocene sedimentary unit mostly fills in basement lows. The subducting middle to upper Eocene and Oligocene units overlie a smoothed sedimentary surface. Based on the landward thinning, we estimate that the upper two sedimentary units have lost 25% of their total initial void space within 3.5 km landward of the thrust front due to the load of the prism. This suggests that the current fluid expulsion rate under the 3.5-km prism toe is 1008 m<super>3</super>/yr per kilometer of strike length, much higher than previously published estimates. The fluid discharge is expected to increase to 1092 m<super>3</super>/yr per kilometer of strike length within 64,000 years as a thicker sedimentary section is subducted. Our results also suggest that the basement indirectly controls fluid movement in the underthrust Oligocene unit by creating secondary normal faults that act as major fluid conduits between the overlying d&eacute;collement and the underlying more permeable middle to upper Eocene turbidite-bearing section. A constrained seismic inversion was conducted on the 3-D seismic data set to study the physical properties of the d&eacute;collement/protod&eacute;collement zone (PDZ). The inversion results suggest that part of the PDZ is likely scrapped off by the prism. Fluid conduits along the decollement may originate from spatial variations of initial physical properties of the proto-decollement and then be enhanced by shear-induced consolidation. There are significant differences in physical properties between the northern and southern PDZ covered by this study. The differences coincide with a change in the structure of the prism. A larger prism taper in the southern area may result from a stronger d&eacute;collement. The larger prism taper coupled with less sediment supply may cause a relative retreat of the thrust front in the south, resulting in a change in structural orientation from NNW to nearly north-south. The north-south differences may ultimately be controlled by an increase in the elevation of the Tiburon Rise. 

Zhao, Z. Y., et al. (1998). "Deformation and dewatering of the subducting plate beneath the lower slope of the northern Barbados accretionary prism." Journal of Geophysical Research - Solid Earth 103(B12): 30431-30449.
	
Zharkov, M. A., et al. (1995). "Paleogeography of the mid-Cretaceous period." Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation 3(3): 216-240.
	
Zhou, M. F., et al. (2001). "The Mayari-Baracoa paired ophiolite belt, eastern Cuba: Implications for tectonic settings and platinum-group elemental mineralization." International Geology Review 43(6): 494-507.
	
Zilberberg, S. (1994). Hidrodinamismo existente en la cuenca de barinas y sus efectos sobre la produccion do hidrocarburos en los yacimentos del area mayor de San Silvestre-Distrito barinas (Hydrodynamics existing in the Barinas basin and their effects on the production of hydrocarbons in the larger surrounding area of San Silvestre-Distrito Barinas). Petroleum Exploration in the Subandean Basins. D. Perez de Mejia. Puerto la Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuelan Geology Society: 486-504.
	
Zimmerman, H. B. (1982). Lithologic stratigraphy and clay mineralogy of the western Caribbean and eastern equatorial Pacific, Leg 68, Deep Sea Drilling Project. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. W. L. Prell, J. V. Gardner and et al. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. 68: 383-395.
	
Zonneveld, J. I. S., et al. (1977). Geomorphology and denudation processes. Eighth Caribbean Geological Conference Guide to the Field Excursions on Curaçao, Bonaire and Aruba. ? Amsterdamm - The Netherlands, Stichting GUA. 10: 56-68.
	
Zuleger, E., et al. (1996). "Interstitial water chemistry of sediments of the Costa Rica accretionary complex off the Nicoya Peninsula." Geophysical Research Letters 23(8): 899-902.